DICTIONARY 


DYEING  AND  CAIICO  PRINTING. 


A 

DICTIONARY 

OP 

DYEING  AND  CALICO  PRINTING; 


COXTAINIXG 


A  BRIEF  ACCOUNT  OF  ALL  THE  SUBSTANCES  AND  PROCESSES 

IN  USE  IN  THE  ARTS  OF  DYEING  AND  PRINTING 

TEXTILE  FABRICS; 


PRACTICAL  RECEIPTS  AND  SCIENTIFIC  INFORMATION. 

BY 

CHAELES    O'NEILL, 


FELLOW   OF  THE   CHEMICAL  SOCIETY  OF   LONDON,    MEMBER   OF   THE    LITERARY 
PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY  OF  MANCHESTER;    ACTHOK  OK  "CHEMISTRY  OF 
CALICO  PRINTING  AND  DYEING,"  ETC. 


TO  WHICH  IS  ADDED 

AN  ESSAY  ON  COAL  TAR  COLORS  AND  THEIR  APPLICATION 
TO  DYEING  AND  CALICO  PRINTING. 


A.  A.   FESQUET, 

CHEMIST  AND  ENGINEER. 
WITH  AN 

APPENDIX 


DYEING,  AS  SHOWN  AT  THE  EXPOSITION  OF  1867,  FROM  THE  REPORTS 
OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL  JURY,  ETC. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
HENRY     CAREY    BAIRD, 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHER, 

406  Walnut  Street. 
1869. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1869,  by 
HENRY    CAREY    BAIRD, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  in  and  for  the 
Eastern  District  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania. 


PHILADELPHIA : 
COLLINS,  PRINTER,  705  JAYNE  STREET. 


PUBLISHER'S  PREFACE 


THE  AMERICAN  EDITION 


IN  presenting  to  the  Dyers  and  Manufacturers  of  the 
United  States  an  edition  of  so  well  known  and  justly 
esteemed  a  book  as  Mr.  O'Neill's  "DICTIONARY  OF  DYEING 
AND  CALICO  PRINTING,"  the  publisher  deems  nothing  necessary 
except  to  call  attention  to  the  character  and  extent  of  the 
additions  which  have  been  made  to  it. 

PROFESSOR  FESQUET  has  contributed  a  very  comprehensive 
essay  on  COAL  TAR  COLORS  AND  THEIR  APPLICATION  TO 
DYEING  AND  CALICO  PRINTING,  which  will  be  found  to 
embody  the  latest  novelties  of  this  branch,  besides  which,  in 
an  appendix,  he  has  given  the  important  features  of  the 
report  of  the  International  Jury  of  the  Exposition  'of  1867, 
upon  general  improvements  in  other  descriptions  of  Dyeing. 

PHILADELPHIA,  January  1,  1869. 


PREFACE. 


THIS  work  is  intended  by  the  Author  to  form  a  practical 
hand-book  of  reference  upon  all  the  chemical  substances  and 
processes  in  use  among  dyers  and  calico  printers. 

While  written  from  a  practical  point  of  view,  it  takes  a 
middle  course  between  the  generalities  of  high  science  and  the 
technicalities  of  pure  practice.  Avoiding,  on  the  one  hand, 
the  applications  of  chemical  principles  which  are  not  yet  clearly 
perceived,  and,  on  the  other,  a  detailed  description  of  pro- 
cesses which  would  be  either  unintelligible  or  unnecessary,  the 
Author  hopes  he  has  produced  a  book  which  may  be  profit- 
ably consulted  by  all  who  are  either  interested  or  practically 
engaged  in  printing  and  dyeing. 

The  claims  which  the  Author  has  to  be  heard  upon  these 
subjects  rest  upon  his  familiar  acquaintance  with  calico  print- 
ing, acquired  by  nine  years'  service  in  a  very  extensive 
establishment,  and  upon  a  further  professional  experience  of 
three  years,  which  has  brought  him  into  contact  with  nearly 
all  styles  of  dyeing. 

This  work  is  founded  upon  the  Author's  "Chemistry  of 
Calico  Printing,"  which  was  published  only  two  years  ago,  but 
which  has  been  for  some  time  out  of  print.  The  substance  of 
that  book  has  been  re-cast  in  a  more  popular  form,  all  scientific 
formulas  and  laboratory  processes  omitted,  with  the  addition  of 
a  large  amount  of  matter  bearing  upon  practical  operations. 


yiii  PREFACE. 

Though  appearing  in  a  condensed  form,  this  book  contains 
considerably  more  matter  than  the  Author's  previous  produc- 
tion. 

In  the  course  of  the  publication  in  parts,  this  book  has 
experienced  a  most  favorable  reception  ;  and  the  Author  is 
obliged  to  many  writers  for  their  kind  recommendation  of  it. 
From  many  quarters  he  has  been  solicited  to  extend  his  plan, 
and  make  a  more  complete  treatise;  but  he  has  felt  obliged  to 
decline  these  suggestions,  and  to  adhere  strictly  to  the  course 
originally  laid  out,  and  finish  the  work  within  the  space  at  first 
specified.  Nothing  would  have  been  easier  than  to  have 
doubled  the  size  of  the  work  ;  if  there  is  credit  in  its  compila- 
tion, it  lies  in  rejecting  what  was  not  necessary  to  the  plan. 
For  each  receipt  given,  at  least  five  have  been  withheld,  as 
merely  occupying  space  without  presenting  any  instructive 
differences  in  their  composition ;  in  articles  upon  rare  or  little 
known  coloring  matters,  the  researches  and  descriptions  occu- 
pying whole  pages  of  original  memoirs  have  been  compressed 
into  as  many  lines.  Nevertheless,  there  is  nothing  omitted, 
and  nothing  unduly  abridged,  which  is  of  real  interest  in  prac- 
tice. 

The  Author  informed  his  friends,  some  time  ago,  that  he  was 
engaged  upon  an  Encyclopaedia  of  Dyeing  and  Printing,  which 
he  intended  for  a  great  comprehensive  work  upon  the  subject ; 
but  little  progress  had  been  made  when  it  became  evident  that 
he  could  not  reasonably  hope  to  accomplish  this  favorite  project; 
it  would  require  more  time  than  he  could  spare  from  the  prac- 
tice of  his  profession,  and  it  has,  in  consequence,  been  indefi- 
nitely postponed. 

No  separate  work  upon  calico  printing,  by  any  one  practi- 
cally acquainted  with  it,  had  appeared  in  England  for  a  period 
of  seventy  years  before  the  Author's  book  upon  the  subject ; 
the  dyers  have  been  more  fortunate  in  original  and  translated 
works;  but  it  is  a  matter  for  regret  that  out  of  so  many  calico 


PREFACE.  ix 

printers  around  Manchester  and  Glasgow,  eminent  alike  for 
scientific  attainments  and  practical  skill,  not  one  has  found 
leisure  to  write  a  treatise  upon  this  important  branch  of  British 
manufactures.  While  the  Author  maintains  the  correctness  of 
what  he  has  written,  no  one  can  be  more  sensible  of  the  supe- 
rior advantages  possessed  by  a  writer  who  could  have  brought 
to  the  task  that  breadth  of  knowledge  and  maturity  of  judg- 
ment which  is  only  acquired  by  the  accumulated  observations 
of  a  long  life  of  practice. 

The  absence  of  a  good  work  upon  this  subject  has  encouraged 
an  idea  among  color  mixers  and  foremen  that  they  were  the 
depositaries  of  a  secret  art,  and  they  have  exercised  a  jealous 
guard  over  their  processes,  which  has  operated  to  shut  out  im- 
provement, and  perpetuate  a  succession  of  absurd  and  empirical 
processes. 

The  Author  will  be  glad  if  tl^e  circulation  of  this  work 
among  the  responsible  servants  of  dyers  and  printers  causes 
them  to  trust  less  for  success  to  supposed  secrets,  of  doubtful 
value,  and  to  rely  more  upon  an  intelligent  comprehension  of 
the  nature  and  uses  of  the  materials  at  their  command.  Many 
conspicuous  improvements  have  originated  in  the  color-shop 
and  the  dye-house;  and,  though  the  laboratory  has  carried  off 
the  honors  and  the  profit  of  recent  discoveries,  there  is  much 
yet  remaining  to  be  found  out  by  practical  workers,  if  they 
will  study  the  operations  they  are  engaged  upon  in  the  light  of 
true  science. 

With  regard  to  the  receipts  scattered  throughout  the  body 
of  the  work,  the  Author  can  only  say  he  knows  them  to  be 
genuine,  either  from  his. own  experience  or  from  friends  in 
whom  he  has  confidence.  This  will  not,  however,  be  incon- 
sistent with  them  proving  failures  in  other  hands;  each'dyer 
and  color  rnixer  has  his  own  peculiar  methods  of  working,  and 
it  frequently  happens  that  the  drugs  and  proportions  which 
work  well  with  one  man  will  not  answer  with  another.  The 


X  PREFACE. 

chief  value  of  these  receipts  will  consist  in  their  illustrating 
various  actual  and  possible  means  of  attaining  certain  ends, 
and  suggesting  probable  improvements  or  modifications  upon 
existing  processes. 

CHARLES  O'NEILL. 


92  GROSVENOR  STREET,  MANCHESTER, 
November  1,  1862. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT. 


During  the  preparation  of  this  book  the  author  has  had  the  undermentioned 
works  upon  his  table,  and  has  frequently  referred  to  them,  to  supplement  his 
own  practical  knowledge  : — 

Philosophy  of  Permanent  Colors,  by  Edward  Bancroft,  M.  D.     London,  1794. 
Elements  de  1'art  de  la  teinture,  par  C.  L.  et  A.  B.  Berthollet.      Paris,  An. 

xiii.  (1804). 
Experimental  Researches,  etc.,  on  Permanent  Colors,  by  E.  Bancroft,  M.  D. 

London,  1813. 
Manuel  du  fabricant  d'etoffesimprimees,  etc.,  par  L.  S.  le  Normand.    Purls, 

1830. 

Manuel  du  fabricant  d'indiennes,  par  L.  J.  S.  Thillaye.     Paris,  1S34. 
Elements   of  the  Art  of  Dyeing,  by  Berthollet.     Translated  by  Dr.  Ure. 

London,  1824. 

Lec.ons  de  chimie  appliquee  a  la  teinture, par  M.  E.  Chevreul.     Paris,  1829. 
Manuel  du  teinturier,  etc.,  par  A.  D.  Wrgnaud.     Paris,  1832. 
Traite  theorique  et  pratique  de  1'irnpression  des  tissus,  par  J.  Persoz.      Paris, 

1846. 

Precis  de  I'art  de  la  teinture,  par  M.  Dumas.     Paris,  1846. 
Hulfsbiich  fiir  den  gewerblichen  chemiker  von  M.  GersteuhiJfer.     Leipzig, 

1851. 

A  Manual  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing,  by  James  Napier.      Glasgow,  1853.* 
A  Manual  of  Dyeing  Receipts  for  General  Use,  by  James  Napier.  Land,  and 

Glasgow,  1858. 
Abridgments  of  Specifications  of  Patents  relating  to  Dyeing  and  Printing. 

London,  1859. 
Practical  Treatise  on   Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing.      Anonymous.      New 

York,  1860. 
Lemons  de  chimie  elementaire  appliquee  aux  arts  industriels,  par  M.  J.  Gi- 

rardin.     Paris,  1860. 

Le  teinturier  an  xixe  siecle,  par  Theophile  Grison.     Rouen,  I860. 
A  Manual  of  Botany,  by  Robert  Lindley,  F.  L.  S.     London,  1861. 
Chemical  Gazette.     17  vols.,  from  1842  to  1859. 
Repertoire  de  chimie  pure  et  appliquSe.     Paris.     Now  publishing. 
Le  Technologiste.     Paris.     Now  publishing  monthly. 
The  Chemical  News.     London.    Now  publishing  weekly. 
Handworterbuch  der  reinen  und  angewandten  chemie.    Braunschweig.    Now 

publishing. 
Bulletin  da  la  societe  industrielle  de  Mulhouse.     Now  publishing. 

*  Republished  in  the  United   States  under  the  more  appropriate  title  of  "A  System  of 
Chemistry  Applied  to  Dyeing."    2d  edition,  1S69. 


ERRATUM. 
On  p.  178,  second  line  from  bottom,  far  164,  read  168. 


GOAL  TAR  COLORS  (ANILINE,  ETC.), 


THEIR  APPLICATION  TO  DYEING  AND  CALICO  PRINTING. 


INTRODUCTION. 

SINCE  the  publication  of  the  last  edition  of  Mr.  O'NEILL'S 
DICTIONARY  ON  DYEING  AND  CALICO  FEINTING,  great  pro- 
gress has  been  made  in  the  manufacture  and  the  applications 
of  coal  tar  colors. 

Aniline  remains  the  great  source 'from  whence  these  colors 
are  derived.  Recently,  however,  carbolic  acid  and  naphthaline 
have  added  their  share  in  the  production  of  new  dyes,  and 
we  shall  mention  some  of  them,  which-  have  been  sanctioned 
by  practice.  Many  naphthaline  dyes  have  been  proposed, 
but  on  trial  they  have  not  presented  the  same  degree  of  bril- 
liancy and  fastness  which  aniline  colors  possess.  These  are 
difficulties  which,  in  all  probability,  will  be  overcome  by  fur- 
ther study  and  experience. 

Aniline  colors  themselves  are  just  emerging  from  a  chaotic 
state  of  processes  of  manufacture,  and  of  speculations  relative 
to  their  nature.  Their  theory,  at  the  present  time,  is  far  from 
being  complete ;  but  the  light  which  has  been  shed  on  the  sub- 
ject has  considerably  simplified  the  processes  of  manufacture, 
improved  the  products,  and  lowered  their  price. 

We  now  possess  a  complete  gamut  of  colors  from  this  source 
alone,  and  the  only  difficulty  is  how  to  choose  among  the  150 
or  170  names  given  to  these  dyes.  Several  names  are  often 
given  to  the  same  color,  and  many  colors  have  not  stood  the 
test  of  practice,  so  that  the  number  of  coal  tar  dyes  in  use  is 
not  so  extended  as  that  of  their  names. 

We  shall  divide  this  essay  on  the  applications  of  coal  tar 
colors  to  dveing  and  calico  printing  into  four  chapters  : — 
2 


10  COAL  TAR.  COLORS. 

I.  Mordants,   thickenings,   and    discharges,   especially    em- 
ployed for  coal  tar  colors. 

II.  Dissolution  and  purification  of  coal  tar  colors,  and  their 
precipitation  from  old  baths. 

III.  General  methods  for  dyeing  and  calico  printing,  leaving 
the  special  process  to  the  special  colors  to  which  they 
refer,  and  which  will  be  found  in  the  next  chapter. 

IV.'  Coal  tar  colors  subdivided  into  Reds,  Purples,  Violets, 
Blues,  Yellows,  Oranges,  Greens,  Browns,  Maroons, 
Blacks,  and  Grays. 

The  object  and  the  limits  of  this  work  being,  not  to  dwell 
on  the  manufacture  of  coal  tar  colors,  but  only  to  treat  of  their 
application  to  dyeing,  we  have  briefly  indicated  their  nature, 
from  what  substances  they  are  derived,  and  those  of  their  pro- 
perties which  may  be  useful  to  the  dyer. 

Those  persons  who  may  be  desirous  to  become  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  manufacture  and  properties  of  coal  tar 
colors  should  consult  the  following  works : — 

P.  Schiitzenberger,  Traite  cfes  Matieres  colorantes. 

M.  Reimann,  Aniline  and  its  Derivatives. 

Th.  Chateau  (Collection  Roret),  Coukurs  d>  Aniline,  &c. 

F.  C.  Calvert,  Goal  Tar  Colors,  &c. 

J.  Girardin,  Chimie  elementaire. 

Note. — The  Imperial  gallon,  holding  10  pounds  of  water, 
being  the  one  in  use  in  Mr.  O'Neill's  Dictionary,  we  .have  re- 
tained it  as  the  standard  in  our  calculations  for  receipts. 

The  wine  gallon  of  New  York  holds  only  8  pounds  of  water. 

The  weights  are  avoirdupois. 


CHAPTER   I. 

MORDANTS.— DISCHARGES. — THICKENINGS. 

THE  animal  fibres,  silk  and  wool,  for  instance,  have  such  an 
affinity  for  coal  tar  colors  that,  in  most  cases,  by  a  simple  dip- 
ping in  a  solution  of  these  colors,  they  become  dyed  without 
the  help  of  any  mordant. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  vegetable  fibres  are  entirely  devoid 
of  such  an  affinity  for  coal  tar  colors  (aniline  black  excepted.) 
It  is  therefore  necessary  to  impart  to  them  the  property  of  fix- 
ing these  colors  by  the  help  of  some  mordant.  This  opera- 
tion is  sometimes  called  animalization. 


MORDANTS— DISCHARGES — THICKENINGS.  11 

The  mordants  in  use  are  : — 

Albumen  from  the  white  of  eggs, 
blood. 

Gluten  dissolved  in  caustic  soda  (W.  Crurn  process). 
"  "a  weak  acid  (acetic  acid). 

Scheurer — Rott  process. 

Caseine  or  Lactarine  (curd  of  milk)  dissolved  in  caustic  soda 
(W.  Crum  process). 

Caseine  dissolved  in  acetic  acid. 

Gelatine. 

Tannnte  of  Gelatine. 

Tannin,  pure,  or  from  fresh  decotions  of  gall-nuts,  sumach,  &c. 

Certain  oils,  such  as  those  used  for  Turkey  red. 

Certain  acids,  such  as  sulpho-margaric,  sulpho-oleic,  sulpho- 
glyceric,  &c. 

Certain  resins,  such  as  gum-lac  dissolved  in  alkalies  or  borax. 

Arsenite  of  Alumina. 

Stannate  of  Soda. 

Note — MM.  Depouilly  recommend  the  preparation  of  the 
stannate  of  soda  by  precipitating  the  oxymuriate  of  tin  by 
ammonia,  and  dissolving  the  washed  precipitate  with  as  little 
caustic  soda  as  possible. 

Lead  Salts,  &c.  &c. 

Of  all  these  mordants,  the  albumen  from  the  white  of  eggs  is 
the  best;  with  it  the  work  is  easy,  and  the  brightness  of  the 
colors  is  not  impaired.  The  only  drawback  is  its  cost. 

The  albumen  from  the  blood,  being  always  more  or  less  yel- 
low, is  inferior  to  the  former. 

Before  using  albumen  it  is  al'ways  prudent  to  pass  it  through 
a  fine  muslin  sieve,  in  order  to  strain  off  certain  impurities  which, 
otherwise,  would  appear  as  dark-colored  specks  on  the  dyed 
cloth. 

Gluten  dissolved  in  caustic  soda. — Wet  gluten  is  allowed  to 
rest  for  from  5  to  10  days,  according  to  temperature,  until  it 
becomes  viscous.  Then,  to  10  Ibs.  of  this  gluten,  add  17  or  18 
ozs.  of  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  having  a  specific' grav- 
ity of  1.15,  which  dissolves  certain  impurities.  The  gluten  re- 
maining over  the  filtering  cloth  is  washed  in  cold  water,  and 
mixed  with  about  14  ozs.  of  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  of  1.08 
sp.  gravity.  The  gluten  becomes  dissolved  into  a  mucilage, 
which,  afterwards,  is  diluted  to  the  proper  consistency  for  print- 
ing, with  about  3  quarts  of  water: 

This  gluten  is  printed  first,  dried,  steamed,  and  rinsed  in  pure 
water  before  printing  with  the  color,  which  operation  is  suc- 
ceeded by  a  second  steaming. 

Lactarine. — Two   pounds  of  dried  and   pulverized   caseine 


12  COAL   TAR   COLOES. 

(curd  of  milk)  are  dissolved  in  £  gallon  of  water  and  £  gallon 
of  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  (1.08  sp.  gr.). 

4  pounds  of  fresh  caseine  may  also  be  dissolved  in  the  above 
solutions. 

Soap  Mordant.— For  20  Ibs.  of  cotton  yarn  dissolve  1  Ib.  of 
tallow  soap  in  sufficient  water.  The  cotton  is  worked  for  some 
time  in  this  hot  bath,  allowed  to  dry  (without  washing),  and 
washed  just  before  it  is  dyed  in  the  coloring  bath.  By  re- 
plenishing the  soap  bath  with  small  additions  of  new  soap,  it 
may  last  a  long  time. 

Arsenite  of  alumina  (Schultz  process). 

Arsenite  of  soda 12  drachms. 

Acetate  of  alumina  (10°  B6  )       ;,      .  .     1  pint. 

Magenta 65  grains. 

and  the  whole  is  thickened  with  starch. 

Instead  of  acetate  of  alumina,  Mr.  Schultz  daims  that  solu- 
tions of  acetate  of  zinc  or  magnesia  at  10°  B&  may  be -employed. 

Phosphite  of  soda,  antimoniate  or  stannate  of  soda  may  also 
be  substituted  for  arsenite  of  soda,  in  the  proportion  of  3  to  5 
ozs.  to  1  quart  of  acetate  of  alumina. 

Arsenite  of  alumina  (A.  Paraf  process). — The  difficulty  in, 
the  employment  of  arsenious  acid  is  its  feeble  solubility  in  water 
•or  acids;  but  glycerine  dissolving  its  own  weight  of  arsenious 
acid,  Mr.  Paraf  uses  it  for  preparing  a  mordant,  as  follows: — 

1  part  of  arsenious  acid  is  dissolved  in  1  part  of  glycerine, 
and  a  solution  of  acetate  of  alumina  is  made  in  the  usual  way, 
except  that  sulphate  of  alumina  is  to  be  preferred  to  alum. 

Then  to  a  solution-  of  aniline  color,  already  thickened  with 
starch,  is  added  10  to  12  per  cent,  each  of  the  above  solutions. 
The  next  operations  are  printing,  steaming  for  \  hour,  and 
washing  in  tepid  soap  water. 

-  Discharge  by  zinc  powder  (Durand  process). — The  very  fine 
powder  of  zinc  produced  during  the  distillation  of  this  metal, 
will  reduce  the  colored  salts  of  rosaniline  into  white  salts  of 
leucaniline,  when  printed  on  places  which  must  be  white.  But 
if,  by  repeated  washings,  these  salts  of  leucaniline  are  not  en- 
tirely removed,  they  may  color  again  under  the  oxidizing  in- 
fluence of  air  and  light.  This  difficulty  will  not  be  found  in 
the  next  process,  where  the  color  is  destroyed,  not  transformed. 

Discharge  by  permanganic  acid  (Dangvilld  and  Gauthier  pro- 
cess).— The  permanganate  of  potassa,  which  may  be  replaced 
by  permangdnate  of  lime,  is  mixed  with  a  slight  excess  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  then,  by  the  addition  of  water,  is  reduced  to 
a  solution  holding  from  1  to  6  per  cent,  of  permanganate  of 


DISSOLUTION   OF   COAL   TAR   COLORS.  13 

For  printing,  the  thickening  materials  should  be  kaolin, 
silica,  or  alumina,  because  an  organic  thickening  would  decom- 
pose the  permanganic  acid. 

After  the  operation,  the  destroyed  aniline  color  is  replaced 
by  an  oxide  of  manganese,  which  will  be  removed  by  washing 
in  a  sulphurous  acid  solution.  But,  if  there  are  colors,  such  as 
coralline,  which  are  destroyed  by  sulphurous  acid,  the  washing 
is  effected  by  a  mixture  of  muriatic  acid  and  protochloride  of 
tin. 

Discharge  by  tin  powder  (Hesse  process). — Finely-pulverized 
tin  is 'mixed  with  carbonate  of  soda,  or  other  alkaline  salt, 
and  thickened  with  gum.  After  printing  with  this  mixture, 
steaming  and  washing,  the  printed  and  previously  colored 
places  become  white. 

Gum  thickenings.— It  has  been  observed  by  Mr.  Ach.  Bulard 
that  certain  gums  have  the  property  of  changing  the  shade  of 
aniline  reds  to  a  dull  reddish  violet,  when  the  printing  mixture 
has  stood  only  a  few  hours;  and  that  a  small  quantity  of  al- 
bumen added  to  the  mixture  prevented  this  change  of  color. 
By  further  experiments,  Mr.  Bulard  found  that  the  best  gums 
for  printing  aniline  reds  were  the  white  qualities  of  gum  Senegal, 
and  the  worst,  the  gum  Arabic,  coming  by  way  of  Alexandria, 
Egypt;  excepting,  however,  those  which  are  entirely  white.* 


CHAPTER  II. 

DISSOLUTION  OF  COAL  TAR  COLORS. 

NEARLY  all  the  coal  tar  colors  are  remarkable  for  their  slight 
solubility  in  water.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  soluble  in  al- 
cohol, wood  spirit  (wood  naphtha,  methylic  alcohol),  acetic 
acid,  tartaric  acid,  aniline,  some  in  glycerine,  &c. 

The  least  soluble  in  water  are  certain  kinds  of  blue  and 
violet.  The  reds,  such  as  magenta,  azaleine,  and  roseine,  are 
sufficiently  soluble  in  water. 

When  we  say  sufficiently  soluble,  we  do  not  mean  that  these 
colors  are  very  soluble,  but  that  they  may  be  directly  dissolved 
in  hot  water  to  form  a  bath  of  sufficient  strength  for  dyeing. 
Indeed,  when  we  consider  the  affinity  of  the  animal  fibres  for 

*  The  thickening  and  mordant  called  gum  water  and  albumen  water  is  gener- 
ally 1  pound  of  the  dry  substance  dissolved  in  1  quart  of  water  (wine  gallon 
weighing  8  pounds  of  water). 


14  COAL  TAR  COLORS. 

these  colors,  too  much  solubility  would  be  a  disadvantage  ;  the 
colors  would  instantly  precipitate  upon  the  fibre,  and  the  fabric 
would  not  be  dyed  evenly.  It  is  to  avoid  this  irregularity  that 
it  is  often  necessary  to  begin  with  very  weak  baths,  and  to  add 
the  coloring  substances  at  intervals,  by  small  quantities,  while 
the  bath  is  well  stirred,  and  the  fabric  constantly  worked. 

When  these  aniline  dyes,  which  have  been  previously  dis- 
solved in  alcohol,  are  poured  into  the  water  of  the  bath,  they 
are  generally  not  dissolved  but  precipitated,  as  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  filtering  through  paper.  But  the  precipitate  is  so 
fine  and  light,  and,  if  we  may  say  so,  in  such  a  hydrated  state, 
that  the  bath  appears  limpid,  without  deposit  at  the  bottom, 
and  in  a  condition  to  dye  the  yarns  -or  fabrics  which  are  put 
into  it. 

Therefore,  the  previous  dissolution  of  certain  coal  tar  colors 
in  alcohol  has  for  its  object  to  present  those  dyes  to  the  bath  in 
a  minute  state  of  division,  which  could  not  have  been  obtained 
by  mechanical  means,  and  which  allows  them  to  be  thoroughly 
incorporated  with  the  water,  if  not  entirely  dissolved  in  it. 

Of  all  the  solvents  we  have  mentioned,  alcohol  is  the  most 
in  use ;  acetic  acid  and  tartaric  acid  are  sometimes  mixed  with 
it.  The  use  of  wood  spirit,  unless  perfectly  pure,  should  be 
avoided  for  the  red  colors  of  rosaniline,  which  it  turns  to  violet, 
and  the  more  so  when  acetic  acid  is  mixed  with  the  former. 

To  sum  up :  when  such  colors  as  magenta,  &c.,  are  suffi- 
ciently soluble  in  water,  they  are  boiled  in  it,  and  filtered. 
About  200  parts  of  water  for  1  of  color.  Some  soluble  blues 
require  less  water. 

When  blues  and  violets,  insoluble  in  water,  are  to  be  dis- 
solved in  concentrated  alcohol,  the  color  is  gradually  added  to 
it,  stirring  all  the  time,  and  afterwards  allowing  it  to  rest.  After 
a  few  hours,  the  whole  is  heated  in  a  water  bath  to  the  boiling 
point,  and  the  volatilized  alcohol  is  condensed.  After  boiling 
it  is  well  to  allow  the  solution  to  rest  one  sight,  and  lastly  to 
filter. 

The  proportions  of  alcohol  are  variable: — 

30  to  50  parts  of  alcohol  for  1  of  blue  ; 

violet; 
10  to  12  «        Hofmann's  violet. 

Of  these  latter  violets  there  are  some  which  are  soluble  in 
itfater,  and  do  not  require  the  use  of  alcohol. 

Instead  of  pouring  the  alcoholic  solution  directly  into  the 
bath,  it  is  customary  to  dilute  it  with  8  to  10  times  its  volume 
of  water,  acidulated  with  tartaric  or  sulphuric  acid. 

Iron,  tin,  a*nd  zinc  vessels  are  to  be  avoided  in  making  these 


DISSOLUTION   OF  COAL   TAR   COLORS.  15 

solutions,  especially  the  latter,  which  reduce  the  colors.  (See 
Discharges.} 

In  order  to  avoid  the  rather  expensive  use  of  alcohol,  va- 
rious decoctions  of  vegetable  substances  have  been  tried  for 
dissolving  coal  tar  colors.  Soapwort  (Radix  saponica),  Pan- 
ama bark  (Quillaya  saponica),  lucern  root,  &c.,  have  been  pro- 
posed, but  we  believe  that  they  have  not  been  extensively  used. 

Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  has  the  property  of  rendering 
soluble  in  water  certain  blues  and  violets  which  were  insoluble. 

We  believe  that  Mr.  Nicholson  was  the  first  to  make  use  of 
this  property,  and  his  process  is  as  follows:  Add  gradually  1 
part  of  insoluble  blue  to  6  parts  of  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid;  the  mass  being  thoroughly  mixed  by  stirring,  heat  the 
whole  up  from  284°  to  300°  F.,and  when  cold  pour  the  whole 
into  cold  water  (8  to  10  parts  of  water  for  1  of  oil  of  vitriol 
employed).  The  color  becomes  precipitated  at  the  bottom  of 
the  vase,  is  collected  and  washed  over  a  cloth  until  the  water 
runs  blue.  The  blue  is  then  soluble  in  about  50  parts  of  boil- 
ing water,  its  shade  is  bluer,  but  it  has  lost  part  of  its  fastness, 
which  is  caused  by  a  chemical  transformation  due  to  the  power- 
ful acid  and  great  heat  to  which  it  has  been  submitted. 

Messrs.  Rangod-Pe'uhiney  and  Ach.  Bulard  employ  also  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid,  but  act  in  a  different  way.  1  part  of 
the  color  is  dissolved  by  small  quantities,  gradually  added  to 
6  parts  of  oil  of  vitriol  at  66°  B6 .  At  each  addition  the  mass 
is  thoroughly  mixed,  allowed  to  stand,  and  stirred  until  all  the 
color  is  dissolved.  During  the  whole  operation  care  is  taken 
to  prevent  the  acid  from  becoming  heated.  The  liquid  is  then 
poured  into  cold  water  (20  times  the  weight  of  acid  employed), 
not  all  at  once,  but  slowly,  at  different  places  of  the  water  sur- 
face, while  a  constant  stirring  is  going  on,  in  order  to  avoid 
too  great  an  elevation  of  temperature. 

The  color  becomes  precipitated,  is  collected,  and  washed  on 
a  filter  until  the  water  runs  blue.  The  resulting  paste,  if  not 
immediately  employed,  is  mixed  with  glycerine  which  prevents 
it  from  drying. 

The  acid  solution  may  also  be  poured  into  the  dye  bath,  but 
the  excess  of  acid  must  be  neutralized  by  some  alkali. 

By  this  process  the  color  has  not  been  transformed,  as  is  the 
case  by  the  Nicholson  treatment ;  it  remains  as  fast  as  before, 
and  although  it  requires  more  water  to  become  dissolved,  it  is 
in  a  state  of  minute  division  and  of  hydration,  which  is  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  same  color  dissolved  in  alcohol,  and  poured 
into  the  boiling  bath. 


1$  COAL  TAB  COLORS. 

PURIFICATION. 

Although  the  coal  tar  colors,  at  the  present  time,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  market  much  purer  than  formerly,  and  some  of 
them  entirely  pure,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  indicate  the 
means  of  removing  their  impurities.  These  are  generally  re- 
sinous substances  soluble  in  benzine,  and  light  oils  from  coal 
tar  or  petroleum,  while  the  colors  are  insoluble  in  them.  The 
operation  consists  therefore  in  washing  the  impure  colors  with 
these  hydrocarbons. 

Another  method,  applicable  to  the  aniline  colors  soluble  in 
water,  consists  in  adding  to  them  5  times  their  weight  of  fine 
white  sand,  and  dissolving  the  color  in  boiling  water,  while  the 
resinous  substances  stick  to  the  sand. 

For  those  colors  which  are  insoluble  in  water,  an  alcohol  can 
be  made  weak  enough  for  dissolving  the  color  without  acting 
on  the  resinous  matter  ;  whereas  if  the  alcohol  was  too  concen- 
trated it  would  dissolve  both  the  color  and  the  impurities. 

Happily  for  the  dyer,  these  impure  colors  are  now  rarely 
sold. 

PRECIPITATION. 

Under  this  head  we  mean  the  processes  for  recovering  the 
color  from  baths  which  have  not  been  exhausted. 

The  first  process,  used  by  the  manufacturers  of  aniline  dyes, 
consists  in  saturating  the  dye-bath  with  chloride  of  sodium 
(common  salt),  or  any  alkaline  salt ;  the  color  becomes  precipi- 
tated in  its  primitive  state,  and  can  be  used  again  in  the  same 
manner. 

By  the  second  process,  a  combination  of  the  color  with  t'an- 
nic  acid  is  formed,  which  is  nearly  insoluble  in  water,  and  may 
be  employed  for  calico  printing.  In  order  to  precipitate  the 
color  entirely,  and  to  obtain  a  fine  product,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  bath  should  not  be  too  acid,  and  that  the  liquors  containing 
tannin  (pure  tannic  acid,  decoction  of  gall-nuts,  &c.)  should  be 
freshly  prepared.  The  excess  of  free  acid  is  first  saturated  by 
carbonate  of  soda,  and  the  color  is  afterwards  precipitated  by 
the  above  liquors,  taking  care  not  to  add  an  excess  of  them, 
which  would  re-dissolve  part  of  the  precipitate.* 

The  third  process  produces  aniline  lakes  by  adding  alum 
to  the  bath,  neutralizing  the  alum  by  carbonate  of  soda  as  long 
as  no  precipitate  occurs,  and  lastly,  by  precipitating  with 
tannin. 

*  The  precipitate  is  then  washed  over  a  cloth,  and  is  better  kept  for  use  in 
a^_  pasty  state,  although  it  can  be  dried  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding 


GENERAL   METHODS   FOR   DYEING  AND  CALICO    PRINTING.     1' 


CHAPTER     III. 

GENERAL  METHODS  FOR  DYEING  AND  CALICO  PRINTING. 

IN  laying  down  in  this  (^iapter  certain  general  principles  for 
dyeing  and  calico  printing,  our  object  has  been  to  obviate  the 
unnecessary  lengthening  of  .this  essay,  by  repeating  for  each 
color  what  can  be  said  at  once  for  all. . 

We  shall  illustrate  these  general  rules  by  several  examples. 
For  the  special  methods,  we  refer  the  reader  to  those  colors 
which  require  them,  and  which  will  be  found  in  Chapter  IV. 

Wool  and  silk  are  worked  nearly  alike,  the  differences  being 
that  the  temperature  of  the  bath  is  generally  hotter  for  wool 
than  for  silk,  and  that  an  acidulated  bath  is  more  necessary  for 
silk  than  for  wool. 

The  temperature  of  the  bath  and  its  degree  of  acidity  have 
also  some  influence  on  the  shade  produced.  The  hotter  and 
more  acid  the  bath  is,  the  bluer  are  the  shades.  Red  shades 
are  obtained  by  a  lower  temperature  and  less  acid.* 

In  dyeing,  the  fabric  ought  to  be  drawn  several  times  in  the 
bath,  and  the  color  be  added  successively  in  several  portions. 
For  certain  colors,  more  soluble  than  others,  this  is  indispensa- 
ble, in  order  to  dye  evenly. 

Although  the  animal  fibres  do  not  require  any  mordant  to 
fix  the  aniline  dyes,  the  shades  have  often  been  found  much 
faster  when  these  fibres  had  been  previously  mordanted  with 
alum,  alumina,  bichloride  of  tin,  &c. 

For  printing,  the  color  dissolved  in  alcohol,  or  acetic  acid,  is 
thickened  with  starch,  or  gum  .Senegal,  gum  tragacanth,  al- 
bumen, &c. 

The  steaming  is  generally  begun  with  a  small  pressure, 
which  is  afterwards  increased. 

Brighter  shades  will  be  obtained  if  the  printed  colors  do  not 
dry  too  quickly.  An  addition  of  glycerine  to  the  printing 
mixture  will  keep  it  moist. 

The  aniline  reds  are  not  so  fast  as  the  blues  and  violets,  es- 
pecially on  calico. 

*  It  is  sometimes  preferable  to  raise  the  shade  by  drawing  the  fabric  in 
another  acidulate*!  bath,  directly  after  the  dye-bath,  or  after  a  washing.  The 
acid  generally  employed  is  sulphuric  acid. 


18  COAL  TAR  COLORS. 

Chinoline  colors  afford  beautiful  shades,  but  without  stability. 
Iii  this  case  there  should  be  no  acid  in  the  bath. 

ANIMAL  FIBRES— (WOOL  AND  SILK.) 

Dyeing  with  salts  of  rosaniline,  pure  fuchsine,  magenta,  &c. — 
Dissolve  the  dye  in  200  parts  of  boiling  water,  which,  after  fil- 
tration, you  pour  gradually  by  portions  into  the  bath.  The 
bath  is  lukewarm  for  silk,  and  acidulated  with  tartaric  or  sul- 
phuric acid ;  but  for  wool  it  is  gradually  brought  up  to  the 
boil,  and  no  acid  is  necessary.  * 

Dyeing  with  violets  insoluble  in  water. — The  dye  dissolved  in 
alcohol  and  diluted  with  water,  as  we  have  explained  in  Chap- 
ter II.,  is  added  by  degrees  to  the  bath  which  is  at  a  temperature 
of  from  104°  to  140°  F.,  and  acidulated  with  some  sulphuric 
acid,  remembering  that  the  more  acid  there  is,  the  bluer  is  the 
shade.* 

Sometimes,  for  a  blue  shade,  sulphate  of  indigo  is  added  to 
the  bath.  Other  persons  use  only  aniline  colors  (blue  and  vio- 
let), for  shading  a  ground  of  indigo  or  Prussian  blue.  Weak 
alcohol  will  dissolve  that  part  of  the  dye  which  imparts  a  red 
tinge  to  certain  blues. 

Aniline  blues  insoluble  in  water  are  dyed  as  the  correspond- 
ing violets. 

Dyeing  green. — The  paste,  which,  is  a  compound  of  tannin 
and  the  green  color,  is  soluble  in  water  acidulated  with  sul- 
phuric acid.  A  higher  temperature  is  necessary  for  wool  than 
for  silk.  It  is  well  to  leave  the  fabric  in  the  bath  until  it  cools 
off.  Wool  is  sometimes  mordanted  with  alum. 

Certain  greens  become  soluble  in  water  after  having  been 
thoroughly  mixed  with  some  sal  ammoniac. 

Printing  red  aniline  colors. — The  dye  is  dissolved  in  acetic 
acid  or  alcohol,  thickened  with  gum  Senegal,  printed  and 
steamed.  A  tin  mordant  is  to  be  avoided. 

For  1  quart  of  alcohol,  1|  ozs.  of  magenta  crystals  are  used, 
or  more,  if  deeper  shades  are  wanted. 

This  is  a  general  process,  which  may  be  applied  to  many 
aniline  dyes  for  printing  on  silk  and  wool. 

VEGETABLE  FIBRES— (COTTON,  &C.) 

The  yarn  or  fabric  is  to  be  mordanted  with  some  of  the  mor- 
dants" already  spoken  of  in  Chapter  I.,  and  dyed  in  a  hot  and 

*  The  shades  will  be  much  faster  if  the  wool  and  the  silk  have  been  mor- 
danted ma  hot  bath  (1670  F.)  containing  a  mixture  of  1  part  purified  cream 
tartar  and  10  parts  alum. 


GENERAL   METHODS   FOR   DYEING  AND   CALICO   PRINTING.     19 

acidulated  bath.  We  shall  begin  the  examples  by  one  where 
albumen  is  employed,  and  where  a  very  pure  and  bright  shade 
is  required. 

Dyeing  with  magenta  crystals. — For  mordanting,  dissolve  J 
Ib.  of  albumen  in  1  gallon  of  cold  water,  work  the  fabric  or 
the  yarn  in  it.  Steam,  in  order  to  coagulate  the  albumen,  and 
then  dye  in  a  moderately  hot,  and  slightly  acid  bath. 

Cotton  prepared  with  oil,  the  same  as  for  Turkey  red,  takes 
very  well  the  aniline  reds  and  blues.  The  oil,  olive  oil  for  in- 
stance, which  has  been  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  becomes 
better  adapted  to  act  as  a  mordant.  1  Ib.  of  olive  oil  is  well 
beaten  with  4  ozs.  of  oil  of  vitriol,  and  becomes  brown.  It  is 
then  mixed  with  1  quart  of  alcohol,  and  when  all  appears  dis- 
solved, it  is  poured  into  boiling  water.  These  proportions  are 
sufficient  for  from  70  to  75  Ibs.  of  cotton,  which  is  mordanted 
in  a  tepid  bath. 

Dyeing  with  tannate  of  tin  as  a  mordant  (Perkin  and  Puller's 
process). — The  cloth  is  soaked  for  one  hour  or  two  in  a  decoc- 
tion of  sumach  or  any  other  tanning  substance,  and  then  put 
into  a  weak  solution  of  stannate  of  soda,  where  it  is  drawn  and 
worked  for  one  hour.  It  is  then  wrung  out,  dipped  into  di- 
luted sulphuric  acid,  and  well  rinsed  before  it  is  dyed  in  a 
slightly  acidulated  bath  of  aniline  color.* 

Dyeing  with  a  lead  mordant. — Cotton  may  be  mordanted  with 
a  basic  salt  of  lead,  and  dyed  afterwards  in  a  hot  bath  where 
soap  and  the  color  have  been  .dissolved  together.  Lead  mor- 
dants are  somewhat  difficult  to  be  evenly  absorbed  by  the 
stuff. 

Dyeing  with  aluminate  of  soda  for  mordant. — The  cotton  is  al- 
lowed to  rest  for  from  10  to  12  hours  in  a  solution  of  soda 
marking  4  to  5°  B6,  and  without  rinsing  is  put  into  a  solution 
of  aluminate  of  soda,  where  it  rests  the  same  length  of  time. 
Alumina  becomes  fixed  in  a  hot  solution  of  sal  ammoniac.  The 
cotton  is  then  dyed  in  a  coloring  bath,  at  the  temperature  of 
122°  F. 

Other  methods  of  dyeing. — Mordant  with  oxymuriate  of  tin, 
then  with  tannin,  and  dye. 

Or,  dissolve  caseine  (curd  of  milk)  in  as  little  ammonia  as 
possible ;  soak  the  cotton  in  this  solution  diluted  with  water, 
and  dry  it.  Then  work  your  cotton  in  another  bath  of  tannin 
with  some  muriatic  acid,  and  dye  it,  after  it  has  been  carefully 
wrung. 

Mr.  K.  Bottger  says  that  a  solution  of  tannin  in  alcohol  is 
sufficient  for  mordanting  flax  and  cotton  stuffs  before  dyeing. 

*  The  mordanted  fabric  is  of  a  light  yellow  color.  It  is  said  that  alum 
may  be  employed  instead  of  stannate  of  soda. 


20  COAL   TAR   COLORS. 

MM.  Franc  and  Tabourin  have  proposed  biphosphate  of 
lime  for  mordanting  cotton. 

For  certain  kinds  of  aniline  blues,  which  have  some  red  in 
them,  the  cotton  is  dyed  first  with  Prussian  blue.  A  violet  is 
obtained  by  shading  a  ground  of  Prussian  blue  with  aniline 
violet,  with  or  without  magenta. 

Printing  with  magenta  crystals.— Take  4  ozs.  of  color,  and  mix 
it  thoroughly  with  1  pint  of  warm  water  and  1  pint  of  glyce- 
rin, then  boil  the  whole  for  15  minutes.  After  filtration,  thick- 
en the  color  with  1  Ib.  of  pulverized  gum  Senegal,  and  pass  it 
through  a  sieve.  On  the  other  hand,  3|  pounds  of  dry  albumen 
have  been  dissolved  in  3  quarts  of  water  and  passed  through  a 
muslin  '  sieve ;  this  is  added  to  the  former  substances.  Print 
with  the  mixture,  steam  and  wash. 

When  the  cotton  fabric  has  been  previously  mordanted  with 
alumina  (red  liquor),  holding  a  trace  of  iron,  a  pure  red  cannot 
be  obtained. 

Another  method  consists  in  mordanting  with  oxymuriate  of 
tin,  printing  with  magenta  and  tannic  acid,  and  steaming,  &c. 

Printing  violet. — 50  grains  of  rosolane  in  paste  are  dissolved 
in  |  oz.  of  alcohol,  and  thickened  with  4  ozs.  of  gum  water, 
and  5|  ozs.  of  albumen  water.  After  printing,  the  fabric  is 
steamed  and  washed.  The  pressure  of  steam  is  low  at  the  be- 
ginning, and  is  gradually  increased. 

The  preparations  of  gluten  and  caseine  (lactarine)  are  cheaper, 
but  are  inferior  to  albumen,  as  regards  the  facility  in  printing, 
and  the  solidity  and  brightness  of  the  shades. 

Printing  with  soluble  blue. — 1  part  of  the  color  is  dissolved  in 
20  parts  of  water,  which  is  mixed  cold  with  18  parts  of  acetate 
of  alumina  marking  15°  Baume.  Then  thicken  with  gum. 
water,  print,  steam,  and  wash. 

If  the  blue  is  very  soluble,  it  will  be  well  to  add  to  the  mix- 
ture some  carbonate  of  soda,  about  £  of  the  amount  of  the  color. 

Printing  with  arsenile  of  alumina  as  a  mordant  (Wischine  pro- 
cess).— A  mixture  of  ars«nite  of  soda,  acetate  of  alumina,  and 
red  or  blue  colors,  is  thickened,  and  then  printed.  After  steam- 
ing, the  stuff  is  washed  in  a  soap  bath. 

The  shades  stand  washing  very  well. 

Printing  violet. — A  paste  is  made  by  mixing  and  boiling  for 
15  minutes  1  oz.  of  aniline  violet,  £  pint  of  water,  and  2£  or  3 
ozs.  of  glycerine,  to  which  we  add  from  3  to  3|  ozs.  of  gum 
Senegal.  When  the  whole  is  cold,  it  is  passed  through  a  sieve 
and  mixed  with  7  ozs.  of  dry  albumen  dissolved  in  \  pint  of 
water.  ^  After  printing,  we  steam  and  wash. 

Printing  lyMr.E.  Kopp's  tannin  process. — We  have  already  seen 
(Chapter  II.,  precipitation)  how  to  produce  the  combinations 


GENERAL   METHODS   FOR   LYE1NG  AND   CALICO   PRINTING.     21 

of  tannic  acid  with  the  salts  of  rosaniline,  raauveine,  and  their 
derivatives.  These  combinations  are  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  alcohol,  acetic  acid,  wood  spirit,  and  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid  ;  remembering  that  impure  wood  spirit  should  not 
be  used  with  the  reds,  which  are  turned  violet  or  blue. 

The  solution  of  the  dye  is  thickened  with  gum  Senegal,  or  gum 
tragacanth,  or  a  mixture  of  both,  or  starch -dissolved  in  acetic 
acid.  After  printing,  the  fabric  is  steamed,  and  washed  in  cold 
water. 

The  shades  obtained  in  this  way  stand  the  action  of  soap  well, 
but  not  so  well  that  of  light.*  • 

The  following  is  another  receipt: — 

1  pound  of  violet  paste. 
1       "       "     acetic  acid  No.  8. 
1       "       "     tannic  acid. 
3  quarts  of  boiling  water. 
1  gallon  of  gum  water. 

In  this  example  the  tannate  of  the  color  is  made  directly  in 
the  mixture.  If  the  tannate  was  already  at  hand,  no  new  tan- 
nin, or  better,  only  a  small  quantity,  would  be  needed. 

The  calico  to  be  printed  may  also  be  prepared,  with  stannate 
of  soda,  or  alumina,  gluten,  caseine,  gelatine,  basic  acetate  of 
lead,  corrosive  sublimate,  tartrate  of  antimony  (only  for  ani- 
line violets),  and  double  .chloride  of  potassium  and  antimony, 
which  precipitate  by  tannin,  and  produce  faster  shades. 

When  corrosive  sublimate  (bichloride  of  mercury)  is  em- 
ployed, it  has  a  tendency  to  turn  the  reds  to  violet. 

Sometimes  the  printing  is  only  made  with  a  thickened  solu- 
tion of  tannin,  more  or  less  concentrated  according  to  the  depth 
of  shade  desired.  It  is  thus  easy  to  obtain  several  shades  of 
various  intensity  on  the  printed  figures. 

The  calico  printed  with  tannin  is  steamed,  drawn  through  a 
weak  solution  of  gelatine  or  of  a  metallic  salt,  and  thoroughly 
washed. 

The  next  operation  will  be  the  dyeing,  when  the  color  be- 
comes fixed  to  the  parts  printed  with  tannin,  while  the  ground 
of  the  fabric  is  but  very  little  colored.  When  aniline  reds  are 
employed,  a  washing  with  soap  will  remove  all  color  from  the 
ground  not  printed. 

Instead  of  pure  tannin,  gall-nuts,  sumach,  or  tannin  mixed 
with  some  fatty  or  resinous  substance  may  be  employed;  but 
pure  tannin  gives  the  finer  shades. 

Printing  by  the  tannin  process  of  MM.  Javal  and  Gratrix.     1st 

*  The  reds,  pinks,  and  some  violets  do  not  succeed  well  by  this  process.  It  is 
preferable  to  previously  mordant  the  fabrics  with  stannate  of  soda. 


22  COAL  TAR  COLORS. 

method  —Dissolve  the  color  in  alcohol  or  acetic  acid,  thicken 
and  print  it  on  tanned  cloth,  steam,  and  wash  in  pure  water,  or 
with  soap  if  aniline  reds  have  been  employed. 

While  steaming,  the  pressure  begins  very  low,  and  is  in- 
creased up  to  seven  pounds  per  square  inch. 

2d  method.— Print  with  tannin  alone,  thickened,  and  steam  as 
above,  then  draw  through  a  bath  containing  a  solution  of  an 
alkaline  arseniate,  phosphate,  or  silicate,  and  wash  in  pure 
water. 

Then  dye  in  a  bath  at  140°  F.  acidulated  with  acetic  acid, 
into  which  the  color  dissolved  in  acetic  acid  is  added  by  de- 
grees, and  which  is  gradually  brought  to  the  boil  during  the 
working  of  the  cloth,  which  lasts  about  half  an  hour. 

When  the  white  portions  have  absorbed  some  of  the  color, 
they  are  bleached  by  passing  the  cloth  through  a  hot  bath  con- 
taining some  mineral  acid,  which  dissolves  the  coloring  matter 
not  combined  with  the  tannin.  Soapsuds,  or  a  weak  solution 
of  printing  clearing  liquor,  such  as  is  used  for  garancine,  may 
be  employed.  Lastly,  rinse  in  pure  water. 

Printing  by  the  tannin  process  of  MM.  Littlewood  and  Wilson,  or 
MM.  Lloyd  and  Dak. — To  one  gallon  of  gum  water  mix  from 
8  to  10  ozs.  of  pure  and  dry  tannin,  and  enough  of  aniline  color 
for  the  shade  required.  Print  and  steam  at  low  pressure,  and 
then  pass  the  fabric  through  a  hot  solution  (170°  to  212°  F.)of 
2  ozs.  of  emetic  or  tartrate  of  antimony  per  gallon  of  water. 
Then  wash  and  dry.  If  bleaching  is  necessary,  use  very  weak 
solutions  of  bleaching  powder,  wash  with  soap,  and  rinse  m 
pure  water. 

Printing  by  Brook's  process. — By  this  process,  madder  printed 
colors  may  have  their  brightness  increased  by  aniline  colors. 
For  this  purpose,  the  madder  mordants  receive  an  addition  of 
tannin  and  acetate  of  tin,  and  become  fixed  by  ageing  and 
steaming.  The  fabric  is  then  dunged  in  cow's  dung,  or  in 
phosphates,  silicates,  and  arseniates  of  soda,  dyed  first  with 
madder,  and  afterwards  with  aniline  colors. 

Printing  by  the  process  of  MM.  J.  and  T.  P.  Miller.  1st 
method. — Digest  1  Ib.  of  gall-nuts  in  1  gallon  of  acetic  acid  No. 
8  (Twaddle),  which  is  mixed  with  a  compound  of  tartar ic  acid, 
stannate  of  soda,  a  small  excess  of  acetic  acid,  and  a  suitable 
quantity  of  aniline  color,  then  thicken  with  gum  or  starch, 
print,  steam,  &c.  on  a  fabric  which  has  been  mordanted  with  a 
tannin  solution. 

2d  method.— Draw  the  fabric  through  a  solution  of  8  ozs.  of 
soap  per  gallon  of  water,  and  afterwards  through  a  bath  con- 
taining some  sulphuric  acid  ;  then  dry  it. 

The  printing  mixture  is  made  with  about  12  ozs.  of  acetate 


COAL  TAR  COLORS.  23 

of  lead  per  gallon,  to  which  is  added  the  color  dissolved  in 
acetic  acid.     Then  thicken,  print,  and  steam. 

The  proportion  of  acetate  of  lead  is  variable  with  the  quan- 
tity of  color. 

MIXED  FABRICS. 

Dyeing. — Mordant  with  sumach  and  stannate  of  soda,  dye  in 
a  boiling  bath  and  wash. 

Printing  by  the  R.  Bottger  process. — Liquid  Violet.  1  part  or 
volume  gum  tragacanth,  water  4  parts  or  volumes.  Before 
adding  the  violet,  dissolve  a  little  less  than  one  ounce  of  ox- 
alic acid  for  every  gallon  of  paste,  thick  or  diluted.  .The  mix- 
ture is  passed  through  a  muslin  sieve,  and  printed  without 
albumen,  which  is  said  not  to  be  necessary.  After  printing, 
the  fabric  is  steamed  at  a  low  pressure  for  half  an  hour;  washed 
and  dried. 

These  numerous  examples  would  be  incomplete  without  the 
starching  process,  which  produces  the  cheapest  prints  in  every 
sense  of  the  word.  No  mordants  whatever  are  required  for  pre- 
paring the  cloth  or  printing  it.  A  little  aniline  color  dyes  a 
great  amount  of  starch.  By  printing  with  such  starch,  drying, 
and  selling  the  fabric  without  washing  it,  the  consumers 
will  be  sure  to  become  disgusted  with  aniline  colors. 

Such  prints  will  bear  no  washing,  and  very  little  rubbing. 

A  certain  quantity  of  starch,  with  the  proper  mordants, 
may  be  useful  for  thickening  ;  but  too  large  a  proportion  has 
the  result  of  interposing  an  inactive  substance  between  the  fibre 
and  the  color. 


CHAPTER IY. 

COAL  TAR   COLORS. 

IT  would  be  difficult  to  arrange  these  colors  alphabetically, 
on  account  of  the  many  and  different  names  which  have  been 
given  to  the  same  dye.  We  shall  then  separate  them  into  reds  ; 
purples,  violets,  blues,  &c.  &c. 

This  variety  of  names,  which,  in  most  cases,  does  not  indicate 
the  composition  of  the  color,  necessitates  a  brief  consideration 
of  their  nature;  and  we  shall  dwell  longer  on  those  which  re- 
quire peculiar  methods  for  their  use. 

The  number  of  coal  tar  dyes  which  we  present  to  the  reader 


24  COAL  TAR  COLORS. 

is  more  considerable  than  is  generally  found  in  dye-houses. 
We  have,  however,  chosen  only  those  colors  which,  on  a  large 
or  small  scale,  have  given  sufficiently  satisfactory  results  in  the 
large  dye  houses  of  Alsace  and  England. 

REDS. 

Arsenite  of  rosaniline  ;  Crude  fuchsine. — The  old  processes  for 
making  aniline  reds  have  all  given  way  to  the  actual  treatment 
of  a  mixture  of  aniline  and  tol'uidine  by  arsenic  acid.  This 
color  is  sufficiently  soluble  in  hot  water  to  produce  directly  a 
dye  bath.  It  dyes  a  dirty  red  when  the  solution  is  only  slightly 
heated,  arid  red-brown  when  heated  to  the  boiling  point. 

On  account  of  its  arsenic  and  arsenious  acids,  it  is  a  highly 
poisonous  substance  which  ought  to  be  handled  carefully. 
The  dyed  stuffs,  however,  do  not  retain  any  arsenic  after  a 
thorough  washing. 

Hydrochlorate  of  rosaniline;  Magenta;  Fuchsine;  Solferino ; 
Aniline  red. — Obtained  from  the  above  arseniate,  and  purified 
by  several  crystallizations.  Is  found  entirely  pure  in  the  trade ; 
sufficiently  soluble  in  boiling  water,  and  very  soluble  in 
alcohol. 

Nitrate  of  rosaniline  ;  Azaleine ;  Rubine  ;  sometimes  Magenta. 
— Produced  by  heating  for  several  hours,  at  about  240°  F.,  10 
parts  of  aniline  with  7  parts  of  dry  nitrate  of  mercury.  Solu- 
ble in  hot  water,  and  very  pure  in  the  trade. 

Acetate  of  rosaniline  ;  Roseine ;  sometimes  Magenta. — Obtained 
by  combining  concentrated  acetic  acid  with  rosaniline  precipi- 
tated from  the  arsenite.  ^  The  crystals  are  very  pure,  and  are 
soluble  in  water. 

Coralline;  Peonine. — Discovered  by  Mr.  Persoz,  Jr.,  and  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  ammonia  upon  rosalic  acid,  under 
pressure,  and  at  the  temperature  of  302°  F.  This  color  is  not 
very  fast,  especially  on  cotton,  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  acetic  acid, 
and  in  alkaline  solutions  which  become  brown  after  being  a 
certain  time  in  contact  with  the  air.  Sulphurous  acid  destroys 
this  color. 

(Silk  and  wool  dyeing.) — Dissolve  coralline  in  alcohol,  add 
some  soda,  and  pour  the  solution  into  a  large  quantity  of  water. 
Then  a  small  addition  of  tartaric  acid  will  liberate  the  color, 
which  will  produce  shades  intermediate  between  magenta  and 
cochineal.  Dye  in  a  cold  bath. 

(Cotton  dyeing.)— Dissolve  coralline  in  a  solution  of  caustic 
soda  of  12°  Bfe,  or  in  a  saturated  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda. 
1  gallon  of  this  latter  liquid  will  dissolve  2|  Ibs.  of  coralline, 


COAL   TAR   COLORS.  25 

which  is  then  diluted  with  2  gallons  of  water,  and  neutralized 
by  1  gallon  of  sulphuric  acid  at  10°  Bfe. 

The  fabric,  which  has  been  mordanted  with  tin,  sumach  or 
tannin,  is  then  dyed  in  this  solution,  for  1|  hour,  and  at  a  tem- 
perature of  about  85°  F.  raised  up  to  122°. 

The  shade  obtained  resists  steaming  and  washing ;  but  soap, 
alkalies  and  light  alter  it  rapidly. 

(Calico  printing.) — The  coralline  precipitated  by  water  from 
its  solution  in  acetic  acid  is  dryed  at  a  low  temperature,  inti- 
mately mixed  with  chalk  or  oxide  of  zinc,  and  printed  with 
albumen. 

Erythro-benzine. — Obtained  by  MM.  Laurent  and  Casthelaz 
by  mixing  12  parts  of  nitro-benzine  with  12  parts  of  iron  fil- 
ings, and  6  parts  of  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid.  The 
whole  is  allowed  to  rest  for  24  hours  at  the  natural  tempera- 
ture. The  resulting  resinous  mass  is  treated  by  boiling  water, 
and  the  color  precipitated  by  chloride  of  sodium.  Soluble  in 
alcohol,  and  fast  on  silk  and  wool. 

Isopurpurate  of  potassa  ;  Soluble  ruby. — Obtained  by  Mr. 
Hlasiwetz  by  the  reaction  of  cyanide  of  potassium  upon  picric 
acid.  It  is  sufficiently  soluble  in  hot  water,  and  alcohol.  It  is 
sold  in  paste,  which  should  contain  some  glycerine  to  keep  it 
always  wet,  otherwise  it  is  a  very  dangerous  product,  because 
it  detonates  by  the  least  shock. 

It  dyes  silk,  wool,  and  cotton  mordanted  with  albumen,  a 
garnet  and  puce  color,  with  the  addition  to  the  bath  of  alum 
and  acetic  acid.  These  shades  turn  to  orange  by  steaming. 

Its  solution,  heated  with  acetic  acid  in  a  copper  vessel,  be- 
comes of  an  orange  color. 

Wool  and  silk,  when  mordanted  with  corrosive  sublimate, 
are  dyed  a  magnificent  purple.  If  the  mordant  is  zinc,  the 
color  obtained  is  a  brillant  yellow.  We  see,  therefore,  that 
different  mordants  will  produce  different  shades. 

The  colors  are  very  fast,  except  against  sulphurous  acid. 

Rubis  imperial;  Imperial  ruby. — Mixture  of  300  parts  of 
coralline  with  200  parts  of  magenta.  Dissolve  1  pound  of  the 
mixture  in  12  gallons  of  alcohol,  and  dye  without  mordant. 
When  coralline  is  in  excess  of  the  above  proportion,  the  shade 
is  a  yellowish  cherry  red.  If  magenta  is  in  excess,  the  shade 
is  somewhat  violet. 

Grenat;  Garnet-red.  (Schultz  process.) — It  is  a  precipitate 
obtained  by  passing  nitrous  oxide  gas  through  a  solution  of 
magenta  or  fuchsine  in  alcohol  mixed  with  ammonia. 

Phcenicine ;  Ponceau  d? aniline. — Obtained  by  Mr.  F.  Duprey 
by  boiling  bioxide  of  barium  with  a  solution  of  acetate  of 
rnauveine  (Perkin's  violet).  Adding  then  some  carbonate  of 
3 


26  COAL  TAB  COLORS. 

soda,  just  enough  to  separate  the  carbonate  of  baryta,  the  solu- 
tion'is  filtered,  and  phcenicine  is  precipitated  by  chloride  of 
sodium,  washed,  &c. 

This  dye  is  soluble  in  ammonia,  carbonate  of  soda,  benzine, 
&c. 

Cerise;  Cherry  red.— Manufactured  by  Mr.  J.  R  Geigy,  of 
Bale.  Dissolve  1  part  of  the  color  in  6  parts  of  acetic  acid; 
let  it  stand  one  night  in  a  vessel  which  is  kept  hot  by  being 
put  in  a  hot  bath.  Then  pour  the  whole  solution  into  15  to  20 
buckets  of  hot  water,  mix  well,  skim,  filter,  and  dye  in  the  hot 
bath. 

The  shades  are  raised  on  silk,  by  a  washing  and  a  drawing 
through  very  weak  and  cold  sulphuric  acid. 

Wool  may  be  mordanted  with  cream  of  tartar  or  alum,  or 
both. 

The  shades  may  be  varied  by  the  addition  of  magenta,  tur- 
meric, sulphate  of  indigo,  picric  acid,  archil,  &c. 

"  Ghkroxynaphthalic  acid. — Obtained  by  Mr.  Casthelaz.  It  is 
soluble  in  alcohol,  benzine,  sulphuric  acid,  alkaline  acetates, 
and  in  boiling  water  sufficiently  for  dyeing. 

It  dyes  wool  a  deep  red,  without  mordants.  Various  shades 
are  produced  by  the  admixture  of  other  coloring  substances. 
It  does  not  succeed  with  cotton,  even  animalized,  on  account  of 
its  great  acidity. 

Rosolic  acid. — It  is  now  scarcely  used,  the  shades  being  with- 
out fastness,  either  on  wool,  silk,  or  on  cotton. 

PURPLES,  VIOLETS,  AND  BLUES. 

Sulphate  of  mauveine ;  PerJcin's  violet;  indisine;  aniline  purple ; 
mauve. — This  color,  discovered  by  Mr.  Pefkin,  was  the  first  ani- 
line dye  introduced  to  the  trade.  It  is  produced  by  heating  a 
mixture  of  sulphates  of  aniline  and  toluidine  with  bichromate 
of  potassa,  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  separating  the  resinous  im- 
purities by  benzine.  Little  soluble  in  boiling  water ;  but  sol- 
uble in  alcohol,  wood  spirit,  acetic  acid,  acetone,  glycerine,  tar- 
taric  acid,  sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids. 

Aniline  violet. — Obtained  by  MM.  Depouilly  and  Lauth,  by 
gradually  adding  bleaching  powder  to  a  solution  of  hydro- 
chlorate  of  aniline  with  acetic  acid  until  the  desired  shade  of 
violet  appears. 

This  violet  has  the  same  basis  as  Perkin's  wolet,  that  is  to 
say,  mauveine,  which  can  be  precipitated  and  dissolved  in  mu- 
riatic acid  or  acetic  acid. 

Similar  violets  are  produced  by  using  chlorine,  bi-oxides  of 


COAL  TAR   COLORS.  27 

lead  and  of  manganese,  permanganate  of  potassa,  &c.,  instead 
of  bleaching  powder  or  bichromate  of  potassa. 

Bleu  and  violet  de  Mulhouse.— Obtained  by  MM.  Gros-Re- 
naud  and  Schoeffer,  by  boiling  a  solution  of  white  shellac  and 
soda  crystals  with  some  azaleine  (nitrate  of  rosaniline)  previ- 
ously dissolved  in  alcohol.  For  the  violet  a  larger  proportion  of 
soda  crystals  and  azaleine  is  required  than  for  the  blue.  Thick- 
en the  colored  liquid  with  gum  tragacanth,  and  print. 

Violet  imperial. — Obtained  by  MM.  Girard  and  de  Laire  by 
heating  for  5  or  6  hours,  and  at  a  temperature  of  about  330° 
F.,  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  aniline  and  hydrochlorate  of 
rosaniline;  the  excess  of  aniline  and  magenta  is  removed  by 
diluted  muriatic  acid,  and  the  remaining  violet  is  soluble  in 
alcohol,  acetic  acid,  wood  spirit,  and  boiling  water  with  some 
acetic  acid. 

(Silk  and  wool  dyeing.) — Dissolve  1  part  of  this  violet  in  2 
parts  of  alcohol,  and  1  of  acetic  acid ;  let  it  rest  and  filter.  Dye 
in  a  bath  acidulated  by  sulphuric  acid,  cold  at  the  beginning, 
and  brought  up  to  the  boil.  The  shade  will  be  bluish,  if  the 
fibre  is  taken  immediately  from  the  hot  bath,  and  reddish,  if 
allowed  to  remain  in  it  until  it  cools  off. 

Aniline  or  rosaniline  blues. — There  are  a  great  many  processes 
for  manufacturing  these  blues.  A  blue  will  be  produced  by  a 
mixture  of  aniline  red  and  aniline,  heated  with  an  organic  acid 
or  an  organic  salt  (acetic  acid,  or  acetate  of  soda,  tartaric  acid, 
benzoic  acid).  By  the  Nicholson  process,  rosaniline,  aniline, 
and  acetic  acid  are  employed. 

All  these  blues  are  nearly  insoluble  in  boiling  water,  but  are 
soluble  in  alcohol,  &c.,  or  in  water  after  a  transformation  by  oil 
of  vitriol. 

Soluble  blues. — We  have  already  seen  in  Chapter  II.  how  to 
render  soluble  the  above  blues  and  many  violets.  By  the  pro- 
cess of  cold  sulphuric  acid,  the  color  becomes  sufficiently  sol- 
uble in  an  acid  bath;  by  the  process  of  hot  sulphuric  acid,  the 
dye  is  very  soluble  in  water;  but  this  great  solubility  requires 
certain  precautions  in  dyeing,  otherwise  the  shades  would  be 
uneven.  Some  persons  add  carbonate  of  soda  as  a  corrective. 

MM.  Lachmann  and  Breuninger  use  two  baths ;  the  first 
contains  1  part  of  soluble  blue  in  500  parts  of  water,  and  no 
acid  at  all ;  the  second  bath  contains  water  acidulated  with  sul- 
phuric acid.  The  cloth  dyed  in  the  first  bath  is  of  a  light  gray- 
ish-blue color,  and  the  pure  blue  shade  appears  only  in  the 
second  bath. 

Night  blue  ;  bleu  de  nuil ;  bleu  lumi&re. — It  is  so  called  on  ac- 
count of  being  free  from  violet,  and  of  keeping  its  true  blue  color 
in  artificial  light.  Made  by  heating  4  parts  of  magenta  or  ro- 


28  COAL  TAR   COLORS. 

seine,  8  parts  of  aniline,  and  2  parts  of  acetate  of  soda,  during 
2  hours,  and  at  a  temperature  of  392°,  raised  up  to  482°  at  the 
end  of  the  operation.  The  last  trace  of  violet  is  removed  by 
several  washings  with  diluted  sulphuric,  or  muriatic  acid. 

It  is  sufficiently  soluble  in  boiling  water  with  some  acetic 
acid. 

Bleu  de  Paris.— Obtained  by  MM.  Persoz,  de  Luynes,  and 
Salvetat,  by  the  reaction  of  9  parts  of  anhydrous  bichloride  of 
tin  on  16  parts  of  aniline,  under  pressure,  and  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  356°  F.  This  blue  is  more  expensive  than  other  kinds, 
but  is  very  fast,  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  &c.,  and  keeps  a  pure 
blue  shade  under  artificial  light. 

Bleu  de  Lyon. — Prepared  in  a  similar  way  as  night  blue,  only 
acetate  of  potassa  takes  the  place  of  acetate  of  soda.  MM. 
Girard  and  de  Laire  use  the  process  for  making  arsenite  of  ro- 
saniline,  only  the  quantity  of  arsenic  acid  is  considerably  in- 
creased. 

(Silk  dyeing.) — 1  Ib.  of  the  blue  is  dissolved  in  2  gallons  of 
alcohol,  2  or  3  ozs.  of  sulphuric  acid  are  added,  and  after  stand- 
ing some  time  the  whole  is  filtered.  The  silk  is  drawn  5  or  6 
times  through  the  bath,  which  is  brought  up  to  the  boil,  and  re- 
ceives the  color  by  portions.  After  dyeing,  the  silk  is  worked 
in  a  hot  soap  bath,  rinsed,  and  the  shade  raised  in  acidulated 
cold  water. 

(Wool  dyeing.) — The  same  as  for  silks,  but  no  washing  in 
soap. 

(Printing.) — 1  part  of  blue  is  dissolved  in  33  of  alcohol,  and 
1  part  of  this  solution  is  thickened  with  5  parts  of  gum  water. 

Dahlia  or  blue  violet. — Many  violets  are  obtained,  the  same 
as  blues,  by  the  reaction  of  aniline  red  with  aniline  and  acetate 
of  soda,  and  by  varying  the  proportions,  the  temperature,  or 
the  length  of  the  operation.  For  this  dahlia  color,  the  opera- 
tion lasts  longer,  and  benzoic  acid  or  benzoates  are  gradually 
added,  until  the  desired  shade  is  obtained.  The  mass  is  then 
cooled  off  rapidly,  and  purified  in  the  usual  way.  All  these 
violets  are  scarcely  soluble  in  water  alone. 

Ethyl  or  methylrosaniline  violets  ;  Hofmann's  violets  ;  primula  ; 
iodine  violets. — These  colors,  remarkable  by  their  beauty  and 
fastness  have  been  obtained  by  Mr.  A.  W.  Hofmann  by  treating 
under  pressure,  for  3  to  4  hours,  and  at  a  temperature  a  little 
above  212°  F.,  a  mixture  of  a  salt  of  rosaniline,  iodide  of  ethyl 
or  methyl,  and  strong  alcohol.  With  equal  parts  of  rosaniline 
and  iodide  of  methyl  or  ethyl,  the  product  is  a  red  violet  ;  by 
doubling  the  quantity  of  iodide,  the  color  is  a  blue,  violet. 

When  these  violets  are  not  separated  from  their  iodine,  they 
are  to  be  dissolved  in  alcohol. 


COAL   TAR   COLORS.  29 

When  free  from  iodine,  and  combined  with  acetic  or  muriatic 
acid,  they  are  soluble  in  about  50  parts  of  water. 

(Silk  dyeing.) — Use  an  acidulated  and  lukewarm  bath,  gra- 
dually raised  to  the  boil.  The  color  is  added  by  degrees. 

(Wool  dyeing.) — Hot  bath,  without  mordant  or  acid. 

Printing  as  by  the  usual  methods. 

Aniline  violet  obtained  by  Mr.  .Perkin  by  heating  together 
equal  parts  of  mauveine  and  iodide  of  ethyl,  for  several  hours. 
The  process  bears  some  analogy  to  that  of  Mr.  Hofmann. 

Ethylmauvaniline  blue  and  violet.  Obtained  by  MM.  Girard, 
de  Laire,  and  Chapoteaut,  by  the  Hofmann  process,  and  by  sub- 
stituting mauvaniline  for  rosaniline. 

Methylaniline  violet;  Paris  violet. — The  originators  of  this 
color  are  MM.  Greville- Williams,  Poirier,  Chappat,  and  Ch. 
Lauth.  Soluble  in  water. 

Violaniline  and  Mauvaniline. — These  dyes  with  chrysotoluidine 
have  been  extracted  by  MM.  Girard,  de  Laire,  and  Chapoteaut, 
from  the  residues  of  the  treatment  of  hydrochlorate  of  rosaniline. 

The  salts  of  mauvaniline  are  soluble  in  water,  and  their  color 
is  a  beautiful  violet  mauve. 

The  salts  of  violaniline  are  soluble  in  alcohol  and  are  blue 
black,  with  violet  reactions. 

Regina  purple. — Obtained  by  Mr.  Nicholson  by  carefully  heat- 
ing pure  magenta  at  a  temperature  of  from  390°  to  420°  F., 
until  the  substance  appears  a  dark  and  thick  mass.  Ammonia 
is  evolved.  Soluble  in  acetic  acid,  alcohol,  &c. 

Azuline. — Obtained  by  MM.  K.  Richoud  and  J.  Persoz  by 
gradually  oxidizing  aniline  by  coralline.  Soluble  in  alcohol, 
acetic  acid,  &c. 

For  dyeing  silk  and  wool,  azuline  is  dissolved  in  alcohol, 
and  added  to  a  hot  bath  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid,  or 
better,  tartaric  acid.  Heat  to  the  boil. 

Azurine ;  Dark  indigo  blue. — This  color,  by  the  process  of 
MM.  F.  C.  Calvert,  Ch.  Lowe  and  S.  Clift,  is  directly  produced 
upon  the  cloth  by  dyeing  or  printing  cotton  goods  with  a  mix- 
ture oftartrateor  hydrochlorate  of  aniline,  and  acetic  acid. 
After  an  exposure  to  the  air,  of  2  or  3  hours,  a  green  color  ap- 
pears (see  greens — emeraldine);  the  fabric  is  then  drawn  through 
a  bath  holding  a  weak  solution  of  soap  and  caustic  soda,  or 
better  still,  one  ounce  of  bichromate  of  potassa  per  gallon  of 
water.  The  color  turns  indigo-blue,  and  even  black,  if  too 
much  of  the  aniline  salts  has  been  employed. 

No  mordants  of  alumina  or  others  are  required. 

Aniline  purple. — Produced  by  MM.  J.  Dale  and  H.  Caro  by 
boiling  in  water  a  mixture  of  a  salt  of  rosaniline  with  a  soluble 
copper  salt  and  chloride  of  sodium.  The  precipitated  color  is 


gO  COAL  TAR   COLORS. 

purified  by  weak  and  boiling  alkaline  solution,  and  is  soluble 
in  alcohol. 

For  dyeing  cotton,  mordant  with  tannin,  dye  in  the  color,  and 
fix  in  a  bath  of  tartarized  antimony. 

Chinoline  blue  and  violet ;  Cyanine. — Extracted  from  cincho- 
nine.  The  shades  are  beautiful,  but  without  any  solidity,  being 
acted  upon  by  light,  acids,  and  alkalies. 

When  dyeing,  the  bath  should  not  contain  any  acid. 

Harmaline  (violet). 

Toluidine  blue. 

Bosolane  (violet). 

Parme — Bluish  purple. 

Phenylamine  blue. 

Rosotoluidine  blue. 

YELLOWS,  ORANGES. 

Picric  acid  and  Picrates. — Thepicrates  are  highly  explosive, 
and  their  dyeing  power  is  much  less  than  that  of  picric  acid. 
This  color  is  produced  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  upon  car- 
bolic or  phenic  acid.  It  dyes  wool  and  silk  a  yellow  color, 
with  a  green  tinge.  The  shade  is  faster  when  these  fibres  have 
been  mordanted  with  a  mixture  of  alum  and  cream  of  tartar. 

Cotton  mordanted  with  albumen  and  lactarine  may  be  dyed 
with  picric  acid,  although  not  very  fast.  That  color  does  not 
bear  steaming. 

Chrysanilim  yellow;  Phosphine;  Victoria  Orange;  Yellow  fuch- 
sine. — This  color  was  separated  first  by  Mr.  E.  C.  Nicholson 
from  hydrochlorate  of  rosaniline  in  the  manufacture  of  the  lat- 
ter. Soluble  in  water  acidulated  by  acetic  acid.  Dyes  silk  and 
wool  a  beautiful  golden  yellow.  The  sulphate  of  chrysaniline 
is  very  soluble  in  water. 

Chrysotoluidine— Extracted  by  MM.  Girard,  de  Laire,  and 
Chapoteaut  are  from  the  residues  of  the  manufacture  of  aniline 
red,  where  it  is  found  associated  with  mauvaniline  and  violani- 
line. 

The  salts  of  chrysotoluidine  are  soluble  in  water. 
Binitronaphthalic  acid;  Naphthylamine  yellow ;  Jaune  d"or  ; 
Manchester  yellow. — This  color  is  due  to  Dr.  C.  A.  Martius,  and 
dyes  a  magnificent  golden  yellow,  without  the  greenish  shade 
of  picric  acid.  It  will  support  steaming.  Used  extensively  for 
dyeing  wool  and  leather. 

Yellow  Coralline.  (Printing  on  Wool). — Dissolve  5  Ibs.  of 
coralline  in  2  gallons  of  caustic  soda  of  10°  B6.,  and  at  the  tem- 
perature of  140°  F.  Dilute  with  20  gallons  of  water,  heat 
again,  and  add  about  1  quart  of  bichloride  of  tin  of  55°,  diluted 
with  1  gallon  of  water.  After  filtration,  there  remain  4  gal- 


COAL   TAR   COLORS.  31 

Ions  of  lake.  Then,  taking  2  gallons  of  this  unwashed  and 
semifluid  lake,  mix  it  with  4  Ibs.  of  pulverized  gum,  and  about 
12  ozs.  of  oxalic  acid;  heat  until  all  is  dissolved,  pass  through 
the  sieve,  and  print.  After  12  hours'  standing,  the  print  is 
steamed,  and  is  of  a  bright  orange  color. 

Aniline  orange  and  yellow.  Azotihine;  Zinaline. — By  passing 
more  or  less  of  nitrous  oxide  gas  through  aniline  kept  cold, 
these  colors  are  produced.  Hydrochloric,  or  acetic  acid  is 
added,  and  the  solution  is  ready  for  the  dye-bath. 

Aniline  yellow. — This  appears  to  be  a  salt  of  leucaniline,  and 
has  been  obtained  by  Mr.  Durand  by  the  slow  action  of  nascent 
hydrogen,  during  12  or  24  hours,  upon  the  residues  of  the 
manufacture  of  aniline  red.  After  purification,  the  color  is 
sufficiently  soluble  in  boiling  water  to  dye  wool,  silk,  and 
leather  without  mordant.  The  color  is  a  nankeen  yellow, 
which  will  turn  ponceau  if  the  fabric  is  drawn  through  another 
bath  containing  a  solution  of  bichromate  of  potassa. 

Aniline  yellow,  obtained  by  Messrs.  Simpson,  Maule  &  Ni- 
cholson, by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  aniline.  It  dyes  wool 
and  silk  a  bright  lemon  yellow.  If  picric  acid  is  added,  the 
shade  on  wool  will  approach  a  cochineal  color.  These  colors 
being  volatile,  do  not  bear  steaming,  and  are  not  fast. 

Aniline  orange. — Obtained  by  Mr.  E.  Jacobsen  from  the 
residues  of  the  preparation  of  azaleine  (nitrate  of  rosaniline). 
It  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  sufficiently  so  in  boiling  water,  and 
dyes  wool  and  silk  a  fine  gold  yellow.  Alkalies,  ammonia,  for 
instance,  change  the  shade  to  a  brimstone  yellow,  but  acids 
restore  the  primitive  color. 

Chloroxynaphthalate  of  ammonia. — Very  soluble  in  water, 
according  to  Mr.  Perkin,  and  dyes  silk  a  gold  color,  which 
light  does  not  affect. 

Safranine  is  a  new  coal-tar  dye,  obtained  by  Mr.  Carves,  of 
St.  Etienne,  which  is  said  to  have  twice  the  coloring  power  of 
picric  acid,  and  to  afford  yellow  or  red  shades,  according  to 
treatment. 

GREENS. 

Mixed  green. — Obtained  by  a  mixture  of  picric  acid  and 
aniline  blue.  It  appears  grayish  under  artificial  light. 

Vert  printemps ;  Spring  green. — Picric  acid  and  carmine  of 
indigo  produce  a  beautiful  green,  which  appears  violet  under 
artificial  light. 

Night  green;  Vert  lumilre. — Picric  acid  and  Prussian  blue. 
Keeps  its  true  green  color  in  artificial  light. 

Aniline  green;  aldehyd  green ;  night  green  ;  vert  lumihe;  UsZbe 


32  COAL  TAR   COLOES. 

green;  viridine. — To  4  parts  of  aniline-red  in  crystals,  add  6 
parts  of  oil  of  vitriol  and  2  parts  of  water.  When  this  solu- 
tion is  cold,  gradually  add  to  it  pure  aldehyd  (about  6  parts), 
and  heat  the  whole  in  a  water  bath  to  the  boiling  point,  until 
a  few  drops  of  the  solution,  put  into  weak  sulphuric  acid,  or 
acetic  acid,  produce  a  blue  coloration.  When  this  point  is 
reached,  the  liquid  is  poured  into  a  bath  of  water  (200  times 
the  weight  of  aniline  red  employed),  containing  some  hyposul- 
phite of  soda,  a  weight  about  equal  to  that  of  the  sulphuric 
acid  entering  into  the  composition  of  the  liquor.  Two  different 
colors  are  produced  :  a  green  in  solution,  and  a  grayish  sub- 
stance called  argentine,  which  remains  in  suspension  in  the 
liquid,  and  may  be  separated  by  filtration. 

Mr.  Lauth  obtains  better  results  by  using  alkaline  polysul- 
phides  (liver  of  sulphur),  instead  of  hyposulphite  of  soda. 

This  green  bath  should  be  used  at  once,  as  it  does  not  keep 
well. 

(Silk  dyeing.)— Put  the  silk  into  the  lukewarm  bath,  which 
is  gradually  brought  up  to  the  boil,  and  let  it  cool  off  with  the 
silk  in  it. 

(Wool  dyeing.) — Less  acidity,  and  less  heat  than  for  silk.  It 
is  well  to  mordant  the  wool  with  alum,  but  this  green  succeeds 
better  on  silk  than  on  other  fibres,  and  requires  some  practice 
in  its  use. 

Aniline  green  in  paste.-^-The  above  bath  is  employed  for  pre- 
cipitating the  color  by  acetate  of  soda,  or  more  generally  by 
tannin.  The  precipitate  is  collected,  washed,  and  the  resulting 
paste  is  soluble  in  water  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid.  An 
addition  of  sal  ammoniac,  about  T'n  of  the  weight  of  the  paste  is 
said  to  greatly  facilitate  the  solution. 

For  dyeing,  follow  the  preceding  rules  for  heat  and  acidity 
of  the  bath. 

(Calico  printing.) — Print  on  cloth  mordanted  with  tannin. 
The  color  does  not  stand  steaming  well. 

(Wool  and  silk  printing.) — Mr.  Sevez  says  that  the  green 
will  bear  steaming,  if  bisulphite  of  soda  is  added  to  the  paste, 
which  is  made  as  follows : — 

Gam  water  ....         1  quart.. 

Green  in  paste         ....         10  ozs. 
Crystallized  bisulphite  of  soda         .  5£  " 

Heat  in  a  water  bath  until  the  salt  is  dissolved,  let  stand  for 
3  or  4  days,  print  and  steam.  If  the  mixture  is  not  allowed  to 
stand,  the  color  is  too  light. 

This  process  does  not  succeed  well  on  cotton.  - 

Iodide  of  ethyl  green —By  boiling  Hofmann's  violets  with  water 


COAL   TAR   COLORS.  33 

and  carbonate  of  soda,  a  precipitate  is  produced,  which  is  re- 
moved by  filtration.  The  filtered  liquor  is  then  treated  by 
picric  acid,  and  another  precipitate  is  obtained  of  a  green  color, 
which  is  washed  and  sold  in  powder.  Soluble  in  alcohol,  and 
possibly  in  sal-ammoniac. 

Emeraldine. — This  is  one  of  the  few  aniline  colors  which  are 
directly  produced  on  a  cotton  fabric,  and  has  been  discovered 
by  Messrs.  F.  C.  Calvert,  Lowe  &  Cloft. 

(Cotton  dyeing.) — Draw  the  fabric  through  a  bath  containing 
4  oz.  of  chlorate  of  potassa  per  gallon  of  water,  and  dry.  Then 
'draw  it  through  another  solution  containing  1  per  cent,  of  hy- 
drochlorate  or  tartrate  of  aniline,  and  acidulated  with  hydro- 
chloric or  tartaric  acid. 

(Cotton  printing.) — Print  with  a  mixture  of  tartrate  or  hydro- 
chlorate  of  aniline 3  Ibs. 

Starch  paste         .         .         .         .         .         6    " 
Chlorate  of  potassa      .         .         .         .         1  Ib. 

The  salt  of  aniline  is  added  only  when  the  mixture  is  cold. 
After  printing,  and  a  little  steaming,  the  color  becomes  deve- 
loped in  a  few  hours.  Then  wash  the  fabric. 

If  these  green  prints  were  passed  through  a  solution  of  bi- 
chromate of  potassa,  the  color  would  be  transformed  into  a  dark 
indigo  blue.  (See  Blues — azurine.) 

This  green  color  is  fast  under  the  action  of  light.  Alkalies 
and  soap  turn  it  blue ;  but  acids  restore  the  green  color. 

Rosaniline  green. — Obtained  by  Messrs.  J.  A.  Wanklin  and 
Paraf,  by  repeatedly  treating  Hofmann's  violets  with  equal  parts 
of  wood  spirit  and  iodides  of  ethyl  or  methyl,  under  pressure, 
for  3  to  4  hours,  and  at  a  temperature  of  from  230°  to  240°  F. 
The  coloring  matter  of  the  product  is  dissolved  by  weak  solu- 
tions of  carbonate  of  soda. 

The  shade  of  green  is  very  fine,  is  not  changed  by  artificial 
light,  but  is  not  very  fast. 

Toluidine  green. — Produced  by  a  process  similar  to  that  of 
aldehyd  green. 

Olive  green  or  aniline  olive. — Mr.  Sacc  gives  the  following 
mixture  for  printing  cotton  or  silk  (?): — 

Water        ...  300  parts. 

Farina         ...  36     " 

Chlorate  of  potassa     .  15     " 

Acetate  of  copper        .  15     " 

Nitric  acid  .         .  10     ")  Previously  mixed 

Aniline  .         .  20     "  j      together. 

This  mixture  seems  very  thin. 


34  COAL  TAR   COLORS. 

The  olive  shades  are  somewhat  brown,  and  this  formula  is 
also  used  for  the  latter  color. 

BROWNS,  MAROONS. 

Havana  brown. — The  impure  arsenite  of  rosaniline  (crude 
fuchsine),  in  a  solution  heated  to  the  boiling  point,  dyes  silk 
and  wool  a  reddish-brown.  The  higher  the  temperature,  the 
browner  is  the  shade. 

Brown  maroon. — Obtained  by  Messrs.  Grirard  and  de  Laire 
by  melting  4  parts  of  anhydrous  hydrochlorate  of  aniline  with 
1  part  of  arsenite  of  aniline,  or  1  part  of  aniline  blue  or  violet. 
The  temperature  is  gradually  increased  to  465°  F.,  and  main- 
tained for  about  2  hours,  until  the  mixture  evolves  yellow 
fumes,  and  turns  brown  or  maroon.  The  color  is  soluble  in 
water,  alcohol,  acetic  acid,  &c.,  and  produces  beautiful  shades 
on  silk  and  leather. 

Leucaniline  brown;  puce  fuchsine. — Mr.  H.  Koechlin  recom- 
mends the  following  mixture  for  wool  printing : — 

Dissolve  ^  oz.  of  magenta  crystals  (hydrochlorate  of  rosani- 
line) in  2  gills  of  alcohol;  thicken  with  1J  pint  of  gum  water, 
and  add  2  ozs.  of  oxalic  acid,  and  5  grains  of  chlorate  of  potassa. 

By  decreasing  the  quantity  of  chlorate  of  potassa,  a  red  brown 
is  obtained. 

For  a  yellow  shade,  add  some  yellow  lake  free  from  prot- 
oxide of  tin. 

All  these  shades  are  fast,  and  resist  acids,  alkalies,  and  soap. 

Dark  brown. — A  paste  containing  tartrate  of  leucaniline  with 
sulphide  of  copper,  will  print  shades  of  a  pure  dark  brown  by 
a  process  similar  to  that  of  aniline  black. 

Brown. — A  brown  precipitate  obtained  by  treating  a  solution 
of  magenta  by  hydrochloric  acid  and  chlorate  of  potassa,  is  solu- 
ble in  alcohol  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  may  be  fixed  upon  cot- 
ton mordanted  with  albumen. 

Olive  brown. — See  olive  green. 

e  Rothine  or  Phenicienne. — Obtained  by  Mr.  J.  Roth  by  the  ac- 
tion of  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acid  upon  carbolic 
acid.  But  slightly  soluble  in  water,  soluble  in  alcohol,  acetic 
acid,  tartaric  acid,  and  alkalies. 

The  alkaline  solutions  are  violet  blue,  and  become  brown  by 
a  slight  excess  of  acid. 

The  shades  are  fast  on  silk  and  wool  and  even  resist  bleach- 
ing powder. 

(Wool  and  silk  dyeing.) — No  mordants  are  required.  The 
shade  will  turn  from  a  brown  yellow  to  a  garnet  color  by  the 
addition  of  bichromate  of  potassa  and  some  sulphuric  acid. 


COAL   TAR   COLORS.  35 

(Cotton  dyeing.) — Cotton  mordanted  with  stannate  of  soda  or 
tannin,  will  be  dyed  a  dark  wood  color  by  the  addition  of  bi- 
chromate of  potassa  to  the  hot  bath.  This  color  on  cotton  is 
turned  blue  by  the  alkalies,  and  is  dissolved  by  soap. 

(Printing.) — Phdnicienne  prints  do  not  succeed  on  either  silk, 
wool,  or  cotton,  the  color  being  changed  and  altered  by  steam- 
ing. 

The  results  are  more  satisfactory  on  mixed  fabrics,  especially 
when  wood  shades  are  desired.  JPhe'nicienne  is  then  dissolved 
in  acetic  acid,  thickened,  and  some  chlorate  of  potassa  and  tar- 
taric  acid  are  added  to  the  mixture. 

Mixed  brown;  cerise  brown. — Dissolve  1  part  of  Geigy's  cerise 
(see  reds)  in  6  parts  of  acetic  acid,  and  add  2J  parts  of  sulphuric 
solution  of  indigo.  Add  also  some  tartaric  acid  or  cream  tar- 
tar at  the  end  of  the  operation,  that  is  to  say,  at  the  last  boil  of 
the  dye  bath. 

Aniline  brown. — Obtained  by  Mr.  E.  Jacobsen  by  gradually 
heating  up  to  300°  F.,  and  as  long  as  ammonia  is  evolved,  1 
part  of  picric  acid  and  2  parts  of  aniline  ;  or  by  boiling  a  con- 
centrated solution  of  chromate  of  ammonia  with  aniline,  and 
adding  formic  acid. 

This  color  is  soluble  in  alcohol  with  sulphuric  acid  or  gly- 
cerine, dyes  wool  a  brown  color,  and  silk  a  peculiar  shade  of 
brown,  called  corinth. 

BLACKS,  GRAYS. 

Chloroxynaphihalic  black. — Wool  is  dyed  a  fine  black,  by 

mixing  chloroxynaphthalic  acid  (see   reds)  with  sulphate  of 

indigo. 

Aniline  black. — (Cotton  and  silk  dyeing.) — According  to  Mr. 

Cam.  Koechlin,  these  fibres  may  be  dyed  in  a  solution  made 

of: — 

Water  .,       .        .        .        .     20  to  30  parts. 

Chlorate  of  potassa        .         .       1  part. 

Sal  ammoniac         .         .         .       1     " 

Chloride  of  copper         .  1     " 

Aniline          .         .         .  1  )       previously 

Hydrochloric  acid          .  1  f  mixed  together. 

The  fabric  or  yarn  is  dried  in  ageing  rooms  at  a  low  tem- 
perature for  24  hours,  and  washed  afterwards. 

(Wool  dyeing  or  printing.) — Mr.  J.  Lightfoot  prepares  the 
wool  by  a  kind  of  oxidation  made  as  follows :  1  part  of  bleaching 
powder  is  dissolved  in  10  parts  of  water.  Then  for  1  pound 
of  wool,  take  about  a  pint  of  the  above  solution,  dilute  it  with 


36  COA1<  TAR  COLORS. 

6  gallons  of  water,  and  add  3  ozs.  of  muriatic  acid.  In  this 
bath,  which  is  at  the  temperature  of  100°  F.,  work  the  wool  dur- 
ing 20  or  30  minutes,  and  until  it  has  acquired  a  yellowish  tint. 
Then  wash  it  thoroughly,  and  let  it  dry. 

Wool  and  mixed  fabrics  thus  prepared  may  be  dyed  and 
printed  in  the  usual  way. 

(Silk  printing.)— In  this  case,  silk  is  to  be  vegetablized  (we 
have  already  the  word  animalized)  by  an  immersion  in  a  bath 
of  cellulose  dissolved  in  ammoniacal  copper  oxide.  We  think 
this  process  quite  delicate,  on  account  of  the  action  of  ammo- 
nia on  the  silk. 

(Calico  printing.) — The  first  application  of  aniline  black  to 
calico  printing  was  made  by  Mr.  John  Lightfoot.  One  of  the 
early  printing  mixtures  was  made  of: — 

Water 5|  quarts. 

White  starch         .         .         .         .  1  Ib.  14  ozs. 

Chlorate  of  potassa       .  ..  6  ozs. 

Hydrochlorate  of  aniline       .         .  1  Ib. 

Sulphate  or  chloride  of  copper      .  5  ozs. 

The  aniline  black  obtained  was  very  fine  and  fast ;  but  the 
great  quantity  of  copper  salt  employed  was  found  to  be  inju- 
rious, both  to  the  fabric  and  to  the  metallic  printing  rollers. 

Subsequent  experiments  made  by  Messrs.  C.  Kcechlin,  Cor- 
dillot,  and  Lauth,  have  led  to  the  substitution  of  sulphide  of 
copper  for  the  sulphate  and  chloride  of  this  metal,  whose  pre- 
sence seems  indispensable  to  the  production  of  aniline  black. 
A  good  printing  paste,  which  does  not  weaken  the  fabrics, 
and  does  not  corrode  the  scrapers  and  the  rollers  of  the  print- 
ing apparatus  is  made  as  follows : — 

Heat  and  digest — 

Water 1  Ib. 

Starch 2  Ibs. 

Sulphide  of  copper        ....  8  ozs. 

On  the  other  hand,  mix  and  heat — 

Torrefied  starch     ....  2  Ibs.  6  ozs. 

Water 4   " 

Gum  tragacanth  water  .         .         .1  quart. 

Hydrochlorate  of  aniline       .         .  1  Ib.  9£  ozs. 

Sal  ammoniac       .  .         .  3J  ozs. 

Chlorate  of  potassa        .         ,         .  9|  ozs. 

Then  mix  the  two  compositions,  print,  and  expose  the  fabric 
in  the  ageing- room  for  24  hours,  and  at  a  temperature  from 
77°  to  104°  F. 


COAL   TAR   COLORS.  37 

Here  is  another  paste  by  Mr  Kappelin  : — 

Starch  paste  .         .  .  '     2£  gallons. 

Chlorate  of  potassa         .  .  .     7  oz. 

Gum  tragacanth  water  .  .  .     5|  Ibs. 

Sulphide  of  copper         .  .  .14  ozs. 

Sal  ammoniac         .         .  .     9  ozs. 

A  salt  of  aniline  (tartrate)  .  .2^  Ibs. 
which  is  added  last.* 

After  24  hours'  standing  in  the  ageing  room,  the  prints  are 
drawn  through  a  bath  containing  2  per  ct.  of  carbonate  of  soda, 
steamed  and  washed. 

Acid*  will  turn  the  color  to  green,  but  alkalies  will  restore 
the  black.  A  solution  of  bichromate  of  potassa  intensifies  the 
color;  but  an  excess  of  this  salt  is  apt  to  impart  a  reddish 
hue. 

The  best  aniline  for  black  is  the  one  which  contains  a  mix- 
ture of  aniline  and  toluidine,  and  which  is  sought  for  in  the 
manufacture  of  reds. 

The  sulphide  of  copper  is  made  by  dissolving  at  the  ordinary 
temperature  2  parts  of  sublimed  sulphur  in  2  parts  of  caustic 
soda,  at  38°  Baume".  After  24  hours'  standing  and  frequent  stir- 
rings, the  solution  is  complete,  and  is  thrown  into  a  warm  solu- 
tion of  10  parts  of  sulphate  of  copper  in  250  parts  of  water.  The 
precipitate  is  washed  and  drained  until  about  10  pints  are  ob- 
tained, each  pint  therefore  corresponds  to  1  pound  of  sulphate 
of  copper. 

Lucas  paste. — It  contains  acetate  of  copper  and  hydrochlorate 
of  aniline,  without  sal  ammoniac,  and  has  been  submitted  to  a 
peculiar  process.  When  used,  this  paste  is  mixed  with  6  to  8 
times  its  volume  of  starch  paste.  The  temperature  of  the  age- 
ing room  is  about  104°  F. 

Parafs  paste. — It  is  a  mixture  of  hydrochlorate  of  aniline, 
chlorate  of  potassa,  hydrofluosilicic  acid,  and  a  thickening.  It 
produces  a  very  fine  black  when  applied  with  copper  or  brass 
rollers,  which  furnish  the  copper  necessary  to  the  development 
of  the  color.  If  no  coppqr  is  present,  the  shade  is  only  a  dirty 
blue. 

All  these  aniline  blacks  are  remarkable  as  being  very  fast, 
unalterable  by  acids  and  alkalies,  and  even  by  chlorine  to  a 
certain  point.  If  chlorine  is  not  used  in  great  excess,  the  black 
color  will  reappear;  if  in  excess,  the  color  remains  fallow. 

*  Tartrate  of  aniline  does  not  corrode  the  steel  scrapers,  and  is  gradually 
transformed  into  hydrochlorate  of  aniline  by  the  sal  ammoniac  of  the  mixture. 

Nitrate  and  hydrochlorate  of  aniline  are  the  only  salts  of  aniline  which  can 
produce  the  black. 


88  COAL  TAB  COLORS. 

Aniline  black  may  also  be  printed  simultaneously  with  madder 
and  most  steam  colors. 

All  the  compositions  for  producing  aniline  black  must  be  acid, 
and  the  more  acid  there  is,  the  more  rapid  is  the  production  of 
the  black.  We  ought,  however,  to  remain  within  proper  limits, 
otherwise  the  fibre  may  be  weakened. 

The  degree  of  acidity  of  the  paste  will  also  vary  with  the 
thickenings  employed.  Gum  Senegal  requires  more  acidity 
than  torrefied  starch,  and  the  latter  more  so  than  white  starch 
or  gum  tragacanth. 

In  printing  aniline  black  care  should  be  taken  not  to  print 
upon,  or  too  near  other  places  previously  mordanted ;  the  mor- 
dant would  be  acted  upon,  and  if  it  contains  acetic  acid,  this 
acid  once  liberated  would  prevent  the  formation  of  the  black, 
which  will  be  only  gray. 

There  is  also  danger  of  spontaneous  combustion,  so  rapid  is 
the  oxidation  going  on,  when  the  printed  piece  is  allowed  to  re- 
main folded  and  wet.  It  should  be  immediately  spread  out  in 
the  ageing  room. 

Aniline  grays. — (Calico  printing.)— By  diluting  the  above 
blacks  with  an  increased  proportion  of  thickening,  nothing 
will  be  produced,  unless  by  the  addition  of  a  mineral  acid.  The 
whole  paste,  in  proportion  to  its  volume,  should  contain  as 
much  acidity  as  the  former  black  paste  had. 

The  true  colors  of  aniline  blacks  and  grays  appear  only  after 
washing. 

Mauveine  gray. — Obtained  by  Mr.  J.  Castelhaz  by  dissolving 
10  parts  of  mauveine,  in  paste,  in  11  parts  of  oil  of  vitriol 
(66°  B6) ;  6  parts  of  aldehyd  are  then  added,  and  the  whole 
mass  is  allowed  to  stand  4  or  5  hours.  By  washing  the  product, 
the  gray  passes  through  the  filter,  and  is  precipitated  by  chlo- 
ride of  sodium.  Soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  &c. 

Mureine  grays.— Obtained  by  MM.  F.  Carves  and  Thirault 
by  treating  hydrochlorate  of  aniline  by  a  mixture  of  bichro- 
mate of  potassa,  an  iron  salt,  water,  and  sulphuric  acid. 

By  varying  the  proportions  of  the  reagents,  different  shades 
are  produced,  which  are  soluble  in  boiling  water,  and  stand 
acids  and  soap  well. 


DICTIONARY 

OF 

CALICO  DYEING  AND  FEINTING. 


Absorbent.— A  term  borrowed  from  the  French.  It  sig- 
nifies a  composition  for  discharging  mordants  after  padding 
or  printing  and  before  dyeing;  but  like  the  English  word  dis- 
charge, to  which  it  is  nearly  equivalent,  it  often  signifies  a  dis- 
charge in  the  widest  meaning  of  the  word.  It  is  also  used,  but 
less  frequently,  to  indicate  a  simple  resist.  (See  DISCHARGE, 
KESIST.) 

Acetate. — All  compounds  of  acetic  acid  with  metals  or 
oxides  are  called  Acetates.  They  form  a  very  important  class 
of  salts,  and  are  extensively  used  in  dyeing  and  calico  printing. 
The  more  important  acetates  are  those  of  Alumina,  Copper, 
Iron,  Lead,  and  Soda,  which  are  treated  upon  under  the  head  of 
Acetate. 

General  Properties  of  Acetates. — All  acetates  are  soluble  in 
water;  the  acetates  of  soda,  potash,  magnesia,  zinc,  and  lead, 
though  reckoned  neutral  salts  in  chemistry,  have  an  alkaline 
reaction,  that  is,  turn  red  litmus  paper  blue,  and  in  other  ways 
act  as  alkalies ;  for  example,  if  acetate  of  potash  be  mixed  with 
a  solution  of  a  per-salt  of  iron,  a  salt  of  the  green  oxide  of 
chromium,  or  with  bi-chloride  of  tin,  it  causes,  upon  boiling,  a 
precipitate  of  the  oxide  of  the  metal,  or  a  basic  salt,  much  the 
same  as  would  be  produced  by  weak  caustic  potash  or  crystals 
of  soda.  When  sulphuric  acid,  hydrochloric  acid,  and  other 
strong  acids,  are  mixed  with  an  acetate,  the  acetic  acid  is  set 
free,  and  may  be  expelled  by  heat,  because  it  is  a  weaker  acid 
and  volatilizes  or  passes  off  in  vapor.  The  affinity  of  acetic 
acid  for  metals  is  weak,  and  consequently  many  of  the  acetates 
are  decomposed  spontaneously,  the  metallic  oxide  separating 
from  the  acetic  acid ;  thus,  acetate  of  peroxide  of  iron,  of  chro- 


40  ACETATE. 

mium,  of  tin,  and  of  alumina,  are  decomposable  by  simply 
drying  in  the  air,  the  acid  passing  away  and  the  oxide  of  the 
metal  remaining  behind;  this  is  what  takes  place  when  red  liquor 
or  iron  liquor,  which  are  respectively  acetates  of  alumina  and 
iron,  are  printed  on  cloth,  and  the  cloth  dried,  the  acid  flies 
away  and  the  alumina  and  iron  are  left  adhering  to  the  cloth. 
Sometimes  a  small  portion  of  the  acetic  acid  remains  combined 
with  the  metallic  oxide,  forming  what  is  called  a  sub-salt  or  a 
basic  acetate,  and  this  form  of  acetate  is  generally  insoluble  in 
pure  water. 

Preparation  of  Acetates. — Acetates  are  made  in  two  general 
ways ;  firstly,  the  direct  method,  by  taking  acetic  acid  and  mixing 
it  with  the  substance  to  be  acted  upon  ;  thus,  to  make  acetate  of 
soda,  take  any  quantity  of  commercial  acetic  acid  and  dissolve  in 
it  soda  crystals  or  soda  ash  until  the  sourness  of  the  acid  is 
neutralized;  a  solution  of  acetate  of  soda  is  produced,  which, 
by  boiling  down  or  mixing  with  water,  can  be  brought  to  any 
required  strength;  ground  chalk  or  slaked  lime  thus  mixed 
and  dissolved  in  acetic  acid  would  give  acetate  of  lime ;  litharge 
or  oxide  of  lead  thus  dissolved  would  give  acetate  or  sugar  of 
lead.  The  second,  or  indirect  method,  consists  in  taking  an 
acetate  ready  formed,  so  as  to  produce  another  by  the  process 
of  "  double  decomposition,"  so  called  because  two  salts  are 
decomposed  or  destroyed  at  the  same  time,  giving  rise  to  two 
new  ones.  To  illustrate  this,  by  a  practical  example,  suppose 
it  is  required  to  make  some  acetate  of  alumina  or  red  liquor; 
now  the  first  method  is  not  applicable,  simply  because  the 
alumina  which  would  be  required  is  not  a  commercial  article; 
but  sulphate  of  alumina  and  acetate  of  lead  are  readily  procura- 
ble, and  by  dissolving  them  in  water  and  mixing  them,  the 
double  decomposition  spoken  of  takes  place,  and  there  is  forma- 
tion of  acetate  of  alumina  and  sulphate  of  lead;  this  last  not 
being  soluble  in  water  settles  down  as  a  white  sediment.  Sul- 
phate of  iron  and  acetate  of  lead  mixed  together  give  rise  to 
acetate  of  iron  and  sulphate  of  lead;  sulphate  of  manganese 
and  acetate  of  lead  give  rise  to  acetate  of  manganese  and  sul- 
phate of  lead,  and  so  on.  When  an  acetate  is  mixed  with  any 
soluble  sulphate,  nitrate,  or  chloride,  there  will  be  production 
of  acetate  of  that  sulphate,  nitrate,  or  chloride,  although  no 
visible  decomposition  may  take  place ;  thus,  if  acetate  of  soda 
be  mixed  with  bi-chloride  of  mercury  or  corrosive  sublimate, 
no  visible  change  takes  place,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  acetate 
of  mercury  is  produced;  so  also  a  red  liquor  may  be  made  by 
mixing  acetate  of  soda  and  sulphate  of  alumina,  but  it  would 
be  less  regular  in  its  results,  because  containing  other  salts,  as 
sulphate  of  soda. 


ACETATE   OF   ALUMINA.  41 

Analysis  of  Acetates. — The  value  of  commercial  acetates 
always  depends  upon  the  acetic  acid  present,  and  the  quantity 
of  this  acid  can  only  be  ascertained  by  laboratory  methods.  I 
use  two  processes :  first  I  liberate  the  acetic  acid  from  a  weighed 
quantity  of  the  acetate  to  be  examined,  by  acting  upon  it  with 
sulphuric  acid  in  a  deep-bellied  retort,  heat  to  drive  over  all 
the  acetic  acid  which  is  condensed  in  a  well  cooled  receiver; 
near  the  end  of  the  process  I  drive  a  current  of  steam  through 
the  retort  to  remove  the  last  traces  of  acetic  acid.  The  dis- 
tilled acid  is  then  tested  with  a  standard  solution  of  caustic 
soda  as  explained  in  ACIDIMETRY,  and  the  quantity  of  acetic 
acid  calculated. 

The  second  method  consists  in  turning  the  acetate  under 
examination  into  acetate  of  soda,  and  then  changing  this  by  a 
red  heat  into  carbonate  of  soda,  the  quantity  of  which  is  accu- 
rately ascertained  by  the  test  acid  and  process  described  in  AL- 
KALIMETRY, and  from  that  the  quantity  of  acetic  acid  calculated. 
Thus,  in  testing  acetate  of  lime,  take  100  grains,  dissolve  in 
water,  add  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda  until  no  more  precipi- 
tate of  sulphate  of  lime  takes  place,  then  add  one-fourth  of  the 
bulk  of  liquor  of  methylated  spirit,  leave  for  a  time,  filter  and 
wash  the  precipitate,  evaporate  the  clear  in  a  platinum  vessel 
to  dryness,  raise  the  heat  to  a  good  red,  stirring  the  mass  until 
no  more  vapors  are  evolved,  cool,  warm  with  water,  and  test 
with  the  standard  acid.  The  first  process  is  very  good  in  its 
results,  but  on  account  of  a  little  sulphuric  acid  finding  its  way 
into  the  receiver  the  acetate  appears  better  than  it  is;  the 
second  plan  I  have  also  found  good,  and  its  results  are  usually 
on  the  other  side,  or  against  the  acetate. 

Acetate  of  Alumina,  commonly  called  Red  Liquor  or 
Red  Mordant,  sometimes  also  Acetite  of  Alumina  and  Pyrolignite 
of  Alumina. 

Acetate  of  alumina  first  began  to  be  used  as  a  mordant 
towards  the  end  of  the  last  century ;  long  previously,  perhaps 
even  by  the  Hindoos,  at  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  a 
more  or  less  impure  acetate,  mixed  with  other  ingredients,  was 
employed  in  calico  printing,  without  any  suspicion  that  the 
acetate  was  the  really  useful  part  of  the  mixture  called  red 
mordant. 

Preparation. — The  direct  production  of  acetate  of  alumina 
from  acetic  acid  and  alumina  yields  the  pure  salt;  the  commer- 
cial acetate  of  alumina,  which  will  hereafter  be  called  Red 
Liquor,  is  always  made  by  the  process  of  double  decomposition. 
I  give  the  proportions  for  producing  red  liquor  of  various 
qualities : — 
4 


42  ACETATE   OF   ALUMINA. 

Red  Liquor  from  Alum  and  Acetate  of  Lead. 


l. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

Water     ....     gals. 
Alum       ....      Ibs. 

45 
100 

45 
100 

45 
200 

45 
190 

45 
190 

45 
129 

Acetate  of  Lead       .        .      Ibs. 

100 

129 

200 

190 

129 

100 

Crystals  of  Soda      .        .      Ibs. 

10 

10 

10 

19 

The  above  red  liquors  were  a  short  time  ago  used  in  Mul- 
house,  in  France,  by  one  of  the  most  successful  houses  there; 
they  are  upon  the  plan  laid  down  by  M.  Daniel  Koechlin,  in 
his  celebrated  paper  on  the  Red  Mordant,  in  the  Bulletin  of  the 
Industrial  Society  of  Mulhouse,  1827.  The  alum,  in  a  crushed 
state,  is  dissolved  in  the  water,  heated  to  140° ;  the  crystals  of 
soda  are  next  dissolved  with  stirring,  and  then  the  acetate  of 
lead,  in  coarse  powder,  added,  and  the  whole  well  stirred  for  a 
considerable  time,  and  afterwards  at  intervals  during  two  or 
three  days.  Mr.  Koechlin  states  that,  if  the  crystals  of  soda  are 
added  after  the  sugar  of  lead,  the  liquors  are  neither  so  strong 
nor  so  good.  Nos.  1  and  2  are  common  reds  for  calico.  No.  2 
being  better  adapted  for  a  gum  color  and  for  blocking  than  No. 
1;  Nos.  3  and  4,  strong  mordants,  suitable  for  muslin  or  light 
goods ;  Nos.  5  and  6  will  do  for  garancine,  and  are  suitable  for 
mixing  with  crystals  or  muriate  of  tin  for  forming  a  resist  red. 

Red  Liquors  from  Acetate  of  Lime. 


No.  7.               No.  8. 

Acetate  of  Lime  Liquor  at  24° 
Alnm      
Sulphate  of  Alumina 
Ground  Chalk 

.  galls. 
.      Ibs. 
.     Ibs. 
.      Ibs. 

50                  90 
200                  — 
—               272 
12                34 

On  account  of  the  cheapness  of  acetate  of  lime,  it  is  more 
used  than  acetate  of  lead.  The  above  two  red  liquors  are  put 
together  by  first  heating  the  acetate  of  lime  liquor  in  a  copper 
boiler,  to  a  temperature  of  140°,  then  adding  the  alum  of  sul- 
phate of  alumina,  and  stirring  until  all  the  lumps  have  disap- 
peared ;  and,  lastly,  the  chalk  is  added  by  small  portions  at  a 
time,  to  avoid  loss  by  the  effervescence  which  would  be  caused 
if  all  were  put  in  at  once.  The  whole  is  then  well  stirred  up 
until  nearly  cold,  allowed  to  settle,  the  clear  drawn  off,  and  the 
bottoms  drained  upon  a  woollen  filter  and  washed  with  water 
until  the  washings  fall  as  low  as  2°  Tw.,  when  they  are  not 
worth  washing  any  more.  The  red  liquor,  No.  7,  used  at  20° 


ACETATE   OF  ALUMINA. 


43 


Tw.,  gives  the  darkest  red  obtainable  on  calico  for  madder  and 
garancine;  the  No.  8  liquor,  at  16°  Tw.,  is  used  for  resist  red 
and  for  mixing  with  iron  liquor  to  produce  chocolates  for 
garancine  work,  and  also  reduced  for  light  reds.  These  two 
liquors  are  quite  sufficient  for  the  ordinary  run  of  madder  and 
garancine  work.  I  give  receipts  for  several  other  red  liquors, 
all  of  which  have  been  in  use  to  my  own  knowledge  either  in 
England  or  France. 

Red  Liquors  for  Madder  Pink. 


No.  9. 

No.  10. 

No.  11. 

No.  12. 

No.  13. 

Water        .         .                              galls. 

*4 

1 

20 

3 

60 

Alum          .         .                                Ibs. 

16 

3^ 

75 

13 

125 

Acetate  of  lead  .                                Ibs. 

12 

2* 

— 

10* 

100 

Acetate  of  Lime  (dry)                       Iba. 

— 

30 

— 

Ground  Chalk    .                                  Ibs. 

— 

— 

5 

— 

— 

Common  Salt      .                                  Ibs. 

— 



10 





Nitrate  of  Zinc  15O  Tw.                 galls. 

— 

— 

— 

1 

— 

No.  9  is  for  dark  and  No.  10  for  light  pink,  being  reduced, 
when  used,  with  three  parts  water  to  one  of  liquor;  No.  11  has 
done  good  work,  the  common  salt  having  an  attraction  for 
moisture,  has  a  tendency  to  make  the  color  age  well ;  the  nitrate 
of  zinc,  in  No.  12,  has  a  still  stronger  attraction  for  water,  it  is 
usually  only  added  to  the  color  after  thickening,  as  it  has  a 
tendency  to  make  starch  and  flour  run  thin  if  boiled  with  them. 
No.  13  is  only  for  reducing  for  light  pinks;  it  will  not  give  a 
good  dark  pink. 

Miscellaneous  Red  Liquors. 

No.  14.  !  No.  15.  j  No.  16.     No.  17, 


Water    . 

galls. 

3 

3* 

2J 

1 

Alum     . 

Ibs. 

30 

5 

10 

5 

Acetate  of  Lead 

Ibs. 

29 

5 

7* 

2* 

Vinegar 

galls. 

— 

H 

a* 

Crystals  of  Soda 
Acetate  of  Copper 

Ibs. 
oz. 

- 

- 

i 

12* 

* 

These  are  all  of  French  origin.  No.  14  is  an  excessively  con- 
centrated liquor,  used  for  printing  very  small  objects  required 
to  be  well  defined;  in  making  it  the  drugs  are  finely  ground 
and  mixed  up  without  heat.  No.  15  is  intended  for  pinks  and 
light  reds;  the  water  is  partly  replaced  by  vinegar,  with 
doubtful  advantage.  No.  16  is  intended  for  light  reds;  neither 
theory  nor  practice,  so  far  as  experiments  in  England  go,  indicate 


44  ACETATE   OF  ALUMINA. 

any  use  for  the  acetate  of  copper.  No.  17  is  a  red  liquor  for 
garancines ;  it  will  stand  from  8  to  12  ounces  of  crystals  of  tin 
per  gallon,  and  works  well  for  a  resist  red. 

Re.marTcs  on  making  Red  Liquors. — Red  liquor  is  never  a  pure 
acetate  of  alumina;  it  is  found  by  experience  that  if  the 
quantity  of  acetate  of  lead  or  lime  required  by  theory  to  form 
a  pure  acetate  of  alumina  be  employed,  the  resulting  liquor  is  no 
better  for  giving  colors  than  if  about  two-thirds  of  that 
quantity  were  used,  while  it  is  worse  for  keeping  and  more 
irregular  in  its  results.  Theory  indicates  that  for  every  10  Ibs. 
of  potash  alum,  12  Ibs.  of  white  acetate  of  lead  are  required  to 
change  all  the  alumina  into  acetate  ;  for  ammonia  alum  12  J  Ibs. 
are  required;  and  for  sulphate  of  alumina,  or  patent  alum, 
about  17  Ibs.  would  be  required.  (See  EQUIVALENTS.)  Prac- 
tice has  shown  that  if  three-fourths  only  of  these  amounts  be 
taken,  the  best  results  are  produced.  The  use  of  ground  chalk 
or  crystals  of  soda  consists  of  neutralizing  a  portion  of  free 
acid  and  strengthening  the  mordant.  I  prefer  chalk  to  the 
crystals,  using  about  an  ounce  of  it  for  every  pound  of  alum  ; 
it  has  the.  effect  of  withdrawing  a  portion  of  sulphuric  acid 
from  the  liquor  as  insoluble  sulphate  of  lime,  and  apparently, 
but  not  actually,  decreasing  the  strength  of  the  mordant ; 
crystals  of  soda  neutralize  the  acid  but  leave  the  sulphate  of 
soda  in  the  liquor,  making  it  seemingly  stronger.  I  do  not 
think  that  there  is  any  difference  between  using  potash  or 
ammoniacal  alum,  if  both  are  of  equal  purity  ;  sulphate  of  alu- 
mina requires  special  care,  because  it  is  usually  more  acid  than 
alum,  and  cannot  be  so  easily  made  into  a  first-class  red  liquor. 
Brown  sugar  of  lead  gives  as  good  results  as  the  white,  and 
acetate  of  lime,  if  the  right  proportions  are  known,  will  yield 
excellent  red  liquors. 

Properties  of  Bed  Liquor. — The  commercial  acetate  of  alumina 
or  red  liquor  is  of  a  tawny  or  brown  color,  smells  of  wood  tar 
or  pyroligneous  acid,  has  a  taste  of  alum ;  when  heated  to  about 
160°  it  coagulates,  becoming  nearly  solid  ;  it  liquefies  again 
upon  cooling  ;  thus  reds  often  go  thick  in  boiling  and  thin  upon 
cooling.  It  parts  with  its  alumina  readily  to  cloth,  and  more 
especially  when  the  acetic  acid  is  at  liberty  to  escape  as  it  is 
upon  printed  goods.  The  affinity  of  the  acid  and  alumina  is 
not  strong,  so  that  if  a  quantity  of  red  liquor  be  boiled  to  dry- 
ness  most  of  the  acid  would  leave  the  alumina,  which  would 
not  dissolve  again  in  fresh  water,  hed  liquor  sometimes  loses 
alumina  by  standing.  The  quality  of  red  liquor  for  a  mordant 
can  only  be  satisfactorily  tested  in  the  practical  way,  by  making 
colors  from  it.  By  chemical  analysis,  the  amounts  of  acetic 
acid,  alumina,  sulphuric  acid,  and  other  bodies  can  be  accurately 


ACETATE   OF   INDIGO.  45 

ascertained  when  necessary;  but  this  information  would  give 
no  indication  of  the  value  of  the  liquor  as  a  mordant,  without 
actual  trial. 

Applications  of  Red  Liquor. — Red  liquor  is  used  in  madder 
and  garancine  dyeing  as  a  mordant  for  red  and  pink;  mixed 
with  iron  liquor  it  is  a  mordant  for  shades  of  chocolate ;  in  log- 
wood dyeing,  combined  with  iron  liquor,  it  gives  blacks.  It  is 
used  in  a  few  steam  colors,  and  also  in  silk  and  cotton  piece 
dyeing. 

Acetate  of  Copper,  known  also  as  Verdigris. — The  com- 
mon verdigris  of  commerce  is  a  basic  acetate  of  copper  which 
requires  an  additional  quantity  of  acetic  acid  to  make  it  solu- 
ble in  water.  Crystallized  acetate  of  copper  is  all  soluble 
in  water.  For  calico  printing  purposes  acetate  of  copper  is 
always  used  in  the  liquid  state,  and  is  prepared  by  the  method 
of  double  decomposition  from  a  mixture  of  sulphate  of  copper 
and  acetate  of  lead.  The  following  receipt  gives  a  liquid  ace- 
tate of  copper  suitable  for  catechu  browns  :— 

1  gallon  of  water  at  160°  F., 
4  Ibs.  white  acetate  of  lead, 
4;  Ibs.  sulphate  of  copper. 

The  whole  is  stirred  until  all  lumps  have  dissolved  ;  the  clear 
liquor  only  is  used.  Another  practical  receipt  gives  only  2  Ibs. 
acetate  of  lead  to  4  Ibs.  sulphate  of  copper.  Theoretically,  4  Ibs. 
common  sulphate  of  copper  or  blue  vitriol  require  about  6  Ibs. 
sugar  of  lead ;  so  it  is  evident  that  what  is  called  acetate  of 
copper  in  a  print-works  is  really  a  mixture  of  sulphate  and 
acetate  of  copper. 

Applications. — This  salt  is  chiefly  used  in  catechu  colors,  in 
some  indigo  blue  resists,  and  in  a  few  steam  colors  where  it 
appears  to  exercise  an  oxidizing  action.  It  was  used  in  the 
black  dye  for  silk,  it  forms  the  basis  for  the  Schweinfurt  or 
Scheeles'  green,  and  is  sometimes  prescribed  in  iron  and  red 
liquors,  where  its  utility  seems  doubtful. 

Acetate  of  Indigo. — Under  this  name  a  purified  ex- 
tract of  indigo  is  spoken  of  in  some  dyeing  treatises.  It  is 
prepared  by  taking  common  sulphate  of  indigo,  dissolving  in 
water,  filtering,  and  adding  acetate  of  potash  to  the  filtered 
liquid;  a  precipitate  takes  place,  which  is  called  the  acetate  of 
indigo ;  it  is  in  reality  a  combination  of  potash  with  an  indigo 
acid,  called  sulphindylic  acid  by  Dumas.  This  precipitate  is 
collected  on  a  filter;  and,  if  required  very  pure,  may  be  a 
second  time  precipitated  from  a  watery  solution.  Other  salts 
less  expensive  than  acetate  of  potash  give  similar  results,  such 
as  common  salt  and  sulphate  of  soda.  The  name  of  carmine  of 


46  ACETATE   OF  IRON. 

indigo  is  also  given  to  these  purified  extracts.  They  may  be 
replaced  in  foreign  receipts  by  English  refined  neutral  extract. 
(See  INDIGO.) 

Acetate  of  Iron,  commonly  called  Iron  Liquor,  also  Black 
Liquor,  Pyrolignite  of  Iron,  Tar  Iron  Liquor ;  French,  Bain  noir 
and  Bain  de  fer.— This  liquid,  so  extensively  used  in  dyeing 
and  printing,  is  of  very  ancient  origin ;  but  under  its  present 
form  it  has  only  been  in  use  about  eighty  years.  It  is  made  by 
steeping  old  iron  of  all  sorts,  such  as  hoops,  worn-out  tin  plate, 
etc.,  in  warm  wood  acid  or  pyroligneous  acid,  which  is  an  im- 
pure kind  of  acetic  acid.  By  continually  moving  the  acid,  and 
keeping  up  a  moderate  heat,  the  acid  saturates  itself  with  iron 
in  a  few  days ;  if  not  strong  enough  it  is  concentrated.  For- 
merly the  process  was  worked  cold  in  very  large  vats,  and  lasted 
forty  days  or  more.  Some  color  mixers  consider  that  cold 
made  iron  liquor  is  best.  I  have  found  no  reason  to  think  so. 
The  iron  liquor  is  sent  out  at  various  strengths,  from  18°  to  28° 
Tw. ;  it  is  a  black  fluid  by  reflected  light,  but  in  narrow  bottles 
it  has  a  greenish-olive  color ;  a  peculiar  smell,  chiefly  due  to 
tarry  matters  in  it,  and  an  inky  taste.  Iron  liquor  can  also  be 
made,  by  the  process  of  double  decomposition,  from  sulphate 
of  iron,  or  green  copperas,  and  the  crude  acetate  of  lime.  As 
the  acetate  of  lime  is  a  drug  of  uncertain  strength,  it  will  require 
some  trials  to  find  out  the  best  proportions  to  use.  Here  are 
two  receipts  for  preparing  iron  liquor  in  this  manner.  The 
first  taken  from  Muspratt's  Chemistry  (i.  42)  is  as  follows : — 

400  Ibs.  copperas  dissolved  in 

100  gallons  hot  water,  then  add 

75  gallons  acetate  lime  liquor  at  16°  Tw. 
The  second,  used  by  myself  with  good  results  is  as  follows  :— 

20  gallons  acetate  lime  liquor  at  24°  Tw. 

65  Ibs.  green  copperas, 

2£  gallons  wood  acid,  at  7°  Tw. 

The  acetate  of  lime  liquor  is  heated  to  140°  in  a  copper,  the 
green  copperas  in  coarse  powder  added  and  stirred  till  dis- 
solved, and  then  the  wood  acid;  these  quantities  yield  16  gal- 
lons iron  liquor  at  24°.  There  is  no  economy  in  making  iron 
liquor  in  this  way,  but  it  is  frequently  advantageous  to  be  able 
to  make  various  qualities. 

The  acetate  of  iron  made  from  copperas  and  white  acetate  of 
lead  is  not  so  well  adapted  as  a  mordant  for  dyeing  as  that 
made  from  impure  acetates  containing  tarry  matters.  The  tarry 
matters  appear  useful  by  impeding  the  action  of  the  air  upon 
the  iron,  and  so  enabling  it  to  form  a  close  combination  with 


ACETATE   OF   LEAD.  47 

the  cloth  before  the  oxygen  of  the  air  changes  its  nature.  (See 
AGEING  and  BUFF  LIQUOR.) 

There  is  another  acetate  of  iron  called  the  per  acetate  of  iron, 
but  it  has  not  yet  received  any  applications.  The  essential  salt 
in  iron  liquor  is  the  proto-acetate  of  iron. 

Applications. — Iron  liquor  serves  as  a  mordant  for  madder, 
garancine,  logwood,  and  other  coloring  matters;  its  chief  con- 
sumption is  in  madder,  and  garancine  dyeing.  Iron  liquor  at 
about  6°  Tw.  gives  a  black  with  madder;  from  4°  to  a  very 
diluted  state  it  gives  various  shades  of  purple,  lilac,  or  violet; 
mixed  with  red  liquor  it  gives  chocolates.  In  piece  dyeing  iron 
liquor  is  not  much  used ;  it  serves,  however,  for  all  purposes  in 
which  green  copperas  is  used,  and  will  generally  give  better  and 
quicker  results. 

Iron  liquor  is  best  tested  in  the  practical  way.  Chemical 
analysis  can  determine  exactly  the  quantity  of  acetic  acid,  iron, 
water,  and  other  matters  in  it,  but  cannot  tell  whether  it  will 
give  good  shades  or  not. 

Iran  Liguor  Improvers. — There  are  generally  some  substances 
in  the  market  purporting  to  enable  iron  liquor  to  give  better 
results  when  mixed  with  them.  I  have  made  a  very  great 
number  of  experiments  upon  this  point,  and  have  tried  all  the 
substances  recommended,  but  I  never  found  that  really  good 
iron  liquor  was  improved  by  any  additions.  Arsenic,  under 
various  forms,  and  copper  salts  are  strongly  recommended  by 
French  authorities;  but  upon  good  Lancashire  iron  liquor  they 
do  more  harm  than  good.  M.  Henri  Schlumberger,  in  an  elabo- 
rate paper  in  the  Bulletin  of  Mulhouse  (xiii.  p.  399),  gives  the 
results  of  his  experiments  upon  the  addition  of  various  chemi- 
cal substances  to  iron  liquor.  The  only  decisively  advanta- 
geous results  were  with  the  addition  of  copper  salts,  and  these 
only  when  gum  Senegal  was  used  as  the  thickening;  their 
effect  being  apparently  to  prevent  a  coagulation  to  which  gurn 
Senegal  of  certain  quality  is  liable. 

Acetate  of  Lead,  commonly  called  Sugar  of  Lead,  also 
Salt  of  Saturn. — There  are  two  kinds  of  sugar  of  lead  in  trade, 
called  white  sugar  of  lead  and  brown  sugar  of  lead.  The  white 
is  in  soft  crystalline  lumps,  easily  crushed  and  very  soluble  in 
water.  The  brown  is  usually  in  fused  lumps,  much  more  com- 
pact than  the  white,  of  a  deep  mahogany  color,  does  not  dis- 
solve so  readily  in  water,  and  generally  leaves  a  residue  not 
dissolved.  The  difference  between  the  two  acetates  consists  in 
a  portion  of  tarry  matter  from  the  wood  acid  being  left  in  the 
brown ;  beyond  this  there  is  no  essential  difference.  The  brown 
is,  however,  poorer  in  acetic  acid  than  the  white,  and  somewhat 
richer  in  lead;  so  that  as  a  matter  of  choice  the  white  should 


48  ACETATE   OP   LIME. 

be  used  for  making  acetates,  and  the  brown  for  a  lead  mordant. 
An  analysis  of  two  average  samples  gave  me  the  following 
results : — 

White  Acetate.     Brown  Acetate. 

Acetic  acid         ...        .         .  27.6  21.8 

Oxide  of  lead       ...         .  58.4  59.9 

Water 14.0  15.5 

Insoluble  matter          ...  0.0 

100.0  100.0 

For  the  general  use  of  acetates  their  value  is  in  ratio  of  the 
quantity  of  acetic  acid  present;  the  white  acetate  analyzed 
would  consequently  be  worth  much  more  than  the  brown. 
Sugar  of  lead  may  be  contaminated  with  copper  and  iron,  the 
latter  metal  being  a  dangerous  impurity  when  the  acetate  is 
used  for  red  liquor  mordants.  Impure  white  sugar  of  lead  will 
have  a  reddish  hue  if  it  contains  iron,  and  a  bluish  if  it  contains 
copper;  the  best  method  of  testing  consists  in  adding  sulphuric 
acid  to  throw  down  all  the  lead,  and  then  applying  the  charac- 
teristic tests  for  the  other  metals,  which  are  given  in  their 
proper  places.  Sugar  of  lead  in  the  English  market  is  generally 
free  from  these  metals. 

Applications. — The  chief  use  of  acetate  of  lead  is  in  making 
acetates  of  alumina,  iron,  copper,  and  manganese,  by  the  way  of 
double  decomposition.  On  account  of  the  cheapness  of  acetate 
of  lime,  which  acts  quite  as  well,  it  is  not  so  much  used  as 
formerly.  It  is  used  as  a  mordant  for  chrome  orange  and  in 
several  'indigo  resists. 

Basic  Acetate  of  Lead. — When  acetate  of  lead  is  shaken  up 
with  powdered  litharge  (oxide  of  lead)  it  dissolves  a  portion  of 
it,  forming  what  is  called  basic  or  subacetate  of  lead ;  if  boiled 
together  a  still  greater  portion  of  lead  is  dissolved.  This  com- 
pound has  been  employed  both  as  a  mordant  and  as  a  resist ; 
but  it  has  so  powerful  an  action  in  coagulating  all  kinds  of 
thickenings  that  it  cannot  be  generally  used.  Only  the  darkest 
kind  of  calcined  farina  or  sugar  can  thicken  it  without  curdling. 
Acetate  of  Lime,  known  also  as  the  Pyrolignite  of  Lime. — 
This  compound  is  sold  either  as  a  solid  or  liquid.  In  the  solid 
state  there  are  three  varieties,  called  respectively  white,  gray, 
and  black  acetate.  I  analyzed  samples  of  each,  and  found  in 
one  hundred  parts  of  the  solid  82,  71,  and  69  parts  of  pure 
acetate  of  lime  respectively,  which  was  about  the  ratio  of  the 
prices.  The  liquid  acetate  of  lime  seems  to  be  of  no  particular 
quality,  I  have  found  it  of  all  degrees  of  purity,  and  containing 
muriate  of  lime  or  common  salt,  evidently  to  make  it  stand 


ACETIC  ACID.  49 

higher  on  Twaddle.  Both  in  the  solid  and  liquid  state  acetate 
of  lime  can  only  be  accurately  valued  by  chemical  analysis. 
The  only  use  of  acetate  of  lime  is  in  making  mordants,  for 
which  purpose  it  answers  quite  as  well  as  the  more  expensive 
acetate  of  lead.  If  any  sulphate,  such  as  sulphate  of  iron,  be 
mixed  with  acetate  of  lime,  the  lime  takes  the  sulphuric  acid, 
while  the  acetic  acid  goes  to  the  iron  or  other  metal  previously 
combined  with  the  sulphuric  acid.  The  sulphate  of  lime  being 
insoluble  in  water  settles  down  as  a  pasty  mass,  while  the 
acetate  remains  clear  above. 

Acetate  of  Manganese. — This  compound  has  been  used 
to  a  small  extent  for  bronze  colors  and  for  producing  some 
shades  in  combination  with  catechu.  It  can  be  made  from 
sulphate  of  manganese  or  from  bronze  liquor  (the  chloride  of 
manganese)  by  mixing  with  acetate  of  lead. 

Acetate  of  Soda. — This  compound  can  be  prepared  by 
neutralizing  acetic  acid  with  crystals  of  soda  or  caustic  soda, 
it  is  a  commercial  article,  being  sold  in  small  crystals.  It  is 
very  little  used  ;  for  some  applications  of  it,  see  MUREXIDE  and 
SHADED  STYLES. 

Acetate  of  Tin. — This  compound  has  been  slightly  used 
in  calico  printing.  It  may  be  formed  by  first  making  a 
pulp  of  tin  with  a  mixture  of  muriate  of  tin  and  carbonate  of 
soda,  draining  the  pulp  and  leaving  acetic  acid  upon  it  for 
twenty-four  hours.  Or  it  may  be  made  by  dissolving  2  Ibs. 
crystals  of  tin  in  a  gallon  of  cold  water,  and  mixing  2  Ibs.  ace- 
tate of  soda  and  stirring,  using  all  the  mixture ;  another  way  is 
to  use  acetate  of  lead  instead  of  acetate  of  soda  and  strain  off 
from  the  bottoms. 

Application. — Only  used  in  producing  an  orange  color  in 
garancine  work.  (See  ORANGE.) 

Acetic  Acid,  known  also  as  Vinegar,  Wood  acid,  Pyroligneous 
acid,  Tar  acid,  Acetous  acid,  etc. — Commercial  acetic  acid  is  made 
by  distilling  wood  in  close  retorts  ;  in  its  first  stage  it  is  a  crude 
black  tarry  looking  liquid,  which  is  called  wood  acid  or  pyro- 
ligneous  acid;  by  several  complicated  processes  the  tarry  mat- 
ters or  other  impurities  are  removed  and  the  acid  left  tolerably 
pure.  Acetic  acid  should  be  as  clear  and  colorless  as  water, 
should  leave  no  residue  when  a  portion  is  boiled  away,  should 
not  blacken  a  piece  of  calico  dipped  in  it  when  the  calico  is 
dried  and  made  pretty  warm  by  holding  before  a  fire,  'neither 
should  the  calico  be  tendered ;  if  either  blackened  or  tendered, 
mineral  acids,  as  vitriol  or  spirits  of  salts,  are  present.  It  should 
have  an  agreeable  smell ;  a  particular  mawkish  odor  shows 
some  fault  in  rectification  ;  but  notwithstanding  this,  the  acid 
may  be  still  good  for  manufacturing  purposes.  It  stands  at 


50  ACER  BUBRUM — ACID. 

from  6°  to  9°  Twaddle ;  but  owing  to  a  strange  peculiarity 
about  acetic  acid,  its  value  cannot  be  ascertained  by  the  hydro- 
meter, even  if  no  adulteration  has  been  practised.  The  only 
reliable  method  of  valuing  acetic  acid  consists  in  ascertaining 
how  much  caustic  soda  a  given  weight  will  neutralize  (see 
ACIDIMETRY),  and  testing  for  mineral  acids.  Nitrate  of  silver 
gives  a  precipitate,  not  dissolved  by  nitric  acid,  if  any  muriate 
acid  is  present;  and  chloride  of  barium  gives  a  similar  precipi- 
tate if  sulphuric  acid  is  present.  Average  qualities  of  acetic 
acid  contain  from  18  to  22  per  cent,  of  dry  acetic  acid,  some- 
times going  as  high  as  24.  Crude  pyroligneous  acid  or  wood 
acid,  sometimes  used  in  printing,  contains  only  a  small  per- 
centage of  acid  and  a  large  quantity  of  organic  matter  of  a  tarry 
nature. 

Applications* — Acetic  acid  is  not  largely  used  in  the  dyeing 
arts,  and  its  uses  seem  all  to  depend  upon  its  power  of  keeping 
bodies  in  solution ;  and,  by  volatilizing,  leaving  them  to  their 
own  affinities.  Thus,  in  many  steam  colors  acetic  acid  is  evi- 
dently used  to  restrain  the  coloring  matter  and  metallic  oxide 
present  from  forming  an  insoluble  compound  before  the  color 
gets  on  the  cloth ;  if  the  color  was  not  in  solution  it  would  be 
merely  deposited  on  the  fibre,  and  not  in  it,  as  it  should  be.  In 
many  colors  acetic  acid  prevents  coagulation  and  enables  a 
color  to  work  smooth  in  the  machine  which  would  otherwise 
go  rough  and  curdy.  It  serves  to  form  acetates  by  direct  com- 
bination with  metals  and  oxides. 

Acer  Rubmm,  or  Scarlet  Flowering  ^aple  of  North  America. 
— According  to  Bancroft,  the  bark  of  this  maple  produces  with 
an  aluminous  mordant  a  lasting  cinnamon  color  both  on  wool 
and  cotton  ;  with  iron  mordants,  he  says,  it  gives  a  more  intense 
pure  and  perfect  black  than  even  galls  or  any  other  vegetable 
matter  within  his  knowledge,  and  does  not  stain  whites.  It  is 
not  mentioned  in  more  recent  works  upon  dyeing,  and  has 
probably  never  been  put  to  use. 

Acetometer. — An  instrument  constructed  like  a  hydro- 
meter, but  graduated  for  acetic  acid  only.  On  account  of 
peculiarities  alluded  to  as  attending  the  relation  between  the 
density  and  percentage  of  acid  in  acetic  acid,  the  indications  of 
such  an  instrument  are  not  trustworthy. 

Acid. — An  acid  in  chemistry  originally  signified  anything 
of  a  sour  acid  taste;  it  has  a  wider  meaning  now,  not  easy  to 
give  an  exact  definition  of;  but  an  acid  may  be  characterized 
as  a  body  capable  of  forming  combinations  with  metals  and 
bases,  which  combinations  are  called  salts.  Many  of  the  acids 
in  chemistry  are  insoluble  in  water  and  have  no  taste,  but  all 
the  common  acids  are  sour  to  the  taste.  A  compound  is  said 


ACIDIMETRY.  51 

to  be  acid  or  to  have  an  acid  reaction  when  blue  litmus  paper 
dipped  into  it  is  turned  red.  Acidity  is  neutralized  or  destroyed 
by  the  alkalies  as  potash,  soda,  or  ammonia,  or  by  lime  or  chalk. 
An  acid  in  printing  is  some  composition  for  resisting  or  dis- 
charging mordants  or  colors,  most  of  which  are  strongly  acid, 
but  some  are  compounded  of  salts  and  acids,  and  some  are  not 
acid  at  all ;  the  latter  are,  however,  generally  distinguished  as 
"  neutral  pastes,"  "  mild  paste,"  etc.  For  an  account  of  the 
different  acids  in  practical  use,  see  their  distinctive  names  as 
CITRIC  ACID,  SULPHURIC  ACID,  etc. 

Acidimetry,  or  the  testing  and  valuation  of  acids. — The 
hydrometer  of  Twaddle,  though  a  most  valuable  instrument, 
sometimes  leads  to  wrong  conclusions  upon  the  strength  of 
liquids.  The  instrument  will  only  show  the  density ;  and 
though  there  is  in  general  a  direct  relation  between  the  density 
of  a  liquid  and  the  quantity  of  solid  matter  it  contains,  it  is 
evident  that  no  instrument  can  be  expected  to  show  what  kind 
of  matter  it  is  that  gives  the  density.  Thus  take  acetic  acid 
at  8°  Tw.  and  mix  it  with  an  equal  bulk  of  water,  it  will  only 
mark  4°  ;  but  by  adding  common  salt  to  this  weak  acid,  it  will 
be  brought  to  mark  8°  again,  and  as  far  as  the  hydrometer 
shows,  it  is  as  strong  an  acid  as  before.  The  practical  method 
of  testing  acids  is  to  ascertain  how  much  carbonate  of  soda  or 
caustic  soda  a  given  weight  of  acid  can  neutralize,  and  the  pro- 
cess may  be  conducted  as  follows :  Take  good  crystals  of  soda 
neither  damp  nor  white  from  dryness — the  points  of  the  large 
crystals  are  very  likely  to  be  quite  pure  and  should  be  selected 
in  preference — crush  them  into  coarse  powder  and  keep  in  a 
closely  corked  or  stoppered  bottle ;  this  forms  an  alkaline  test 
powder  of  a  constant  and  definite  strength.  Suppose  the  object 
is  to  test  the  strength  of  a  sample  of  nitric  acid,  a  certain 
quantity,  say  100  grains,  is  accurately  weighed  out  and  trans- 
ferred into  a  porcelain  capsule  and  mixed  with  a  couple  of 
ounces  of  water,  a  few  drops  of  solution  of  blue  litmus  are 
added  to  give  the  liquor  a  red  tinge;  next  a  quantity  of  the 
crushed  crystals  of  soda  is  weighed,  such  a  quantity  is  taken  as 
is  assumed  to  be  more  than  the  acid  experimented  upon  will 
require,  say  300  grains,  and  without  removing  the  bulk  from 
the  dish  or  watch-glass  in  which  it  was  weighed,  small  portions 
are  taken  off  with  a  knife  and  put  into  the  acid  until  the  red 
color  begins  to  change  towards  blue;  for  greater  exactness  it 
is  desirable  to  have  the  liquor  hot,  and  towards  the  end  boiling, 
for  then  the  change  of  color  is  more  satisfactorily  seen  ;  by 
weighing  what  is  left  of  the  soda  crystals  and  deducting  it  from 
the  original  quantity,  the  amount  used  is  ascertained.  The 
stronger  the  acid  the  more  soda  crystals  are  required,  and  the 


52  ADJECTIVE   COLORS— AGEING. 

weaker  the  less ;  so  that  without  any  further  reference  it  is  easy 
to  tell  which  of  two  acids  is  the  strongest,  and  how  much  one 
is  stronger  than  the  other.  I  have  compiled  a  table  which  in- 
cludes the  chief  acids  in  use,  and  by  referring  to  which,  it  will 
be  easy  to  calculate  the  percentage  of  any  of  the  acids  tested. 
The  figures  show  the  decimal  parts  of  a  grain  of  pure  acid 
which  is  neutralized  by  a  single  grain  of  crystals  of  soda,  so 
many  grains  of  crystals  that  100  grains  of  the  sample  under 
examination  has  taken  so  many  times  this  decimal  quantity  is 
its  percentage  of  real  acid. 

One  grain  of  crystals  of  soda  neutralize — 

0.36  gr.  of  Acetic  acid  dry  and  pure. 

0.38  "      Citric  acid 

0.26  "      Muriatic  acid     " 

0.38  "      Nitric  acid 

0.25  "      Oxalic  acid         " 

0.28  "      Sulphuric  acid  "             " 

0.46  "      Tartaricacid     " 

If,  for  example,  100  grains  of  a  sample  of  spirits  of  salts  or 
muriatic  acid  had  required  120  grains  of  crystals  to  neutralize 
them,  the  percentage  of  pure  muriatic  acid  would  be  found 
by  multiplying  0.26  by  120,  the  result  being  31.2;  and  so  on 
with  the  other  acids.  The  percentage  is  for  the  pure  dry,  or 
as  it  is  called  in  scientific  books,  anhydrous  acid. 

For  most  purposes  of  acidimetry  a  solution  of  caustic  soda, 
as  a  test  alkali,  is  preferable  to  the  powdered  crystals  of  soda, 
and  more  especially  with  acetic  acid ;  but  the  preparation  of  an 
accurate  test  liquor  of  caustic  soda  requires  great  care  and  many 
precautions,  for  which  I  refer  to  works  on  analytical  chemistry. 
The  method  detailed  above  is  perfectly  practicable,  and  gives 
results  close  enough  for  most  practical  purposes. 

Adjective  Colors. — A  term  used  by  Bancroft,  and  after 
him  by  other  writers  upon  dyeing.  It  signifies  colors  which 
can  only  be  fixed  by  means  of  a  mordant,  in  contradistinction 
to  other  coloring  matters  which  are  fixed  without  mordants, 
and  which  he  called  substantive,  colors.  Madder  is  an  adjective 
color,  and  indigo  and  safflower  are  substantive  colors. 

Adrianople  Red,— The  same  as  TURKEY  RED,  which  see. 

Aerugo. — An  old  name  for  VERDIGRIS,  found  in  some  old 
receipts.  ^  Thomson  says  it  signifies  carbonate  of  copper. 

Agaric. — A  kind  of  fungus  or  mushroom  growing  on  putre- 
fying rank  vegetation  ;  gives  a  black  dye  with  copperas. 

Ageing  ;  known  also  as  Staving  or  Hanging.  The  operation 
of  exposing  printed  or  mordanted  goods  to  the  action  of  the 


AGEING.  53 

air.  Formerly  the  ageing  or  hanging  rooms  were  kept  hot  by 
flues  or  steam  pipes,  whence  called  stoves,  a  name  which  they 
still  retain  in  some  places,  though  heat  may  not  be  used.  Stoves 
proper  are  for  simply  drying  heavy  piece  goods  which  retain 
too  much  water  to  be  well  dried  over  the  ordinary  steam  dry- 
ing tins.  Ageing  is  mainly  intended  for  moistening  printed  or 
padded  goods  which  have  been  dried  over  the  steam  chests  of 
the  printing  machine.  The  necessity  for  ageing  can  be  proved 
by  a  simple  experiment ;  take  a  fent  printed  in  dark  red,  black, 
and  a  light  shade  of  purple,  straight  from  the  drying  tins  or 
steam  chests  of  the  printing  machine,  and  having  divided  it 
into  two  equal  parts,  hang  one  up  in  a  cool  airy  place,  and  the 
other  one  dung  and  dye  in  the  usual  manner;  after  three  days, 
dung  and  dye  the  first  portion  in  a  similar  way;  the  difference 
of  appearance  will  be  considerably  in  favor  of  the  aged  or  ex- 
posed part,  the  unexposed  fent  will  have  light  uneven  reds,  the 
blacks  will  be  rusty  and  dull,  while  the  light  purple,  though 
inferior,  will  show  the  least  difference  in  the  two  fents.  The 
exposure  to  air  has  the  effect  of  fixing  more  mordant  upon 
the  cloth,  and  fixing  it  more  regularly.  If  we  inquire  what  the 
nature  of  this  action  of  the  air  is,  we  shall  find  that  it  is  for 
the  most  part  attributable  to  the  vapor  or  steam  of  water  which 
naturally  exists  in  air,  and  that  the  effect  of  this  vapor  is  to 
soften  the  dry  color  or  mordant,  to  make  it  moist,  and  thus  to 
come  into  closer  contact  with  the  fibre  of  the  cloth  and  enter 
into  combination  with  it.  That  it  is  the  moisture  of  the  air 
more  than  anything  else  which  acts  in  ageing,  is  proved  by  the 
fact  that  in  dry  air  ageing  never  takes  place  perfectly ;  in  a 
long  frost  the  air  gets  very  dry,  all  the  water  is  frozen  out  of 
it,  and  then  there  is  a  complete  stop  to  ageing ;  on  the  other 
hand,  steam  carefully  admitted  to  the  hanging  rooms  hastens 
the  ageing  very  much.  The  quick  system  of  ageing  introduced 
within  these  three  years,  simply  consists  in  passing  the  pieces 
through  a  machine  full  of  warm  and  very  moist  air,  so  that 
the  mordant  receives  all  the  moisture  it  possibly  can  in  two  or 
three  minutes.  If  the  pieces  are  folded  up  in  this  soft  state  the 
ageing  goes  on  rapidly  without  exposing  to  air,  proving  that 
all  that  is  actually  requisite  is  a  thorough  moistening  of  the 
color  and  a  soaking  of  it  into  the  cloth.  During  the  penetra- 
tion of  the  color  some  chemical  changes  take  place:  the  fibre 
does  not  combine  with  all  the  mordant  as  it  is  printed  on,  but 
only  with  a  portion  of  it ;  thus,  acetate  of  iron  is  printed  on 
for  blacks  and  purples,  the  cloth  only  combines  with  the  iron, 
not  with  the  acetic  acid;  and  as  acetic  acid,  when  set  free  from 
the  iron,  takes  the  vaporous  form,  it  escapes  from  the  cloth.and 
is  carried  away  by  the  currents  of  air.  If  the  printed  cloth  be 


54  AGEING  LIQUOR. 

packed  so  close  that  the  air  cannot  circulate  freely  between  the 
pieces,  then  the  acetic  acid  cannot  escape,  and  bad  uneven  work 
is  produced.  If  the  acetic  acid  escapes  at  one  part  it  is  retained 
at  another,  and  the  vapor  of  that  which  does  escape  will  some- 
times condense  on  other  parts,  removing  some  mordant  and 
producing  uneven  colors.  In  light  colors,  as  madder  lilacs  and 
pale  reds,  the  greatest  portion  of  acetic  acid  escapes  on  the 
steam  chests  just  after  the  piece  has  left  the  printing  machine, 
because  there  is  but  little  to  escape;  but  in  blacks,  dark  reds, 
and  chocolates,  especially  in  heavy  blotch  colors,  there  is  a 
great  deal  of  acetic  acid  still  in  the  color  on  the  piece  which 
must  escape  in  order  to  yield  a  good  mordant.  Hence  these 
colors  require  a  longer  ageing  than  lighter  colors ;  they  require 
more  room,  a  freer  circulation  of  air,  and,  if  passed  through 
the  ageing  machine,  should  not  be  afterwards  laid  in  folds  but 
hung  up  freely  to  the  air.  Another  chemical  action  accompa- 
nies ageing,  and  this  is  oxidation.  It  only  affects  mordants  of 
iron,  and  those  in  a  very  insignificant  degree,  so  that  experi- 
ments made  by  ageing  iron  mordanted  cloth  in  gases  contain- 
ing no  oxygen  show  as  good  results  as  those  aged  in  air  or  pure 
oxygen ;  that  iron  mordants  do  absorb  oxygen  there  is  no  doubt, 
but  this  appears  the  least  important  result  of  ageing.  Some 
colors  require  the  absorption  of  oxygen  to  make  them  yield 
their  best  shades;  catechu  colors,  as  printed  for  dyeing  in 
garancine  and  madder,  imperatively  demand  oxygen,  and  their 
ageing  cannot  be  forced  with  safety;  steam  blues  have  a  very 
light  shade  when  just  steamed,  and  take  twenty-four  hours 
hanging  to  give  them  their  best  color;  this  is  a  result  of  oxida- 
tion, but  oxidation  in  this  case  is  generally  forced  by  passing 
the  pieces  through  bichromate  of  potash  or  other  oxidizing 
solutions.  Indigo  blue  dipping  is  an  example  of  the  action  of 
the  oxygen  of  air  upon  colors ;  as  the  piece  rises  from  the  vat 
it  is  yellowish,  the  moment  it  touches  the  air  it  becomes  green, 
and  in  a  short  time  blue ;  the  intermediate  green  shade  is  due 
to  the  admixture  of  the  original  yellow  and  the  newly-formed 
blue. 

Ageing  Liquor. — Under  the  name  of  ageing  liquor  seve- 
ral compounds  have  been  sold ;  the  best  that  I  have  seen  was 
composed  of  chlorate  of  potash  and  arsenite  of  soda.  It  may 
be  prepared  in  the  following  quantities : — 

20  Ibs.  caustic  soda,  at  60°  Tw., 
20  Ibs.  white  arsenic,  in  powder. 

Boil  until  all  the  arsenic  has  dissolved ;  this  forms  the  arse- 
nite of  soda  liquor.  Make  a  solution  of  chlorate  of  potash,  by 
dissolving  3  Ibs.  of  it  in  4  galls,  water,  and  add  arsenite  of  soda 


AIR— ALBUMEN.  55 

liquor  to  it  until  it  stands  at  28°  Tw.  This  takes  about  three 
pints.  One  gallon  of  this  liquor  added  to  16  gallons  of  garan- 
cine  chocolate  will  enable  the  iron  to  fix  with  a  few  hours'  age, 
instead  of  three  or  four  days;  but  experience  shows  that  it  is 
not  regular  in  its  results,  and  not  to  be  depended  upon.  It  is 
no  assistance  to  blacks  or  reds  in  ageing. 

Air. — The  common  air  is  mainly  composed  of  two  gases, 
which  have  very  different  properties.  If  a  piece  of  phosphorus 
be  fixed  with  a  wire  at  the  bottom  of  a  bottle  and  the  bottle  be 
turned  upside  down,  with  its  neck  standing  in  water,'it  will  be 
found  in  24  hours  that  a  portion  of  the  air  has  been  absorbed 
by  the  phosphorus,  and  water  has  been  drawn  up  in  correspond- 
ing quantity.  Out  of  every  100  parts  of  air,  21  parts  will  have 
disappeared,  neither  more  nor  less;  now,  upon  examining  the 
air  left  in  the  bottle,  it  is  found  to  be  quite  different  to  the 
original  air ;  if  a  lighted  candle  be  lowered  in  the  bottle  it  will 
be  extinguished,  and  if  a  mouse  or  bird  were  put  in  it  they 
would  die  almost  immediately.  The  79  per  cent,  of  noxious  air 
left  behind  is  called  nitrogen,  and  the  21  percent,  of  vital  air 
absorbed  by  the  phosphorus  is  called  oxygen.  Whenever  the 
air  acts  chemically  upon  matters  it  is  the  oxygen  which  acts, 
and  a  body  so  acted  upon  is  said  to  be  oxidized,  it  having  ab- 
sorbed or  combined  with  oxygen.  Nitrogen  seems  to  have  no 
chemically  active  properties.  There  is  also  in  the  air  a  small 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  the  actions  of  which  in  dyeing  or 
printing  are  too  small  to  be  reckoned  of  any  value.  In  towns, 
other  gases  are  found  in  the  air  resulting  from  the  combustion 
of  fuel,  the  putrefaction  of  animal  remains,  &c.;  and  although 
these  things  spoil  the  air  so  greatly  for  respiration,  they  never 
form  so  much  as  one  part  in  a  hundred  of  it.  Water,  in  a  state 
of  vapor,  is  constantly  present  in  the  air,  but  in  variable  pro- 
portion; generally  more  in  summer  than  in  winter,  and  more  with 
westerly  winds  than  with  winds  from  the  east ;  the  vapor  of 
water  does  not  in  the  least  interfere  with  the  clearness  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  there  is  frequently  more  in  the  clear  air  of  a 
summer  day  than  in  a  winter  fog.  Its  action  upon  mordants 
has  been  explained  in  AGEING,  and  further  information  will  be 
found  under  HYGROMETER.  For  bleaching  power  possessed 
by  air,  reference  must  be  made  to  BLEACHING,  OXYGEN,  and 
OZONE. 

Albumen,  or  White  of  Egg ;  also  Fish  and  Blood  Albumen. — 
The  glairy  white  of  eggs  has  long  been  known  as  albumen,  and 
from  time  immemorial  has  been  applied  as  a  vehicle  of  colors 
and  a  varnish  in  the  fine  arts,  but  only  applied  to  calico  print- 
ing within  the  last  twenty-five  years.  Besides  eggs,  a  kind  of 
albumen  is  obtainable  from  blood,  and  also  from  the  roe  or  eggs 


56  ALCOHOL. 

of  fishes.  The  character  which  distinguishes  albumen  from  all 
other  animal  matters  is  its  property  of  coagulating  by  heat.  If 
fluid  white  of  egg  be  heated  it  begins  to  set  at  about  140°  F.,  and 
at  the  boiling  point  of  water  it  becomes  solid.  This  coagulum 
does  not  become  fluid  upon  cooling,  nor  is  it  capable  of  being 
dissolved  by  water;  only  strong  acids  and  alkalies  can  again 
reduce  it  to  the  fluid  condition,  and  that  only  by  altering  or 
destroying  its  principal  properties.  Commercial  egg  albumen 
is  simply  the  white  of  eggs  dried  by  a  slow  heat ;  in  dissolving 
it  for  use  the  water  should  be  cold  or  not  warmer  than  90°  or 
100°  F.,  if  hotter  the  albumen  will  be  coagulated  and  injured. 
Albumen  is  used  in  calico  printing  for  two  purposes:  first,  as  a 
vehicle  for  printing  and  fixing  pigment  colors,  such  as  ultra- 
marine blue;  and  secondly,  as  a  mordant  for  some  few  colors 
like  the  mauve  or  aniline  purple.  For  the  pigment  colors  it 
is  the  coagulable  power  alone  of  albumen  which  is  valuable; 
when  stemmed  the  albumen  is  coagulated,  becomes  solid  and  in- 
soluble in  water,  grasping  the  fibre  with  a  closeness  and  tenacity 
which  fastens  all  colors  it  is  mixed  with,  and  closely  resembles 
an  actual  combination.  As  a  mordant,  albumen  has  but  few  appli- 
cations: when  coagulated  it  shows  an  affinity  for  all  coloring 
matters,  but  with  most  gives  only  dull  and  worthless  shades. 
Alkalies  injure  or  prevent  the  coagulation  of  albumen;  acids 
and  metallic  salts  cause  it  to  coagulate  in  the  cold;  acetic  acid 
and  phosphoric  acid  are  exceptions.  In  using  albumen  it  is 
frequently  mixed  with  gum  water;  up  to  a  certain  extent  it  will 
stand  this,  but  there  are  bounds  which  if  passed  cause  pigment 
colors  so  applied  to  wash  out.  Ammonia,  oil,  and  turpentine 
may  be  used  in  moderation  to  enable  the  albumen  to  work 
smooth  and  keep  longer.  The  salt  called  sulphite  of  soda  added 
to  dissolved  albumen  will  keep  it  sweet  for  a  much  longer  time 
than  without  this  addition.  About  four  pounds  of  egg  albumen 
to  a  gallon  of  water,  brought  to  a  suitable  consistency  with 
gum,  will  give  good  results  for  pigment  colors.  Blood  albu- 
men of  good  quality  works  even  better  than  egg  albumen ;  but 
it  is  more  liable  to  irregularity  in  quality,  often  containing  a 
considerable  portion  of  insoluble  matter.  (See  further  ANI- 

MAL1ZATION,  PlGMENT  COLORS,  and  L.ACTARINE.) 

Alcohol,  commonly  called  Spirits  of  Wine,  Methylated  Spi- 
rits.— The  low  price  of  methylated  spirits,  which  is  alcohol 
mixed  with  10  per  cent,  of  wood  naphtha,  renders  it  probable 
that  several  uses  will  be  found  for  it  in  dyeing  and  printing. 
It  is  already  much  used  for  dissolving  the  coloring  matters 
from  aniline.  Generally  speaking  coloring  matters  are  more 
soluble  in  alcohol  than  in  water,  and  several  dissolve  easily  in 
it  which  cannot  be  touched  by  water.  It  dissolves  resinous 


ALDER   BARK — ALIZARINE.  57 

bodies  and  partially  greasy  and  fatty  bodies;  solution  of  shellac 
in  methylated  spirits  is  used  in  finishing  velvets  and  velveteens, 
in  some  colors  for  printing  the  spirit  is  also  used.  It  is  very 
inflammable,  both  itself  and  its  vapor. 

Alder  Bark  (Betuna  Alnus). — This  bark  is  used  in  several 
parts  of  the  world  as  one  of  the  materials  for  dyeing  black 
along  with  copperas  or  iron  liquor;  it  serves  to  economize  galls, 
and  seems  to  yield  satisfactory  results.  With  tin  and  aluminous 
mordants  it  gives  brownish-yellow  or  orange  shades  of  no  par- 
ticular value.  It  is  used  in  combination  with  sumac,  logwood, 
and  fustic,  in  some  receipts  for  brown  fixed  with  copperas. 

Alloxan  and  Alloxantine  are  chemical  compounds  pro- 
duced during  the  manufacture  of  murexide  or  Eoman  purple. 
They  are  both  colorless,  but  on  exposure  to  air  and  ammo- 
niacal  vapors  they  assume  a  fine  red  color.  Woollen  cloth 
dipped  in  solution  of  either  of  these  bodies  becomes  colored 
of  a  deep  and  beautiful  purplish-red  by  hanging  in  air  contain- 
ing ammonia,  or  by  passing  over  a  heated  iron;. it  is  not  a  very 
durable  color.  (See  MUREXIDE.) 

Algaroba. — A  coloring  matter  yielding  brown  and  other 
dark  colors,  apparently  of  an  astringent  nature,  is  described 
under  this  name.  It  is  obtained  from  Buenos  Ayres,  and  is 
called  after  the  name  of  the  tree  from  which  it  is  obtained.  Ac- 
cording to  the  description  of  the  imported  product,  it  resembles 
catechu  in  appearance. 

Alizarine. — Alizarine  is  the  name  of  the  pure  coloring 
matter  of  madder.  It  can  be  obtained  in  beautiful  needle-shaped 
crystals  of  an  orange  red  color.  These  crystals  when  properly 
dissolved  are  capable  of  dyeing  up  all  the  colors  which  mad- 
der root  itself  dyes,  and  it  is  consequently  considered  that  aliza- 
rine is  the  real  coloring  principle  of  madder.  Pure  alizarine 
is  not  yet  an  article  of  commerce. 

Commercial  Alizarine  is  a  concentrated  preparation  of  madder, 
first  prepared  by  Messrs.  Pincoffs  and  Schunck.  Their  patented 
process  consists  in  washing  madder  so  as  to  free  it  from  soluble 
and  non-coloring  principles,  and  then  exposing  it  to  the  action 
of  high-pressure  steam  for  a  certain  period.  The  product  dyes 
up  first  class  purples,  does  not  dye  up  blacks  very  well  without 
assistance  from  garancine  or  logwood,  is  not  well  adapted  for 
pinks  or  reds,  it  hardly  stains  the  whites,  and  pieces  can  be  very 
well  cleared  without  soap.  The  name  of  alizarine  is  now  fre- 
quently given  in  the  market  to  qualities  of  garancine  fitted  to 
dye  purples;  sometimes  the  so-called  alizarine  is  simply  garan- 
cine mixed  with  ground  chalk,  but  generally  it  is  garancine 
finished  off  in  a  peculiar  manner.  After  washing  from  the  acid 
the  garancine  is  boiled  in  very  dilute  caustic  soda  for  some  time,. 
5 


5S  ALKALI— ALKALIMETRY. 

and  then  a  quantity  of  muriate  of  lime  added;  this  has  the 
effect  of  precipitating  a  quantity  of  lime  in  a  very  minute  state  • 
of  division  all  through  the  garancine.  In  France,  I  believe, 
garancines  intended  for  purples  are  neutralized  before  taking 
from  the  washer  by  means  of  milk  of  lime.  The  presence  of 
lime  in  some  form  or  other  appears  beneficial  to  purple  dyeing. 

Alkali, — An  alkali  is  the  opposite  to  an  acid,  which  it  can 
neutralize  or  kill;  alkalies  turn  red  litmus  blue,  and  yellow 
turmeric  brown.  Potash,  soda,  ammonia,  and  lime  are  alkalies. 

Alkalimetry. — This  term  signifies  the  measuring  or  testing 
of  alkalies,  such  as  potash,  soda  ash,  soda  crystals,  etc.  Very- 
complete  and  accurate  methods  are  to  be  found  in  good  chemi- 
cal treatises;  but  as  a  method  suitable  for  practical  men,  the  fol- 
jjowing  will  be  found  to  answer:  Procure  a  quantity  of  pure 
oxalic  acid,  a  fair  quality  of  commercial  acid  is  usually  pure 
enough,  if  not  moist;  powder  it  and  keep  it  in  a  well-corked 
bottle.  When  going  to  test  a  sample  of  soda  ash  or  other 
alkali,  weigh  out  first  100  grains  of  the  alkaline  substance  and 
dissolve  it  in  water,  then  weigh  out  100  grains  of  the  powdered 
oxalic  acid  in  a  watch  glass  or  little  dish,  and  with  a  knife  blade 
or  thin  strip  of  metal  keep  putting  portions  of  the  acid  to  the 
alkali  until  it  is  neutralized,  which  can  be  ascertained  by  test 
paper  or  by  solution  of  litmus.  Now  weigh  the  oxalic  acid 
that  is  left,  and  note  how  much  it  has  taken  to  neutralize  the 
sample  of  alkali.  The  more  acid  it  takes  the  stronger  the  ash, 
and  the  less  acid  it  takes  the  weaker  it  is.  The  comparative 
value  of  any  two  samples  of  potash,  soda  ash,  ammonia,  etc. 
can  be  pretty  closely  ascertained  by  this  method.  By  consult- 
ing the  following  table  the  actual  percentage  of  soda,  potash, 
ammonia  in  a  sample  of  alkali  may  be  found  from  the  quantity 
of  oxalic  acid  it  has  taken  to  neutralize  the  alkali;  because  the 
oxalic  acid  is  of  constant  composition,  and  will  always  neutral- 
ize just  the  same  amount  of  an  alkali. 

One  grain  of  oxalic  acid  neutralizes. 

0.75  grain  pure  caustic  potash, 

0.60     "      pure  caustic  soda, 

0.27     "      pure  ammonia, 

0.84     "      pure  carbonate  of  soda, 

1.10     "      pure  carbonate  of  potash. 

If  100  grains  of  a  sample  of  soda  ash  had  taken  96  grains  of 
oxalic  acid,  the  percentage  of  caustic  soda  would  be  obtained 
by  multiplying  this  figure  by  0.5,  showing  48  percent.;  by 
multiplying  the  same  figure  by  0.84,  we  obtain  80.6  as  the  per- 
centage of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  so  on,  using  the  other  figures 
in  case  of  testing  potash  or  ammonia. 


ALKALINE— ALKALINE  PINK   MORDANT.  59 

Alkaline. — Having  the  properties  of  an  alkali,  of  caustic 
soda  for  example,  though  these  properties  may  be  very  weak. 
A  substance  is  said  to  have  an  alkaline  reaction  when  it  turns 
red  litmus  paper  blue.  If  caustic  soda  be  poured  into  lime 
juice,  the  first  portions  are  neutralized  by  the  acid,  and  the 
liquor  tastes  acid  and  reddens  blue  litmus  paper.  A  stage  is 
reached  when  all  the  acid  properties  of  the  juice  are  hidden 
and  also  the  alkaline  properties  of  the  soda ;  the  liquor  is  then 
neutral,  neither  acid  nor  alkaline;  the  addition  of  a  further 
quantity  of  soda  makes  the  liquid  alkaline,  it  now  tastes  like 
weak  soda  and  turns  red  litmus  blue.  Borax,  phosphate  of 
soda,  silicate  of  soda,  and  numerous  other  salts  are  said  to  be 
salts  of  an  alkaline  reaction,  because  their  solutions  turn  red 
litmus  blue. 

Alkaline  Pink  Mordant,  or  Aluminate  of  Potash.— This 
mordant  is  a  solution  of  alumina  in  caustic  potash.  If  a  strong 
clear  solution  of  alum  be  put  in  a  glass  and  strong  caustic  pot- 
ash added  by  degrees,  the  first  result  will  be  the  precipitation 
of  the  aluminous  basis  in  the  form  of  a  pulp  ;  by  addition  of 
a  further  quantity  of  potash  this  pulp  dissolves  up  to  a  clear 
fluid,  which  may  be  called  aluminate  of  potash,  being  actually 
a  solution  of  the  alumina  in  the  excess  of  potash  used.  On 
the  large  scale  this  mordant  is  prepared  by  taking  strong  caus- 
tic potash,  making  it  hot  in  a  copper  or  iron  boiler,  and  adding 
to  it  crushed  alum  or  sulphate  of  alumina,  stirring  well.  The 
following  proportions  will  be  found  to  yield  good  results  :  — 

Alkaline  Mordant  for  Dark  Pink. 

40  gallons  caustic  potash  at  54°  Tw., 
140  Ibs.  sulphate  of  alumina. 

The  sulphate  of  alumina  added  by  portions,  and  finally  the 
whole  boiled  for  twenty  minutes.  It  should  yield  about  45 

fallons  of  liquor,  at  from  32°  to  36°  Tw.,  which,  thickened  with 
ark  British  gum  or  calcined  farina,  will  yield  full  dark  pinks 
when  properly  fixed  and  dyed. 

Alkaline  Mordant  for  Light  Pinks. 

50  gallons  caustic  potash  at  41°, 
180  Ibs.  potash  alum. 

Dissolved  in  the  same  manner ;  liquor  should  stand  at  about 
30°  Tw.,  to  be  reduced  according  to  shade.  The  chief  bulk  of 
common  alum  is  ammoniacal,  and  will  not  do  for  making  this 
mordant.  This  mordant  does  not  fasten  upon  the  cloth  with- 
out some  fixing  agent ;  the  fixing  matter  is  usually  mixed  with 


60  ALKANET — ALUM. 

the  dung  in  dunging ;  sal  ammoniac  is  the  most  certain  mate- 
rial to  use,  muriate  of  zinc  has  also  been  used.  (See  PINK.) 

Alkanet,  Alkanea  ;  orcantte. — This  is  a  root  growing  in 
warm  climates;  it  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  coloring 
matter  of  a  resinous  nature  which  is  not  dissolved  by  water, 
but  is  readily  extracted  by  oil,  turpentine,  bisulphide  of  carbon, 
alcohol,  and  similar  solvents.  It  was  used  by  the  ancients  for 
dyeing  wool ;  its  principal  consumption  now  is  in  tinting  oils 
of  a  pinkish-lilac  color.  Dissolved  in  alcohol  and  mixed  with 
water  it  dyes  cotton  mordanted  with  alumina  of  an  agreeable 
bluish-lilac;  with  iron  mordants  it  gives  darker  shades.  It  is 
not  a  fast  color,  and  is  only  a  little  used  for  dyeing  sewing 
thread  and  cotton.  Its  pure  coloring  matter  is  called  ANCHU- 
SINE. 

Aloetic  Acid. — An  acid  derived  from  aloes,  and  which 
seems  capable  of  yielding  some  good  colors,  but  not  yet  ap- 
plied. 

Aloes. — The  aloes  which  are  used  in  medicine  when  treated 
with  nitric  acid  undergo  some  change,  and  communicate  a  pnr- 
ple  color  to  silk  and  woollen  cloth,  which  appears  to  have  a 
fair  amount  of  fastness.  A  process  for  obtaining  this  color 
was  patented  January  26,  1847,  but  I  am  not  aware  that  it  has 
even  been  practically  applied.  (See  CHRYSAMMIC  ACID.) 

Alloy. — The  mixture  of  two  metals  is  called  an  alloy,  ex- 
cept when  mercury  or  quicksilver  is  one,  when  the  compound 
is  called  an  amalgam.  The  alloy  used  for  block  work  is  usu- 
ally made  by  melting  together  equal  weights  of  bismuth,  tin, 
and  lead  ;  it  melts  at  a  low  temperature,  and  when  cold  resists 
pressure  tolerably  well. 

Alterant.— Term  invented  by  Bancroft,  to  designate  any 
substance  employed  to  modify  or  change  the  hue  of  a  dyed 
color ;  as  for  example,  cotton  mordanted  in  tin  and  dyed  in 
logwood,  acquires  a  very  dull  color,  but  if  passed  through  weak 
chloride  of  tin  it  assumes  its  proper  violet  color;  the  chloride 
of  tin  last  used  would  be  called  an  alterant.  Alum,  acids,  soda, 
ammonia,  and  other  bodies  may  thus  at  times  become  alterants 
by  altering  or  changing  shades  already  produced.  The  term 
"  raising,"  very  frequently  used  in  dye-houses,  sometimes  ex- 
presses the  use  of  alterants,  but  has  more  frequently  a  wider 
signification. 

Alum.— There  are  two  kinds  of  alum  besides  the  patent 
alum,  which  is  more  correctly  called  sulphate  of  alumina.  The 
old  kind  of  alum,  called  potash  alum,  is  a  double  salt,  com- 
pounded of  sulphate  of  alumina  and  sulphate  of  potash  ;  it  is 
frequently  called  rock  or  roach  alum  and  Eoman  alum.  The 
other  kind  of  alum  is  called  ammonia  alum,  and  is  compounded 


ALUMINA.  61 

of  sulphate  of  alumina  and  sulphate  of  ammonia.  There  is  no 
distinguishing  between  these^two  kinds  of  alum  by  their  ex- 
ternal appearances ;  they  have  the  same  shape  of  crystal,  the 
same  taste  and  solubility ;  but  they  can  be  easily  tested  by 
means  of  caustic  soda  or  potash,  for  when  the  ammonia  alum 
is  mixed  with  caustic  it  gives  off  a  strong  smell  of  ammonia, 
while  the  potash  alum  gives  no  smell,  except  sometimes  when 
a  little  ammonia  is  accidentally  contained  in  it,  and  then  it  gives 
a  faint  smell.  These  two  alums  are  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the 
same  strength,  and,  for  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  it  does  not  sig- 
nify which  is  used.  For  making  alkaline  mordant,  ammonia 
alum  is  very  unsuitable  ;  in  two  or  three  other  cases  preference 
is  to  be  given  to  the  potash  alum,  very  little  of  which,  how- 
ever, is  to  be  found  in  trade.  The  only  dangerous  impurity  in 
alum  is  iron,  and  this  will  show  of  itself,  if  the  alum  be  old, 
by  a  reddish  or  yellowish  tinge.  The  taste  of  the  alum  con- 
taining iron  is  quite  different  from  good  alum,  and  it  may  be 
tested  by  prussiate  of  potash;  if  it  gives  a  blue  instantly  it  is 
bad.  In  fresh  alum  crystals  iron  can  exist  without  showing 
itself;  it  must  then  be  tested  for  by  decoction  of  galls,  which 
will  cause  it  to  turn  black  or  bluish-black ;  and  by  logwood 
liquor,  which  will  show  a  distinctly  different  hue  with  good  and 
bad  alum.  A  mixture  of  red  and  yellow  prussiate  is  also  a 
good  test;  but  even  good  alum  will  show  blue  after  an  hour 
or  two;  but  if  a  blue  be  produced  instantly  upon  mixing  there 
can  be  no  doubt  of  iron  being  present.  Alum  sold  in  the  state 
of  flour  or  small  crystals  may  contain  too  much  water  by  five 
or  ten  per  cent.  Alum  by  itself  is  only  a  weak  mordant;  it 
has  a  strong  acid  reaction,  and  parts  with  very  little  of  its  base, 
unless  something  be  added  to  neutralize  the  acid  in  part.  Soda 
in  the  state  of  crystals  is  mostly  used  for  this  purpose;  but  it 
is  found  in  practice  that  the  acetate  of  alumina  is  by  far  the 
best  mordant  where  deep  shades  are  required,  so  that  now  alum 
is  only  used  for  light  shades  or  in  combination  with  copperas. 
The  preference  which  was  formerly  given  to  particular  species 
of  alum,  as  the  Roman  alum,  is  proved  to  have  arisen  from  the 
processes  of  manufacture  favoring  the  production  of  a  more 
neutral  or  basic  compound. 

Alumina. — This  is  the  earthy  base  of  alum  and  of  all  the 
salts  of  alumina.  It  can  be  made  by  dissolving  alum  in  hot 
water  and  adding  soda  crystals  ;  so  long  as  they  give  any  pulpy 
precipitate,  the  alumina  pulp  can  be  drained  on  a  filtering 
blanket  and  washed  with  water.  It  may  be  used  to  make  oxa- 
late,  tartrate,  and  nitrate  of  alumina  from  by  dissolving  as  much 
of  it  in  these  acids  as  they  can  take  up;  it  dissolves  in  caustic 
potash  forming  the  alkaline  pink  mordant.  It  has  been  used 


02  ALUMINA   SULPHATE. 

as  the  basis  of  colored  lakes  for  calico  printing ;  if  a  certain 
quantity  of  this  pulp  be  diffused  through  water,  and  logwood 
liquor  mixed  with  it  and  heated,  the  pulp  will  abstract  all  the 
color  from  the  liquor  and  form  a  colored  pulp  or  lake,  which 
mixed  with  acids,  etc.,  can  be  printed  as  a  steam  color. 

Alumina  Nitrate. — This  salt  is  prepared  by  mixing  nitrate 
of  lead  and  alum,  sulphate  of  alumina  may  be  used  instead  of 
alum.  The  following  proportions  yield  a  nitrate  of  alumina 
well  adapted  for  indigo  chromed  styles,  that  is  for  converting 
the  chrome  orange  into  yellow  wherever  printed  on  : — 

7  Ibs.  alum, 

4£  gallons  water  at  140°,  dissolve  and  add 

8  Ibs.  nitrate  of  lead  ; 

take  the  clear  only.  Nitrate  of  alumina  is  but  little  used  in 
general  printing;  in  some  few  cases  of  delaine  and  woollen 
colors  it  is  employed,  when  it  appears  to  have  an  oxidizing 
action  owing  to  the  nitric  acid  it  contains. 

Alumina  Oxalate. — This  salt  may  be  prepared  by  dis- 
solving the  moist  gelatinous  alumina  in  warm  solution  of  oxalic 
acid  until  saturated.  It  has  been  used  in  some  steam  reds  from 
peachwood,  along  with  chlorate  of  potash  as  an  oxidizing 
agent. 

Alumina  Sulphate,  or  Patent  Alum. — This  salt  is  of  com- 
parati.vely  recent  introduction  in  the  manufacturing  arts;  it 
contains  all  the  essential  principles  for  which  alum  is  valued, 
differing  from  it  only  by  the  absence  of  the  sulphate  of  potash 
or  sulphate  of  ammonia,  which  is  an  invariable  constituent  of 
alum.  It  is  not  possible,  however,  to  use  sulphate  of  alumina 
in  every  case  where  alum  has  been  employed  ;  probably  because 
the  commercial  article  has  notyet.been  produced  of  a  correspond- 
ing degree  of  purity  and  saturation  ;  probably  also,  because  the 
neutral  sulphate  in  alum  exercises  some  modifying  action  in  its 
application.  But  in  a  great  many  cases  a  good  quality  of  sulphate 
of  alumina  can  be  advantageously  used  in  place  of  alum  ;  it  is 
more  liable  to  contain  impurities  than  alum  ;  it  is  more  irregular 
in  its  composition,  not  crystallizing  like  alum  in  clear  well- 
defined  crystals,  but  being  boiled  down  until  it  solidifies  into  a 
white  opaque  cake.  The  ordinary  good  qualities  contain  more 
alumina  by  one-third  than  alum  crystals,  and  are  consequently 
stronger  as  mordants ;  but  the  amount  of  water  and  acid  it  con- 
tains are  subject  to  fluctuations,  which  have  frequently  produced 
great  losses  and  irregularities  in  printing  and  dyeing.  Chemi- 
cal analysis  is  necessary  to  show  the  amounts  of  acid,  water,  and 
alumina  a  sample  may  contain. 


ALUMEN   USTUM— AMMONIA.  63 

Alumen  Ustum,  or  Burnt  Alum. — This  substance  is  men- 
tioned in  some  old  receipts;  it  appears  to  be  alum  which  has 
been  heated  in  earthen  vessels  until  it  has  become  dry  and 
white.  Modern  chemistry  does  not  show  that  it  could  possess 
any  special  properties. 

Amber  Colors.— Certain  shades  of  yellow  having  some  re- 
semblance to  the  hue  of  amber  are  so  called.  On  dyed  goods 
they  are  all  derived  from  a  lead  basis  raised  or  dyed  in  chrome. 
The  amber  shades  may  be  looked  upon  as  yellows  slightly 
tinged  with  red.  On  woollen  the  shades  are  obtained  by  modi- 
fying a  fustic  yellow  with  cochineal  (see  ORANGE)  ;  on  calico 
the  following  processes  may  be  followed  for  100  Ibs.  cloth:  10 
Ibs.  acetate  and  10  Ibs.  nitrate  of  lead  dissolved  in  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  cold  water,  work  the  goods  in  for  thirty  minutes,  and 
then  in  warm  water  containing  8  Ibs.  of  chrome,  for  twenty 
minutes,  pass  finally  through  the  lead  wash,  and  dry.  By  ano- 
ther process  the  goods  are  mordanted  in  a  plombate  of  soda  bath 
formed  by  adding  caustic  potash  or  soda  to  solution  of  acetate  of 
lead  until  the  white  pulp  at  first  formed  is  dissolved  up  clear, 
having  a  care  not  to  add  more  caustic  than  is  just  necessary; 
after  the  goods  have  been  worked  in  this  they  are  worked  in 
warm  chrome  liquor.  Napier  states  that  sulphate  of  zinc  added 
to  the  chrome  improves  the  effect  (see  further  CHROME  COLORS). 
Amber  on  silk  may  be  obtained  from  annotta  modified  by  other 
coloring  matters. 

The  following  receipt  is  a  specimen  of  what  may  be  used  in 
printing  to  obtain  amber  shades : — 

Steam  Amber  or  Gold. 

7  quarts  berry  liquor  at  6°, 

1  quart  cochineal  liquor  at  4°, 

3  Ibs.  starch  ;  boil,  and  when  nearly  cold  add 
6  oz.  crystals  of  tin, 

2  oz.  oxalic  acid. 

Ameline. — The  name  given  to  a  dyeing  matter  of  the  ani- 
line species  very  lately  introduced.  It  is  a  pansy  color,  or  a 
blue  mauve,  applied  in  the  usual  manner  upon  delaines.  Its 
method  of  manufacture  is  kept  secret. 

Ammonia,  Ammonia  Liquor,  Volatile  Alkali. — Ammonia 
liquor  is  a  solution  of  the  gas  ammonia  in  water,  the  stronger 
the  liquor  is  of  this  gas  the  lighter  it  is,  bulk  for  bulk,  contrary 
to  the  usual  law  of  density;  so  if  a  Twaddle  instrument  con- 
structed for  liquids  lighter  than  water  be  used  to  test  it,  the 
lower  it  sinks  in  the  ammonia  the  better  it  is.  The  Twaddle 
test  is  a  good  one  for  ammonia  liquor,  as  I  am  not  aware  of 


64  AMYLACEOUS  MATTERS — ANILINE   COLORS. 

anything  it  is  adulterated  with  in  the  direction  of  making  it 
lighter  than  water.  It  can  also  be  tested  in  the  same  way  as 
soda  ash  as  given  in  alkalimetry  ;  the  more  oxalic  acid  a  given 
quantity  neutralizes  the  better  it  is.  Ammonia  possesses  the 
same  powers  of  neutralizing  acids  as  potash  or  soda,  and  gene- 
rally has  similar  properties  to  them.  Ammonia  is  called  the 
volatile  alkali,  because  it  flies  off  as  gas  if  left  exposed  in  an 
open  vessel,or  more  quickly  if  heated  ;  it  is  a  very  good  solvent 
of  several  coloring  matters,  especially  cochineal.  The  gas  or 
vapor  from  ammonia  has  been  sometimes  used  to  fasten  colors 
or  mordants ;  it  was  used  in  some  processes  of  the  murexide 
color,  and  has  been  proposed  as  a  substitute  for  ageing.  In 
such  cases  the  gas  is  best  produced  by  letting  the  strong  am- 
monia liquor  drop  in  regulated  quantity  upon  a  hot  steam  pipe ; 
it  may  likewise  be  produced  by  heating  a  mixture  of  slacked 
lime  and  sal  ammoniac. 

Amylaceous  Matters. — All  species  of  starches  are  thus 
designated  ;  or  substances  containing  or  yielding  starch,  as 
flour,  meal,  etc. 

Anchusine. — This  is  the  name  of  the  pure  coloring  matter 
of  alkanet  root,  so  called  from  the  botanical  name  of  the  plant, 
Anchnsa  Tinctoria. 

Aniline  Colors. — Aniline  itself  is  a  colorless  or  slightly 
yellow  oily  body,  made  by  complicated  processes  from  coal 
naphtha.  When  acted  upon  by  powerful  chemical  agents  it 
yields  several  colors,  the  most  valuable  of  which  are  the  mauve 
or  mallow,  and  the  magenta  or  red ;  a  blue  coloring  matter  is 
also  produced.  The  patented  processes  for  making  and  apply- 
ing these  coloring  matters  have  been  so  numerous  these  last 
four  years  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  any  account  of  them 
here ;  the  inquirer  is  referred  to  the  specifications  of  patents, 
or  to  the  pages  of  the  Chemical  News,  where  an  .abstract  of  them 
may  be  found. 

Aniline  Mauve  or  Lilac,  is  sold  either  in  the  fluid  or  pasty 
state.  For  silk  dyeing  and  woollen  dyeing  no  mordant  is  re- 
quired; the  proper  proportion  of  clear  liquor  is  mixed  with 
water  slightly  warm,  any  scum  that  may  form  is  cleared  off, 
and  the  goods  entered  and  worked  until  the  required  shade 
has  been  obtained ;  a  small  quantity  of  acetic  or  tartaric  acid 
is  recommended  to  be  used  in  some  cases.  Pasty  mauve  is 
dissolved  in  methylated  spirits  before  using,  and  great  care 
must  be  taken  to  prevent  irregularities  from  the  tarry  scum 
which  frequently  forms  when  the  liquor  is  mixed  with  water. 
For  printing  on  calico,  one  process  consists  in  fixing  the  coloring 
matter  with  albumen  or  lactarine,  the  mauve  is  mixed  with 
solution  of  albumen  or  lactarine,  printed  and  steamed ;  or,  the 


ANIMAL1ZATION".  ^65 

albumen  alone  is  printed,  steamed  to  fix  it,  and  then  dyed  in  a 
beck  with  the  coloring  matter — a  quantity  of  soap  being  dis- 
solved in  the  beck  to  prevent  the  whites  being  too  much  dam- 
aged. The  chief  processes,  however,  of  fixing  the  aniline 
colors  are  with  tannic  acid  and  a  metallic  salt,  and  there  are 
various  methods  of  applying  the  materials.  The  cloth  may  be 
prepared  with  tin,' as  for  steam  colors,  and  a  mixture  of  the 
coloring  matter  and  tannic  acid  printed  on  and  steamed  with 
or  without  albumen  or  lactarine  ;  or  as  in  the  antimony  process 
the  coloring  matter  mixed  with  tannic  acid  is  printed,  steamed, 
and  then  fixed  by  running  in  a  solution  of  tartarized  antimony. 
Many  other  processes  have  been  proposed,  but  these  include 
all  that  have  answered  satisfactorily.  For  dyeing  on  cotton, 
the  cloth  or  yarn  is  steeped  in  sumac  or  tannic  acid,  dyed  in 
the  color,  and  then  may  be  fixed  by  tin,  or  the  cloth  may  be 
sumaced  and  mordanted  as  usual  with  tin  and  then  dyed.  For 
magenta  red  precisely  the  same  processes  may  be  used  as  for 
the  mauve.  The  blue  is  dyed  in  the  same  manner.  Cloth 
prepared  with  oil  preparations  takes  up  the  aniline  blue ;  for 
printing  on  calico  it  does  not  seem  to  be  so  applicable,  and 
must  be  fixed  by  albumen  or  lactarine.  The  affinity  of  these 
new  coloring  matters  for  silk  and  woollen  is  very  great,  so  that 
in  piece  dyeing  precautions  have  to  be  taken  to  prevent  irregu- 
larities arising  from  this  cause.  For  example :  in  dyeing  a 
piece  of  union  velvet  a  full  magenta  shade,  if  the  common 
"jigger"  be  used  and  the  whole  of  the  magenta  liquor  added  at 
once,  the  first  two  yards  will  be  darker  than  the  rest,  and  one- 
half  of  the  piece  of  a  decidedly  deeper  hue  than  the  other  half, 
that  is,  the  half  piece  first  in  the  liquor  will  be  darkest ;  it  is 
consequently  necessary  to  add  the  requisite  amount  of  coloring 
matter  at  two  or  three  intervals,  and  in  such  a  manner  with 
regard  to  the  entry  of  the  piece  that  the  end  last  in  at  the  first 
addition  will  be  first  in  at  the  second  addition.  Notwithstanding 
these  precautions,  the  ends  of  the  piece  are  mostly  fuller  in  color 
than  the  body.  In  most  of  the  pasty  kinds  of  mauve  or  ma- 
genta, there  is  a  quantity  of  tarry  matter,  which  being  dissolved 
by  the  methylated  spirits,  has  a  bad  effect  on  the  shade ;  in 
such  a  case  the  spirits  should  be  diluted  with  water  as  much  as 
possible,  because  there  is  generally  a  strength  of  spirit  which 
dissolves  the  coloring  matter  without  touching  the  brown  tarry 
matters ;  if  practicable,  water  would  dissolve  the  coloring  mat- 
ter, but  as  a  very  large  quantity  of  water  is  required  this  plan 
cannot  be  often  adopted.  Aniline  colors  on  silk  are  modified 
by  sulphate  of  indigo  to  blue  the  mauve,  and  annotta  to  give 
orange  or  capucin  shades  with  the  magenta. 

Animalization. — In  the  older  theories  of  dy.eing,  it  was 


66  ANOTTA. 

held  that  the  animal  tissues  of  wool  and  silk  absorbed  and  re- 
tained colors  more  readily  than  the  vegetable  tissues  of  cotton 
and  linen,  by  virtue  of  some  peculiar  animal  substance  they 
contained.  As  a  consequence  of  this  theory,  attempts  were 
made  to  communicate  some  animal  principles  to  vegetable 
fabrics,  with  a  view  to  improving  their  powers  of  receiving 
colors.  The  use  of  cow  dung  in  dyeing  madder  goods  ;  the 
use  of  sheeps'  dung  and  bullocks'  blood,  and  urine  in  Turkey- 
red  dyeing,  were  explained,  upon  the  supposition  that  they 
animalized  the  fabric  in  some  way  or  other.  The  present  view 
of  animalization  is,  that  it  is  not  possible  to  animalize  a  fabric 
in  any  other  way  than  by  actually  depositing  upon  it  the  ani- 
mal matter  in  question,  and  that  any  increased  facility  for 
taking  colors  thus  communicated,  is  effected  by  the  animal 
matter  itself  held  on  the  fabric,  and  not  by  any  new  property 
of  the  fabric  itself.  Thus,  if  a  piece  of  calico  is  steeped  in  a 
solution  of  albumen,  dried,  and  then  steamed  or  plunged  into 
boiling  water,  the  albumen  is  fastened  upon  the  cloth,  and  such 
cloth  is  then  capable  of  receiving  colors  from  picric  acid,  sul- 
phate of  indigo,  magenta,  archil,  and  other  coloring  matters, 
which  previously  had  no  affinity  for  the  cloth.  But  it  is  im- 
possible to  look  upon  the  albumen  in  any  other  light  than  as  a 
kind  of  mordant  acting  as  an  intermediary  between  the  color 
and  the  calico,  differing,  however,  from  ordinary  mordants  in 
some  essential  particulars.  Besides  albumen,  the  animal  mat- 
ters called  caseine  and  lactarine,  possess  similar  properties,  and 
have  been  tried  on  a  large  scale,  but  without  any  marked  suc- 
cess as  mordants  or  bases  for  some  of  the  colors,  which  are  not 
attracted  by  the  ordinary  metallic  mordants.  The  increased 
affinity  for  colors  given  to  calico  by  oil,  could  not  correctly, 
under  any  view,  be  called  animalization,  since  the  oils  are  all 
vegetable  oils ;  but  in  fact  there  appears  to  be  a  considerable 
analogy  between  this  case  of  mordanting  and  that  by  coagulable 
animal  matters. 

Anotta  ;  also  Annoilo,  Annalto,  Arnotto,  etc. — This  coloring 
matter  is  a  pulp  prepared  from  the  seeds  of  a  South  American 
shrub.  It  is  generally  sold  as  a  thick  paste  of  the  consistence 
of  putty,  but  is  also  prepared  in  hard  dry  cakes  by  some  London 
houses.  In  the  pasty  state  it  has  a  very  disagreeable  animal 
odor;  it  is  of  a  reddish-brown  color,  does  not  dissolve  in  water, 
but  is  easily  dissolved  by  alkalies  and  alkaline  salts  ;  soft  soap 
is  frequently  used  to  dissolve  it.  For  printing  purposes  anotta 
is  used  for  a  shade  of  buff  orange,  sometimes  called  salmon  or 
nankeen  color.  Half  a  pound  of  good  anotta  dissolved  with 
heat  in  a  gallon  of  pearl-ash  liquor,  and  half  a  pound  of  soft 
soap  and  4  oz.  borax  added,  thickened  with  tragacanth,  is  an 


ANTI-CHLORE— ANTIMONY.  67 

old  receipt  giving  a  good  result.  Other  receipts  are  similar  to 
the  following — 

Gallon  of  caustic  potash  at  14°, 
2  Ibs.  anotta  ;  dissolve  and  add 
2  oz.  tartaric  acid, 
8  oz.  alum;  thicken  with  gum-water. 

Tin  crystals  are  also  used  to  modify  the  shade.  For  light 
shades  neither  alum  nor  tin  are  required,  for  anotta  is  one  of 
those  coloring  matters  which  have  an  affinity  for  cotton  of 
themselves.  Dark  anotta  colors  are  not  pretty  on  cotton;  on 
account  of  the  strongly  alkaline  nature  of  the  color,  it  may  be 
used  as  a  buff  discharge  or  resist  for  Prussian  blues.  For 
dyeing  on  cotton  the  anotta  is  dissolved  in  alkali,  and  the  goods 
simply  passed  through  the  solution.  For  silk  dyeing  anotta  is 
largely  used,  yielding  bright  lustrous  shades;  by  aluming  the 
silk  is  considered  to  take  the  dye  better:  as  silk  is  easily  acted 
upon  by  alkalies,  the  solution  should  be  as  little  alkaline  as 
possible.  Acids  and  acid  salts  redden  the  shades  from  anotta. 
As  solution  of  anotta  is  injured  by  keeping,  no  more  should 
be  made  than  is  likely  to  be  used  in  a  couple  of  days  or  so. 
The  pure  coloring  matter  of  anotta  is  called  Itixine ;  another 
coloring  principle,  named  orelline,  is  supposed  to  exist  in  it. 
Orelline  is  a  yellow  principle,  and  bixine  a  red.  By  influence 
of  air,  moisture,  and  ammonia,  these  principles  appear  conver- 
tible. The  great  bulk  of  the  anotta  imported  is  consumed  in 
coloring  butter  and  cheese.  Anotta  is  liable  to  be  adulterated 
with  colcothar,  brickdust,  and  red  ochre.  (See  BIXINE.) 

Anti-Chlore, — Some  body  capable  of  destroying  and  ar- 
resting the  action  of  chlorine.  The  chief  substance  employed 
is  sulphite  of  lime,  used  in  bleaching  rags  for  paper,  and  re- 
commended in  linen  bleaching,  after  chloride  of  lime  treat- 
ment. 

Antimony. — Antimony  is  a  metal  whose  chemical  proper- 
ties more  nearly  resemble  those  of  tin  than  any  of  the  other 
common  metals ;  it  is  sufficiently  abundant  to  receive  extended 
application,  but  up  to  this  time  has  not  been  much  used.  An 
orange  color  from  the  sulphide  of  antimony  was  first  made,  I 
believe,  by  Mr.  Mercer ;  the  common  black  sulphide  of  anti- 
mony, in  powder,  was  boiled  with  caustic  soda  and  sulphur 
until  it  was  dissolved ;  the  liquor  had  a  fetid,  sickly  smell, 
well  remembered  by  old  printers.  A  better  preparation  was 
made  by  calcining  the  antimony  with  charcoal  and  sulphate  of 
soda.  The  result  in  both  cases  was  a  double  compound  of 
sulphur  with  soda  and  antimony;  this  was  thickened  and 
printed ;  containing  very  much  sulphur,  it  blackened  the 


68  APOCREXIC  ACID — ARCHIL. 

copper  rollers  immediately;  after  drying  and  a  short  age  it  was 
passed  in  sours  for  the  orange  ;  by  running  it  afterwards  in  a 
beck  containing  blue  copperas,  it  changed  to  a  dark  olive ;  by 
passing  in  sugar  of  lead,  a  wood  brown  was  produced.  This 
color  would  stand  washing  and  soaping  well  enough,  but  faded 
on  exposure  to  air.  The  antimony  orange  is  hardly  ever  made 
now.  Tartarized  antimony  or  tartar  emetic  is  used  in  one  of 
the  processes  for  fixing  the  aniline  colors ;  antimony  as  a 
prepare  for  steam  colors  is  very  inferior  to  tin. 

Apocrenic  Acid. — This  is  a  vegetable  substance,  found  in 
water,  and  forms  one  of  several  bodies  existing  in  certain 
qualities  of  water,  usually  designated  under  the  head  of  organic 
matter.  For  the  tests  for  it  and  its  supposed  action  in  dyeing, 
see  WATER. 

Apricot  Color. — This  is  a  shade  of  buff,  a  little  redder  and 
browner  than  an  iron  buff'.  Common  buff  liquor  is  mixed  with 
some  muriate  of  iron  and  a  small  quantity  of  nitrate  or  sugar 
of  lead  ;  and  after  the  buff"  has  been  raised  in  the  usual  way,  it 
is  rinsed  in  warm  and  very  weak  chloride  of  Jime  ;  the  lead  is 
oxidized  and  gives  a  brownish  hue  to  the  buff,  which  somewhat 
resembles  the  ordinary  shade  of  an  apricot.  Though  the  name 
is  chiefly  confined  to  the  shade  so  produced,  a  similar  shade 
can,  of  course,  be  obtained  in  steam  and  spirit  colors,  and  es- 
pecially from  catechu.  (See  CATECHU  and  ORANGE.) 

Aqua  Regia. — A  mixture  of  nitric  acid  and  muriatic  acid 
undergoes  some  chemical  change,  producing  a  liquid  which 
possesses  properties  different  from  either  acid  separately.  It 
received  its  name  from  its  power  of  dissolving  gold,  the  king  of 
metals. 

Aqua  Fortis. — An  old  and  still  common  name  for  NITRIC 
ACID,  which  see. 

Arabine. — The  name  of  a  principle  extracted  from  gum 
arabic,  and  supposed  to  exist  in  all  similar  gums. 

Archil ;  Orchil. — This  coloring  matter  is  a  preparation  from 
a  kind  of  moss  or  dry  leaf,  growing  on  rocks  and  stones,  called 
a  lichen.  The  lichens,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties,  have 
no  color  themselves;  but,  by  a  kind  of  fermentation  and  treat- 
ment with  lime  and  stale  urine,  the  coloring  matter  is  devel- 
oped. There  are  two  kinds  of  archil,  that  in  paste  and  that  in 
liquor;  and  there  are  besides  two  colors  of  it  called  red  and 
blue  archil.  Archil  has  a  particular  smell  easily  recognized  ; 
it  mixes  with  water;  it  is  turned  bluer  with  alkalies  and  redder 
with  acids.  As  a  coloring  matter  it  has  affinity  for  silk  and 
woollen,  with  or  without  mordant,  but  none  for  cotton.  It  is 
seldom  used  by  itself  for  dyeing,  but  usually  to  help  or  top 
other  colors;  when  used  alone  it  can  give  very  agreeable  shades 


ARECA   NUTS — ARSENIC.  69 

of  violet,  peach,  and  lilac,  which  colors  are  very  loose  in  air, 
fading  almost  visibly  in  sunlight;  in  combination  with  other 
coloring  matters  it  usually  darkens  them,  giving  chocolate 
colored  shades*  but  archil  is  chiefly  valued  for  a  peculiar  soft- 
ness and  velvet  bloom  it  communicates  to  colors.  Archil  is 
used  in  woollen  and  delaine  printing,  chiefly  for  rich  chocolate 
shades,  and  in  combinatipn  with  other  coloring  matters  for 
shades  of  buff,  chamois,  wood,  tan,  &c.  Three  or  four  years 
ago  a  new  preparation  of  archil,  giving  much  faster  colors,  was 
invented  and  put  into  use.  It  was  supplied  in  hard  dry  cakes, 
of  a  purplish  color  ;  the  method  of  its  preparation  is  not  clearly 
described,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  a  considerable  improve- 
ment in  fastness  was  obtained.  It  was  used  in  calico  printing 
to  a  considerable  extent,  until  the  more  pleasant  aniline  mauve 
displaced  it.  It  could  only  be  fastened  by  means  of  albumen. 
It  was  misrepresented  as  being  as  fast  as  madder,  while,  in 
reality,  only  a  loose  color,  so  that  considerable  loss  and  disap- 
pointment was  occasioned  ;  it  is  very  little  used  now.  Cudbear 
and  litmus  are  very  similar  to  archil,  as  coloring  matters. 
Archil  may  be  adulterated  with  extracts  of  logwood  or  peach- 
wood,  a  careful  comparison  of  shades  produced  by  dyeing  silk 
or  woollen  in  pure  and  suspected  archil  would  indicate  the 
adulteration.  Pure  archil  gives  no  color  to  mordanted  calico, 
but  an  adulterated  archil  will ;  pure  archil  mixed  with  water 
and  muriate  of  tin,  and  heated,  is  nearly  decolorized,  if  logwood 
or  other  extracts  be  present  different  shades  will  be  produced. 
The  addition  of  a  little  red  prussiate  to  blue  archil  is  said  to 
give  it  all  the  properties  of  red  archil. 

Areca  Nuts, — An  Asiatic  product,  said  to  be  capable  of 
fixing  colors  by  some  agglutinating  property. 

Algols, — The  crude  cream  of  tartar  goes  by  this  name. 
There  are  red  argols  and  gray  argols  used  in  woollen  dyeing; 
the  only  valuable  properties  they  possess  are  due  to  the  bitar- 
trate  of  potash  they  contain.  (See  TARTARIC  ACID  and  TARTAR, 
CREAM  OF.) 

Arsenates,  or  Arseniates,  are  compounds  of  arsenic  acid  with 
bases  ;  they  are  made  by  neutralizing  arsenic  acid  with  the  base 
required.  The  arsenate  of  potash  was  formerly  used  as  a 
resist  in  combination  with  pipeclay  ;  the  arsenate  of  soda  has 
been  largely  used  as  a  dung  substitute;  it  is  prepared  from 
arsenious  acid  or  white  arsenic  and  nitrate  of  soda,  heated 
together  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  and  the  product  neutralized 
with  soda.  (See  DUNG  SUBSTITUTES.) 

Arsenic,  Arsenious  Acid,  or  White  Arsenic. — The  common 
white  arsenic  is  a  feeble  acid,  and  called  arsenious  acid  in 
chemistry  ;  it  is  a  deadly  poison,  and  should  be  shunned  as 


70  ARSENITES — ASTRINGENTS. 

much  as  possible;  inhaling  the  dust  created  by  moving  it 
should  be  avoided.  Its  chief  uses  in  connection  with  printing 
and  dyeing  are  derived  first  from  its  weak  acid  properties, 
modifying,  without  neutralizing  completely,  th%  alkalies,  soda, 
and  potash;  secondly,  its  deoxidizing  powers  have  been  used 
in  one  or  two  cases,  as  in  the  chrome  greens ;  and,  thirdly,  it 
forms  some  colored  compounds  with  the  metals,  the  only  ones 
used  being  the  green,  from  copper  and  chromium.  Arsenic  is 
used  in  a  good  many  receipts,  where  its  action  cannot  be  ex- 
plained, and  where  most  probably  it  has  no  useful  action  at  all. 
White  arsenic  does  not  dissolve  to  any  considerable  extent  in 
cold  water,  but  in  hot  water  it  is  more  soluble  ;  by  prolonged 
boiling,  water  dissolves  a  considerable  portion  of  arsenic;  it 
dissolves  to  an  almost  unlimited  extent  in  caustic  potash  and 
soda,  forming  the  arsenites  of  those  bases.  When  white  arsenic 
is  heated  with  nitric  acid,  it  combines  with  more  oxygen, 
forming  arsenic  acid;  this  acid  is  very  soluble  in  water,  and 
has  strongly  acid  characters ;  it  has  been  tried  as  a  substitute 
for  tartaric  acid,  but  did  not  succeed.  The  substance  called 
red  arsenic  is  a  compound  of  metallic  arsenic,  with  sulphur;  it 
is  known  also  as  ORPIMENT,  which  see. 

Arsenites  are  compounds  of  arsenious  acid  with  bases  and 
metals. 

Artichoke  Green, — A  patent  for  obtaining  a  green  color- 
ing matter  from  artichokes  and  thistles  was  taken  out  June  3d, 
1856,  but  not  completed.  (See  CHLOROPHYLL.) 

Astringents. — The  vegetable  astringents  used  in  dyeing 
and  printing  are  represented  by  gall-nuts,  sumac,  catechu,  and 
one  or  two  other  substances.  Tannic  acid  may  be  considered 
as  the  real  astringent,  it  possessing  the  astringent  properties 
in  the  highest  degree.  It  is  a  property  of  astringents  to 
have  a  direct  affinity  for  vegetable  fibre,  so  that  cotton  soaked 
in  a  hot  decoction  of  galls  or  sumac  acquires  the  astringent 
principle,  and  retains  it  so  strongly  that  it  is  difficult  to  remove 
it;  it  is  also  a  pretty  general  character  of  astringents  to  strike 
a  black  with  green  copperas  and  other  salts  of  iron,  but  this  is 
not  an  essential  character.  In  the  older  theories  of  dyeing 
much  stress  was  laid  upon  the  astringent  principle  as  an  import- 
ant element  of  all  colors,  being  that  portion  which  contributed 
to  the  closeness  of  the  adhesion  of  the  color  to  the  fabric. 
But  many  of  the  fastest  coloring  matters,  such  as  indigo,  madder, 
and  cochineal,  do  not  contain  any  astringent  matter  at  all,  in 
the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  term  astringent ;  and  the  supposed 
necessity  of  an  astringent  principle  is  therefore  disproved.  At 
the  same  time,  the  true  astringents,  as  tannic  acid,  galls,  sumac, 
&c.,  do  not  only  themselves  form  very  stable  and  intimate  com- 


ATOMIC   WEIGHT — AZULINE.  71 

binations  with  vegetable  fibre,  but  also  appear  to  confer  stability 
to  loose  colors.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  of  cotton  dye- 
ing, galls  or  sumac  are  used,  and  usually  are  the  first  substances 
employed;  the  astringent  principle,  or  tannic  acid,  of  the  galls 
and  sumac  at  once  forms  a  fast  and  perfect  combination  with 
the  fibre,  and  appears  to  enable  the  fibre  to  combine  more  easily 
and  permanently  with  all  mordants  and  colors  than  if  the 
astringent  matters  were  absent.  The  old  doctrine  of  the  im- 
portance of  an  astringent  principle  is  at  least  partially  true 
and  worthy  of  attention.  The  method  of  applying  the  new 
aniline  colors  by  means  of  tannic  acid  and  salts  of  tin  and  anti- 
mony is  a  point  in  illustration,  though  it  is  not  actually  known 
what  part  the  astringent  acts  in  these  cases.  (See  -  further, 
GALLS,  SUMAC,  &c.) 

Atomic  Weight. — According  to  the  atomic  theory  every 
substance  is  made  up  of  very  little  atoms,  and  each  of  these 
atoms  has  a  regular  weight  of  its  own ;  that  is,  an  atom  of 
iron  weighs  so  much,  and  an  atom  of  lead  so  much  more,  the 
atom  of  lead  being  about  four  times  as  heavy  as  the  atom  of 
iron,  and  so  on.  The  relative  weights  of  these  atoms  have  been 
very  carefully  ascertained  by  chemists,  and  the  whole  science 
of  modern  chemistry  is  built  upon  the  knowledge  of  the  laws 
of  combination  between  atoms.  Many  chemists  and  philoso- 
phers do  not  believe  in  the  existence  of  atoms  at  all,  but  allow 
that  matter  of  various  kinds  enters  into  combination  in  certain 
definite  proportions,  which  are  always  the  same  for  the  same 
substance.  This  is  now  the  prevailing  theory,  being  most  in 
accordance  with  the  discoveries  of  late  years;  and  what  were 
called  atomic  weights,  are  now  called  EQUIVALENT  WEIGHTS, 
which  see. 

Awl  Root. — An  East  Indian  product  said  to  possess  some 
of  the  valuable  properties  of  madder. 

Azaleine. — Red  coloring  matter  obtained  from  aniline  by 
the  action  of  certain  metallic  salts,  chiefly  nitrate  of  mer- 
cury. The  shade  of  color  not  being  so  good  as  that  obtained 
by  other  patented  processes,  azaleine  has  not  been  much  used 
in  dyeing. 

Azote.— The  old  name  of  nitrogen. 

Azuline. — This  name  is  given  to  a  blue  coloring  matter 
supposed  to  be  derived  from  aniline.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  silk 
dyeing,  yielding  a  very  fine  blue  color;  it  requires  the  presence 
of  a  rather  considerable  amount  of  free  sulphuric  acid  in  the 
dyeing  to  secure  good  shades.  On  this  account  it  has  riot  yet 
been  successfully  applied  to  calico  printing.  There  is  more 
than  one  kind  of  blue  coloring  matter  sold  under  this  name, 
and  they  are  not  all  of  equal  stability.  Their  discovery  is  so 


72  AZURE — BARASAT  VERTE. 

recent  that  no  really  trustworthy  information  upon  their  manu- 
facture can  be  given. 

Azure. — A  blue  powder  consisting  of  a  glass  colored  with 
oxide  of  cobalt  is  sold  under  this  name,  also  called  smalts  and 
zaffre.  It  has  been  used  in  finishing  yarns,  etc.  Being  quite 
insoluble  in  water,  it  must  be  suspended  in  some  mucilaginous 
liquid,  as  starch,  size,  or  soap,  and  requires  considerable  care 
to  prevent  unevenness. 

B. 

Bablah,  Balulah,  or  Neb-nab. — This  is  the  name  of  a  fruit 
imported  from  Senegal  and  the  East  Indies.  Upon  its  first 
introduction  into  Europe  it  was  said  to  be  endowed  with  the 
most  valuable  properties  as  an  astringent,  communicating  per- 
manency to  all  dyed  colors.  This  was  not  however  found  to 
be  the  case,  and  bablah  fell  into  disrepute,  so  that  dyers  would 
not  buy  it  any  price.  M.  Chevreul  "made  an  examination  of 
the  rinds  of  the  frnit,  and  found  the  Senegal  bablah  to  yield 
57  per  cent,  of  soluble  matters,  and  the  East  Indian  49  per 
cent.,  while  the  best  quality  of  gall-nuts  give  87  per  cent. 
Bablah  contains  a  considerable  proportion  of  tannic  and  gallic 
acids,  and  a  reddish  coloring  matter  in  small  quantity.  With 
iron  and  alumina  mordants  it  gives  drab  and  fawn  colors,  and 
may  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  sumac  ;  but,  where  sumac  gives 
a  yellowish  shade,  bablah  gives  a  reddish  hue.  Most  authori- 
ties speak  only  of  the  rind  of  the  fruit  as  being  used  in  dyeing  ; 
others  include  the  hard  kernel  as  well. 

Bandanna.— A  style  of  work  so  called.  It  consists  of  a 
white  discharge  upon  Turkey  red ;  the  name  appears  to  be 
confined  to  goods  produced  by  means  of  perforated  lead  plates, 
between  which  the  Turkey  red  cloth  in  several  thicknesses 
was  tightly  pressed,  and  the  perforations  being  so  adapted  as 
to  correspond  to  one  another,  a  discharging  fluid,  either  solu- 
tion of  chlorine  gas  in  water  or  a  mixture  of  bleaching  liquor 
and  acid,. was  run  upon  the  upper  plate  and  gradually  soaked 
through :  the  great  pressure  upon  the  cloth  prevented  the 
liquor  from  spreading  beyond  the  pattern.  This  is  a  case  of 
DISCHARGING,  which  see. 

Barasat  Verte,  or  Green  Indigo. — A  substance  under  this 
name  was  examined  by  Dr.  Bancroft,  who  reported  it  to  be 
simply  blue  indigo  contaminated  with  vegetable  extractive 
matter  of  a  useless  nature  which  made  it  appear  green.  It  did 
not  yield  any  green  colors  upon  wool  or  cotton  which  could 
not  withstand  the  action  of  soap.  (See  CHINESE  GREEN  and 
INDIGO.) 


BARBARY  BERRIES — BARWOOD.  73 

Barbary  Berries,  or  Seeds,  contain  a  coloring  matter, 
which,  according  to  Bancroft's  experiments,  in  some  respects 
resembles  safflower  when  applied  upon  silk.  No  definite  infor- 
mation upon  these  seeds  was  communicated  to  Brancroft,  and 
he  could  not  identify  them. 

Barbary  Gum. — A  natural  gum,  similar  to  Senegal  gum 
and  gum  arabic.  It  is  liable  to  contain  more  or  less  of  a  species 
of  gum  which  does  not  dissolve  in  cold  water,  only  swelling  up 
and  making  the  solution  of  gum-water  pasty ;  a  gum  contain- 
ing this  kind  of  inferior  gum  does  not  work  or  keep  well,  and 
is  not  easy  to  wash  off  soft.  By  leaving  a  sample  of  gum  in 
lumps  for  48  hours  in  cold  water,  it  will  be  easily  ascertained 
whether  there  are  any  lumps  of  this  fictitious  gum  or  not,  and 
what  is  their  relative  proportion  to  the  bulk. 

Barilla. — This  is  a  very  impure  kind  of  soda  ash  imported 
from  Spain,  Sicily,  and  other  places.  It  is  produced  by  burn- 
ing sea  weeds  and  collecting  and  preparing  the  ashes.  It  was 
formerly  the  chief  source  of  soda,  but  it  is  now  only  used  in  some 
exceptional  cases.  In  old  works  upon  bleaching  and  printing, 
wherever  barilla  is  mentioned  or  prescribed,  soda  ash  in  per- 
haps one-fourth  of  the  quantity  would  be  found  to  have  an 
equivalent  effect. 

Bark. — The  contracted  term  "bark"  is  generally  used 
amongst  the  dyers  and  printers  of  Lancashire,  to  designate  the 
quercitron  bark,  extensively  used  in  garancine  dyeing.  The 
barks  of  a  few  other  trees  are  or  have  been  used  in  dyeing, 
such  as  alder  bark,  oak  bark,  pomegranate  bark,  pine  bark, 
willow  bark,  etc.,  for  an  account  of  which  see  ALDER,  etc. 

Barwood. — This  is  a  dyewood  obtained  from  Angola  in 
Africa,  and  neighboring  places.  It  is  one  of  the  red  woods, 
and  closely  resembles  sandal  wood  in  its  properties ;  it  is  com- 
pact, taking  a  good  polish  of  an  orange  red  color.  Its  coloring 
matter  is  not  easily  extracted  by  water,  for  boiling  water  only 
dissolves  a  small  quantity  of  it,  and  this  precipitates  in  great 
part  as  the  water  cools ;  there  is,  therefore,  no  barwood  liquor 
or  extract,  and  in  dyeing  with  it  the  rasped  or  ground  wood 
has  to  be  used  just  as  madder  is  used  in  madder  dyeing.  The 
goods  take  the  color  from  the  water  as  fast  as  it  takes  it  from  the 
wood;  the  coloring  matter  is  gradually  transferred  until  the 
desired  shade  is  obtained  or  the  wood  spent.  The  colors  it 
gives  upon  the  luminous  mordants  are  reds  of  a  yellowish- 
brown  shade  according  to  Bancroft ;  when  these  are  saddened 
by  green  copperas  they  produce  a  good  imitation  of  the  ban- 
danna red.  The  same  author  states  that  the  red  from  it  was  used 
as  a  bottom  for  dark  indigo  blues,  saving  indigo.  At  present 
barwood  is  chiefly  used  in  yarn  dyeing  to  produce  an  imitation 
0 


74  BARYTA — BASE. 

Turkey  red.  It  is  also  used  for  a  red  lake  or  pigment  em- 
ployed by  the  paper  printers.  The  pure  coloring  matter  of 
this  wood  is  considered  to  be  identical  with  santaline  extracted 
from  sandal  wood. 

Barwood  red  is  obtained  by  first  steeping  the  yarn  or  cloth 
for  several  hours  in  a  decoction  of  sumac  with  a  little  vitriol, 
about  four  pounds  sumac  to  every  twenty  pounds  cotton. 
After  the  sumac  has  had  time  to  form  an  intimate  combination 
with  the  cotton,  the  yarn  is  next  wrought  in  a  solution  of  nitro- 
muriate  of  tin,  or  barwood  spirits  standing  at  3°  Tw. ;  the  tin 
combines  plentifully  with  the  astringent  principle  of  the  sumac 
and  constitutes  the  mordant ;  the  goods  are  now  transferred  to 
the  boiler  or  beck,  where  about  their  own  weight  of  barwood 
finely  rasped  is  added,  the  water  being  nearly  boiling,  and  the 
goods  worked  about  until  the  required  shade  is  obtained.  The 
red  so  produced  is  more  permanent  than  any  of  the  other  wood 
reds,  and  stands  next,  though  considerably  inferior,  to  madder 
red.  The  practical  dyers  say  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  get 
regular  and  good  results  from  barwood  than  from  any  other 
wood,  and  that  a  great  many  fail  to  obtain  the  best  red. 

Barwood  is  said  not  to  work  well  with  other  dyewoods,  if 
any  combinations  or  modifications  are  required  by  the  assist- 
ance of  other  woods,  they  have  to  be  applied  after  the  barwood 
by  a  separate  operation. 

Baryta,  or  Barytes. — There  is  a  very  rare  metal  called 
barium,  its  oxide  is  called  baryta,  and  has  properties  nearly 
like  quicklime.  The  very  common  mineral  substance,  which 
is  sold  under  the  names  of  barytes,  mineral  white,  ground 
heavy  spar,  etc.,  is  a  sulphate  of  baryta,  prepared  by  finely 
grinding  the  native  heavy  spar.  It  is  used  for  "weighting;" 
that  is,  for  giving  weight  and  apparent  body  and  firmness  to 
inferior  goods ;  it  is  not  the  only,  and  probably  not  the  best 
substance  for  this  purpose.  China  clay,  pipeclay,  flour,  and 
aluminous  shale  are  used  also  in  this  species  of  falsification. 
Beyond  this  use  of  the  sulphate,  the  compounds  of  baryta  have 
not  yet  been  employed  in  printing  and  dyeing  on  a  large  scale. 

Base. — In  chemistry,  a  base  is  some  body  which  neutralizes 
an  acid,  generally  forming  crystalline  compounds  with  it,  which 
are  called  salts.  Thus,  lime  neutralizes  acids,  and  is  a  base; 
litharge  or  oxide  of  lead,  which  is  quite  tasteless,  would  be 
found  upon  trial  to  completely  neutralize  acetic  or  nitric 
acids,  producing  a  third  body,  which  is  a  salt,  either  acetate 
or  nitrate  of  lead ;  oxide  of  lead  is  therefore  a  base.  Nearly 
all  the  metals  are  bases,  and  form  salts  with  acids;  and  when 
we  speak  of  sulphate  of  iron,  nitrate  of  copper,  and  other  simi- 
lar salts,  we  understand  that  the  bases  iron,  copper,  etc.,  have 


BASIC  SALT— BERRIES.  75 

neutralized  the  acidity  of  sulphuric,  nitric,  and  other  acids.  Be- 
sides mineral  bases,  there  are  others  of  purely  vegetable  origin, 
and  some  derived  from  the  animal  kingdom.  They  are  all 
distinguished  by  neutralizing  or  depriving  acids  of  their  acid 
characters. 

Basic  Salt. — A  salt  containing  more  than  the  usual  quan- 
tity of  base,  as  basic  acetate  of  lead. 

Basspra, — The  name  of  a  kind  of  gum,  which  is  like  traga- 
canth ;  it  swells  up  in  water  and  forms  a  kind  of  paste,  but 
does  not  really  dissolve.  It  contains  a  principle  called  basso- 
rine,  which  exists  also  in  tragacanth  and  salep.  It  seems  pro- 
bable that  a  good  deal  of  this  kind  of  gum  comes  mixed  with 
Senegal  and  Barbary  gum,  from  which  it  cannot  be  easily  distin- 
guished. It  is  not  a  good  gum  for  calico  printing,  because  it 
does  not  wash  off  well,  and  leaves  a  harshness  upon  the  cloth. 

Baume'. — This  is  the  name  of  the  hydrometer  which  is 
most  generally  in  use  on  the  continent,  and  fulfils  the  same 
purposes  that  Twaddle's  hydrometer  does  in  England.  The 
degrees  of  the  two  instruments  do  not  correspond,  nor  is  there 
any  simple  relation  between  them ;  but  as  a  guide  for  the  trans- 
lation of  receipts,  it  may  be  considered  that  each  degree  of 
Baum6  is  equal  to  1|  of  Twaddle,  as  far  as  the  thirtieth  degree 
of  Twaddle;  thus  10°  Baume  is  equal  to  14  J°  or  15°  Twad- 
dle; 20°  Baume  is  equal  to  between  30°  and  31°  Tw.:  past 
the  30°  of  Baurne,  the  difference  is  greater,  equal  to  about  If 
of  Twaddle  for  each  degree  Baume';  at  50°  Baume,  each 
degree  is  equal  to  2°  Twaddle,  and  so  on.  A  table  is  given  in 
my  "  Chemistry  of  Calico  Printing,"  of  the  exact  correspond- 
ence between  the  degrees  of  these  instruments. 

Bear-Berry  (arbutus  uva  ursi). — A  substance  employed  in 
dyeing  black. 

Berries, — The  only  berries  commonly  used  in  dyeing  or 
printing  are  used  for  the  sake  of  their  yellow  coloring  matter. 
There  are  as  many  as  seven  or  eight  different  qualities,  but  all 
appear  to  be  derived  from  the  same  kind  of  shrub,  which  in 
France  is  called  the  dyer's  buckthorn  (the  botanical  name  being 
rhamnus  infectorius),  and  which,  besides  growing  extensively 
there,  flourishes  in  the  island  of  Candia,in  Wallachia,and  in  Asia 
Minor.  The  French  berries  are  of  small  size;  they  are  gene- 
rally known  under  the  name  of  Avignon  berries ;  the  berries 
coming  from  Turkey  are  called  Turkey  berries,  and  also  Per- 
sian berries.  It  is  the  Persian  berry  which  is  most  generally 
consumed  in  England;  it  is  larger  than  the  Avignon  berry, 
and  contains,  weight  for  weight,  a  larger  amount  of  coloring 
matter.  Its  coloring  principle  is  easily  soluble  in  hot  water, 
and  may  be  concentrated  to  a  strength  of  20°  or  30°  Twaddle; 


76  BICHROME— BILE. 

during  boiling  the  berries  give  off  a  peculiar  sweetish  odor ; 
the  il  berry  liquor,"  if  long  kept,  deposits  a  pale  yellow  starchy- 
looking  sediment,  which  appears  to  be  nearly  pure  coloring 
matter.  With  alumina  and  tin  mordants  berries  yield  a  very 
pure  and  agreeable  yellow,  which,  however,  is  deficient  in  sta- 
bility, not  resisting  well  either  soap  or  exposure  to  air;  on  this 
account,  and  because  quercitron  bark,  fustic,  and  chrome  oranges 
and  yellows  are  cheap  and  manageable,  Persian  berries  are 
hardly  ever  used  in  piece  dyeing,  their  application  being  con- 
fined almost  exclusively  to  printing.  In  woollen  or  calico  print- 
ing the  berry  liquor  is  scarcely  ever  used  for  producing  a  yellow, 
though  with  crystals  of  tin  a  good  yellow  can  be  obtained. 
The  chief  consumption  of  berries  is  as  the  yellow  part  for 
greens ;  it  yields  brighter  and  livelier  greens  than  either  bark 
liquor  or  fustic.  It  is  used  also  for  olives  and  in  chocolates;  added 
to  cochineal  red  in  small  quantity,  it  brightens  the  color,  turn- 
ing it  towards  the  orange  or  scarlet ;  it  seems  to  be  used  by  the 
French  as  a  sightening  for  alumina  mordants,  but  I  have  never 
seen  it  so  employed  in  Lancashire.  Persian  berries  have  been 
slightly  used  in  garancine  dyeing  to  produce  an  orange  upon 
an  acetate  of  tin  mordant.  The  yellow  lake  extensively  used 
by  artists  and  in  paper  hangings,  called  " stil  de  grain"  and 
manufactured  in  Holland,  is  made  by  preparing  a  decoction  of 
berries  in  alum,  and  precipitating  it  by  white  and  pure  chalk. 
In  preparing  berry  liquor  for  yellows  upon  silk  or  wool  it  is 
desirable  not  to  boil  too  long,  nor  to  exhaust  th'e  berry ;  the 
coloring  matter  which  dissolves  first  is  purest,  and  should  be 
taken  off  for  yellows;  the  liquor  obtained  from  the  second  and 
third  boilings  answers  very  well  for  greens,  olives,  and  choco- 
lates. The  pure  coloring  matter  of  berries  is  called  rharnnine, 
but  Kane  distinguishes  two  coloring  matters,  which  he  calls 
respectively  chrysorhamnine  and  xanthorhamnine. 

Bichrome,  or  Chrome. — An  abbreviation  of  bichromate  of 
potash.  (See  CHROMATE  OF  POTASH.) 

Bile,  Ox  Gall,  Gall,  Biliary  Fluid.— The  biliary  fluid  of 
oxen,  under  the  name  of  gall,  has  been  employed  from  the 
earliest  times  as  a  suitable  material  for  cleaning  colored  fabrics. 
Looking  at  its  chemical  constitution,  which  is  nearly  the  same 
as  soap,  we  are  not  at  a  loss  to  explain  what  its  properties  are 
owing  to.  It  actually  operates  as  a  very  mild  kind  of  soap, 
dissolving  grease  and  oily  matters  without  injuring  even  the 
most  delicate  shades  of  color.  It  can  be  dried  and  preserved 
for  an  indefinite  length  of  time,  and  dissolved  in  water  as  re- 
quired. The  uses  which  ox-gall  receives  in  the  fine  arts  may 
possibly  be  extended  to  dyeing  and  printing;  they  are  certainly 
deserving  the  attention  of  the  experimentalist.  Some  beauti- 


BIRCH — BLACK.  77 

ful,  bat  evanescent,  shades  of  color  are  produced  by  the  action 
of  sulphuric  acid  and  sugar  upon  ox-gall. 

Cow  dung  contains,  besides  the  coloring  matter  of  the  bile,  very 
frequently  the  biliary  fluid  itself.  Some  attempts  were  made 
to  show  that  it  had  something  to  do  with  animalizing  mordants, 
but  that  theory  has  been  relinquished.  According  to  an  anony- 
mous writer  in  the  Bulletin  of  Mulhoi.ise,  ox-gall  has  a  slight 
deteriorating  effect  when  mixed  with  the  water  used  in  madder 
dyeing. 

Birch. — The  bark  of  the  birch,  or  the  birch  broom,  has 
been  employed  in  dyeing,  but  principally  by  the  peasantry.  I 
have  no  exact  information  upon  the  nature  of  the  coloring 
matter,  but  it  is  probable  that  these  substances  were  valued  on 
account  of  a  small  amount  of  astringent  or  tannic  matter, 
which,  with  copperas,  would  stike  shades  of  drab,  gray,  or 
olive;  and  with  alumina  mordants  would  give  inferior  yellows. 

Bismuth. — Bismuth  is  a  metal  somewhat  resembling  lead. 
In  a  patent  granted  to  Emile  Kopp,  July  10th,  1855,  a  claim  is 
made,  amongst  others,  for  the  use  of  aceto-nitrate  of  bismuth  as 
a  mordant  for  garancine.  Prior  to  this  date  I  had  tried  various 
salts  of  bismuth  as  mordants,  but  without  obtaining  any  good 
result.  The  specification  claims  the  production  of  bright  crimson 
shades  by  means  of  the  aceto  nitrate  of  bismuth  mordant,  and 
dark  crimson  and  purple  crimson  shades  when  it  is  used  in  com- 
bination with  a  nitric  solution  of  arseniate  of  iron.  By  follow- 
ing the  directions  given  I  did  not  succeed  in  obtaining  any- 
thing commercially  valuable,  and  when  I  had  an  opportunity 
of  seeing  the  results  obtained  by  the  patentee  I  found  them  no 
better  than  those  I  had  produced:  although  highly  ingenious, 
and  somewhat  novel,  as  the  combinations  were,  for  practical 
purposes  they  are  of  but  little  value. 

Bixa  Orellana. — The  botanical  name  of  the  plant  from 
which  anotta  is  obtained.  From  the  first  part  of  the  name 
comes  the  word  bixine,  the  name  of  the  supposed  red  coloring 
matter;  and  from  the  second  part  is  derived  orelline,  the  name 
of  the  yellow-colored  principle  of  anotta. 

Bixine. — Name  given  to  the  supposed  pure  coloring  matter 
of  anotta:  also  the  name  given  to  an  improved  preparation  of 
the  seeds  of  the  bixa  orellana,  by  which  a  much  more  power- 
ful coloring  matter  is  produced,  devoid  of  the  repulsive  animal 
smell  of  the  crude  product,  and  giving  equally  good  or  better 
shades  of  color.  A  sample  of  the  commercial  bixine  I  exa- 
mined was  about  three  times  as  powerful  as  average  qualities 
of  anotta. 

Black. — This  is  probably  the  most  important  of  all  dyed 
colors,  whether  viewed  with  regard  to  the  universal  use  of  it, 


78  BLACK. 

or  the  peculiar  difficulties  attending  its  production.  In  a  philo- 
sophical point  of  view  black  is  not  a  color.  It  is  the  absence 
of  color,  or  the  extinction  or  absorption  of  all  the  colored  rays 
of  light,  which  produces  black.  There  is  no  purely  black  body; 
such  a  body  would  be  perfectly  invisible,  since  it  would  neither 
emit  nor  reflect  any  rays  of  light  by  which  it  could  be  seen.  The 
best  blacks  have  always  some  shade  of  color  discernible  to  the 
practised  eye;  hence  we  distinguish  jet  blacks,  brown  blacks,  blue 
blacks,  purplish  blacks,  red  blacks,  etc.:  it  is  these  shades  which 
make  black  visible.  Black  results  from  a  mixture  of  all  the 
elementary  colors;  thus  the  artist  by  mixing  red,  blue,  and 
yellow  pigments  produces  the  neutral  shades,  which  when  weak 
give  gray,  and  when  concentrated  give  black :  the  same  mix- 
ture, when  made  so  as  to  reflect  light  well,  produces  not  black 
but  white.  The  famous  family  of  the  Gobelins,  whose  success 
in  dyeing  was  imputed  to  supernatural  assistance,  produced 
their  best  blacks  by  a  mixture  of  the  elementary  colors — red, 
blue,  and  yellow.  The  cloth  was  dyed  red  with  madder,  then 
dipped  in  the  indigo  vat  for  blue,  and  lastly  finished  in  weld 
to  give  the  yellow  shade;  the  whole  producing  a  very  perfect 
and  durable  but  expensive  black.  The  earliest  blacks  we  have 
account  of  in  England  were  the  so-called  "  mathered  blacks," 
being  a  madder  red  dyed  upon  a  dip  blue  ground ;  but  this  was 
very  expensive,  and  could  only  exist  by  legal  enactments,  which 
forbade  the  use  of  logwood  in  dyeing  black.  This  law  was 
either  repealed  or  neglected  towards  the  end  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, since  which  period  the  chief  ingredients  in  black  are 
galls,  sumac,  logwood,  and  salts  of  iron.  I  will  first  give  the 
methods  of  obtaining  blacks  in  silk  by  dyeing  and  printing; 
then  blacks  on  woollen  and  mixed  fabrics ;  and  lastly,  blacks 
by  dyeing  and  printing  on  cotton  goods. 

Black  Dye  on  Silk. — The  common  cheap  silks  are  dyed  with 
logwood  and  fustic  for  coloring  matters,  and  some  iron  salt  as 
mordant ;  the  better  class  of  silks  are  dyed  with  galls ;  the  use 
or  non-use  of  galls  in  dyeing  black  on  silk  divides  the  colors 
into  two  classes.  The  logwood  blacks  are  all  distinguished  by 
turning  immediately  a  bright  red  when  a  drop  of  spirits  of  salts 
is  put  in  contact  with  them  ;  the  galled  blacks,  even  when 
topped  with  logwood,  do  not  give  a  red  immediately,  and  then 
it  is  of  a  dull  purplish  color. 

Blacks  on  Silk  without  Galls.— The  silk  properly  scoured  is 
worked  for  a  greater  or  less  time  in  some  iron  salt.  I  believe 
the  common  nitrate  of  iron  is  as  good  as  any  of  the  many  mor- 
dants in  use,  sometimes  ordinary  green  copperas  is  used,  but 
that  will  not  yield  a  deep  black  ;  a  per-sulphate  of  iron  is  also 
employed,  and  also  a  mixture  of  sulphate  and  nitrate;  the  ace- 


BLACK.  79 

tate  of  iron  or  common  calico  printers'  iron  liquor  is  also  in 
use  and  answers  very  well ;  each  dyer  has  his  favorite  mordant 
which  he  considers  the  best  for  the  peculiar  shade  of  black  he 
wants.  An  hour  is  generally  sufficient  in  the  iron,  the  goods 
washed  well  in  cold  water  to  remove  the  unattached  iron,  and 
then  worked  in  the  logwood  at  a  very  moderate  heat.  To 
obtain  a  jet  or  brownish-black  there  should  be  about  one  pound 
of  fustic  for  every  five  pounds  of  logwood.  It  is  customary  to 
add  a  little  copperas  to  the  dye  vat  to  raise  the  color  just 
before  finishing,  the  goods  being  previously  lifted. 

Blue  Black. — Mordant  in  nitrate  of  iron,  raise  in  logwood, 
to  which  as  much  white  soap  has  been  added  as  will  make  a 
lather;  no  copperas  must  be  added. 

Black  on  Blue  Ground. — Dye  a  Prussian  blue,  mordant  in 
iron,  raise  in  logwood  with  copperas  at  the  end. 

Deep  Hat  Black. — Work  five  pounds  of  silk  in  a  decoction  of 

2  Ibs.  fustic  chips, 

1  Ib.  quercitron  bark;  lift,  and  add 

6  oz.  verdigris, 

6  oz.  copperas;  work  for  fifteen  minutes,  and  leave  overhead 
all  night;  wash  and  dye  in  a  decoction  of  5  Ibs.  logwood,  with 
as  much  white  soap  as  will  make  a  lather — (Napier). 

Union  Velvets — a  mixed  fabric  in  which  the  pile  is  silk  and 
the  back  cotton;  they  are  extensively  dyed  in  the  neigborhood 
of  Manchester  by  one  or  other  of  the  above  processes.  The 
cotton  back  is  a  very  light  color  compared  with  the  silk  face, 
showing  the  different  affinities  of  the  two  materials;  no  single 
process  at  present  known  will  enable  the  cotton  to  take  the 
same  shade  as  the  silk. 

Blacks  on  Silk  with  Galls. — The  silk  having  been  scoured  is 
steeped  in  a  decoction  of  galls  made  from  bruised  galls  by  boil- 
ing ;  for  2  Ibs.  of  silk  1  Ib.  of 'galls  is  taken,  after  twenty-four 
hours  the  silk  is  rinsed  in  water  and  dipped  and  worked  in 
solution  of  copperas,  afterwards  it  is  worked  in  warm  decoction 
of  logwood,  then  again  in  the  iron,  washed  out,  and  if  the  shade 
is  not  deep  enough,  the  same  process  repeated  as  often  as  neces- 
sary. This  is  essentially  the  old  process  by  which  silk  was  dyed, 
and  it  is  the  existing  process  except  that  galls  are  replaced  by 
other  cheaper  astringent  matters.  In  Franc,  chestnut  wood  and 
bark  is  extensively  used  in  black  dyeing.  An  infusion  of  the 
wood  and  bark  is  prepared,  the  silk  is  steeped  in  it  for  three  or 
foijr  hours,  during  which  time  the  astringent  combines  with  the 
silk,  and  the  latter  acquires  a  yellow  nankeen  shade;  it  is  well 
washed  and  steeped  in  the  iron  bath  which  is  kept  at  near  the 
boil.  The  iron  bath  is  composed  of  green  copperas  or  iron 
liquor  with  some  metallic  iron  intended  to  keep  down  the 


80  BLACK. 

acidity  and  supply  iron  to  the  bath  as  the  silk  withdraws  it;  a 
certain  quantity  of  gum  is  dissolved  in  this  bath,  also  with  the 
intention  of  making  it  somewhat  mucilaginous,  so  that  the  black 
particles  of  tannate  of  iron  may  be  held  suspended  in  the 
liquor:  a  little  sulphate  of  copper  is  also  added  by  some  dyers. 
The  silk  as  it  comes  out  of  the  bath  is  reddish,  but  speedily  goes 
black  on  exposure  to  the  air.  It  requires  four  or  six  treatments 
to  obtain  a  good  black — (Dumas).  The  Lyons  dyers  are  stated 
to  find  an  economy  of  50  per  cent,  by  using  chestnut  extract 
instead  of  galls,  and  to  obtain  better  results. 

The  Genoese  dyers  were  formerly  celebrated  for  the  good- 
ness and  fastness  of  the  black  colors  they  produced.  They 
used  immense  dye  vats,  which  were  never  emptied,  composed 
of  water,  vinegar,  sour  beer  or  cider,  oatmeal,  alder  bark,  sumac, 
oak  bark,  gall  nuts,  and  metallic  iron,  along  with  various  other 
substances,  the  use  or  application  of  which  modern  chemistry 
does  not  explain.  Bancroft  examined  a  sample  of  Genoa  black 
velvet,  and  found  no  blue  basis  as  was  supposed.  These  black 
vats,  or  twines  au  noir,  were  being  continually  replenished,  and 
the  sediment  occasionally  cleared  out. 

By  galling,  silk  increases  in  weight,  so  that  by  repeating 
several  times  the  steeping  in  galls  a  very  considerable  increase 
of  weight  can  be  communicated  to  silk,  so  much  so,  that  it  has 
become  a  species  of  falsification,  and  not  only  is.  the  twenty-five 
per  cent,  of  gum  which  silk  naturally  loses  in  scouring  made  up, 
but  sometimes  another  twenty-five  per  cent,  in  weight  or  more 
is  added  to  it.  The  deposition  of  so  much  foreign  matter  in 
the  fibre  of  the  silk  injures  its  wearing  qualities. 

The  use  of  logwood  in  conjunction  with  galls  is  condemned, 
for  though  it  gives  a  fuller  and  more  blooming  color  it  speedily 
becomes  brown  by  wear. 

According  to  Dumas,  the  practice  of  giving  a  dip  blue  bottom 
to  black  is  nearly  abandoned.  Prussian  blue  is  sometimes  used ; 
but  logwood  and  copperas,  with  some  sulphate  of  copper,  are 
chiefly  employed  to  give  a  blue  shade  to  blacks. 

Black  for  Printing  on  Silk. — These  colors  are  comparatively 
simple,  being  derived  essentially  from  logwood  or  galls  as  col- 
ouring matter,  and  some  salt  of  iron  as  mordant.  The  other 
ingredients  assist  to  develop  or  modify  the  shade. 

Black  for  Silk.— Blotch. 
1  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  7°  Tw. 
10  oz.  acetate  of  copper  at  40°  Tw. 
16  oz.  red  liquor  at  18°, 
18  oz.  starch  :  boil,  and  when  cold,  add 
7  oz.  nitrate  of  iron  at  80°. 
For  blocking,  size  or  Carragheen  moss  is  a  suitable  thickening. 


BLACK.  81 

Black  for  Silk.— Roller  or  Block.— (Persoz.) 

1  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  14°, 

10  oz.  starch, 

1  Ib.  10  oz.  British  gum  ;  boil,  and  when  cool  add 

10  oz.  crystals  of  nitrate  copper. 

8  oz.  proto- per  nitrate  of  iron. 

This  color  should  age  some  time  before  steaming. 

Gall  Black  for  Silk. 

1 J  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  5|°, 

5  oz.  powered  gall-nuts;  boil  until  reduced  to 

1  gallon  mixed  logwood  and  gall  liquor, 

1£  Ibs.  starch;  boil,  and  when  cool  add 

l|  oz.  alum, 

5  oz.  sulphate  of  copper, 

1  £  oz.  sulphate  of  iron, 

3J  oz.  nitrate  of  iron  at  80°, 

4  oz.  melted  suet  or  lard. 

Other  receipts  only  vary  in  quantities  or  by  additions  of  a  little 
oxalic  or  tartaric  acids ;  it  is  not  necessary  to  multiply  ex- 
amples. 

Black  upon  Wool  by  dyeing. — For  the  best  quality  of  woollen 
goods  the  process  consists  in,  first,  giving  a  dark  blue  by  means 
of  the  indigo  vat,  and  then,  after  the  cloth  has  been  well  washed, 
it  is  passed  for  an  hour  in  a  boiling  decoction  of  sumac  and 
logwood,  using  about  4  Ibs.  of  sumac  to  1  Ib.  logwood  ;  the 
strength  of  the  decoction  depends  upon  the  weight  of  the  cloth. 
At  the  expiration  of  an  hour  the  cloth  is  lifted,  and  aired  both 
to  cool  it  and  let  the  oxygen  of  the  air  act  upon  it ;  in  the  mean- 
time green  copperas  is  added  to  the  dye  vat,  about  one  pound 
to  three  yards  of  cloth;  the  vat  is  cooled  down  until  the  hand 
can  be  held  in,  and  the  cloth  entered  again  and  worked  for  an 
hour,  the  heat  being  kept  just  below  the  scald.  These  opera- 
tions are  repeated  three  times,  or  until  the  cloth  is  saturated; 
it  is  then  well  washed  and  finished.  Blacks  so  dyed  are  very 
stable,  and  are  said  to  have  a  very  characteristic  greenish  hue, 
communicated  by  the  blue  bottom  and  the  yellow  of  the  sumac. 
This  plan  of  dyeing  is  too  expensive  for  the  lower  qualities  of 
woollen  cloth,  which  are  dyed  as  follows :  For  about  70  Ibs.  of 
woollen  cloth — 

14  Ibs.  of  logwood, 
4  Ibs.  galls  in  powder, 
2  Ibs.  fustic ; 


82  BLACK. 

Boiled  together  for  half  an  hour,  the  vat  cooled  down,  the  cloth 
entered  and  moved  about  for  four  hours,  during  which  time 
the  vat  is  brought  as  near  the  boil  as  possible.  The  cloth  is 
then  lifted  and  aired ;  4  Ibs.  green  copperas  are  dissolved  in 
the  hot  liquor,  which  is  cooled  down,  and  the  piece  entered 
again  for  an  hour;  this  process  is  repeated  until  a  satisfactory 
color  is  obtained.  A  variation  of  the  above  consists  in  adding 
sulphate  of  copper  or  blue  copperas  along  with  the  green  cop- 
peras ;  it  produces  a  more  lustrous  black,  which  is,  however, 
easily  faded  on  exposure  to  air  and  light ;  acetate  of  copper  or 
verdigris  answers  the  same  purpose,  and  is  open  to  the  same 
objection.  In  other  processes  no  gall-nuts  are  used,  but  sumac 
instead. 

Geneva  Black — M.  Dumas,  in  detailing  this  process,  says 
that  this  black  is  very  fine,  does  not  injure  the  wool,  possesses 
a  brilliancy  which  no  other  has,  and  can  have  a  lively  blue 
tint. 

For  a  piece  of  cloth  of  about  40  yards,  weighing  70  Ibs. : — 

6  Ibs.  green  copperas, 
6  Ibs.  tartar, 

1  Ib.  sulphate  copper, 

2  Ibs.  fustic, 

2  Ibs.  logwood. 

These  materials  are  boiled  a  short  time,  and  the  cloth  entered 
and  worked  at  the  boil  for  three  hours,  then  washed ;  afterwards 
entered  into  a  fresh  vat,  in  which  11  Ibs.  of  logwood  have  been 
boiled,  and  boiled  for  an  hour ;  taken  out,  and  again  entered 
in  the  same  vat  for  half  an  hour,  and  finished.  It  is  impossible 
to  see  anything  either  in  the  materials  or  management  which 
would  make  this  black  superior  to  the  others.  Tartar  may  be 
useful  in  preventing  the  wool  becoming  harsh,  and  it  may 
modify  the  color;  but  it,  is  not  likely  to  assist  the  fixing  of 
the  iron,  nor  contribute  to  the  general  stability  of  the  color. 

Napier  gives  the  following  for  10  Ibs.  of  woollen  cloth:  work 
for  one  hour  in  a  bath,  with  8  oz.  bichromate  potash,  6  oz. 
alum,  4  oz.  fustic;  wash  well,  and  then  work  for  one  hour  in 
another  bath,  with  4  Ibs.  logwood,  4  oz.  barwood,  4  oz.  fustic ; 
lift,  and  add  4  oz.  solution  of  copperas,  work  half  an  hour  in 
this,  wash  and  dry. 

Richardson's  patented  process,  May  16th,  1855,  consists  in 
boiling  the  woollen  cloth  in  a  mixture  of  bichromate  of  potash, 
tartar  and  sulphuric  acid  for  an  hour,  this  forming  the  mor- 
dant; then  entering  it  in  a  vessel  containing  chiefly  logwood, 
with  a  little  camwood,  fustic,  sulphate  of  indigo,  and  sulphuric 
acid.  The  use  of  bichromate  of  potash  in  woollen  dyeing  has 


BLACK.  83 

become  very  general  within  a  few  years,  though  its  action  is 
not  clearly  understood.  Grumel's  patent,  April  8th,  1859,  is 
for  a  black  obtained  by  means  of  chromates  and  logwood. 

Another  receipt  from  Napier,  gives  8  oz.  camwood,  work  in 
twenty  minutes,  lift  and  add  8  oz.  sulphate  of  iron,  leave  the 
goods  in  all  night;  wash  out  and  raise  in  a  bath  containing  5 
Ibs.  logwood  and  one  pint  chamber  lye  for  an  hour,  lift  and 
add  4  oz.  copperas,  work  in  this  half  an  hour  longer ;  wash 
and  dry. 

Black  dyed  broad  cloth  is  nearly  all  sold  as  "woaded,"  an 
expression  which  originally  indicated  that  the  black  had  a  fast 
blue  basis  derived  from  woad,  a  variety  of  indigo ;  afterwards 
the  indigo  vat  foundation,  having  precisely  the  same  value  as 
woad  for  practical  purposes,  was  substituted ;  but  as  the  majo- 
rity of  the  samples  of  "woaded"  cloth  that  I  have  tested  do  not 
indicate  any  blue  basis,  it  must  be  presumed  the  term  "woaded" 
has  received  some  new  and  conventional  meaning.  Genuine 
woaded  black  does  not  turn  red  when  a  drop  of  muriatic  acid 
touches  it ;  after  a  time  it  becomes  purplish,  because  more  or 
less  logwood  is  always  used ;  a  common  logwood  black  acquires 
a  bright  red  color  instantaneously  by  contact  with  a  drop  of 
acid. 

Blade  for  Printing  on  Woollen  Goods. — Logwood  is  the  basis 
of  all  black  colors  for  printing  on  wool,  iron  is  the  chief  fixing 
agent,  nitrate  of  copper  is  the  oxidizing  agent,  alumina  is  em- 
ployed to  modify  the  shade,  extracts  of  other  dyewoods  are 
added  occasionally,  with  a  view  to  increase  the  intensity  of  the 
black,  or  give  it  a  shade  favorable  to  the  contiguous  colors. 
Here  is  a  selection  of  receipts,  with  remarks : — 

Slack  for  all  Wool— Block. 
8  Ibs.  calcined  farina, 
4J  quarts  logwood  liquor  at  20°, 
12  quarts  water, 

1  pint  sapan  liquor  at  20°, 
4  quarts  red  liquor  at  10°, 

8  Ibs.  crystals  nitrate  of  copper, 

2  quarts  nitrate  of  iron  at  80°, 
1  quart  acetate  of  iron  at  14°. 

By  altering  the  thickening  this  color  would  serve  for  roller ; 
instead  of  8  Ibs.  calcined  farina,  6  Ibs.  starch  should  be  taken ; 
the  three  last  ingredients  to  be  added  only  when  the  color  is 
cold. 


84  BLACK. 

Blotch  Black  for  all  Wool. 

4J  quarts  logwood  liquor  at  6°, 

4.*  quarts  peachwood  liquor  at  6°, 

18  oz.  starch ;  boil,  and  whilst  warm  add 

6  025.  sulphate  of  copper, 

4  oz.  sulphate  of  iron, 

6  oz.  pasty  extract  of  indigo  ;  and  when  cold  add 

12  oz.  nitrate  of  iron  at  80°. 

This  is  also  a  block  color,  and  would  be  found  too  thin  for 
machine. 

Black  for  Merinoes,  all  Wool. 

6£  quarts  logwood  liquor  at  9°, 

2  quarts  blue  archil  at  10°, 

36  oz.  starch, 

£  pint  gall  liquor  at  19°  ;  boil,  and  add 

2  oz.  copperas, 

2-  oz.  sulphate  of  copper, 

12  oz.  pasty  sulp.  of  indigo ;  and  when  cold 

15  oz.  nitrate  of  iron  at  80°. 

A  variety  of  blacks  can  be  made  by  modification  of  the  above 
receipts;  the  addition  of  ammoniacal  cochineal  is  recommended 
in  some,  oxalic  acid  in  small  quantities  is  prescribed  in  others, 
some  contain  alum.  I  translate  some  receipts  from  Persoz, 
Dumas,  and  Thillaye.  In  French  receipts  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  logwood  and  other  liquors  are  at  a  strength  never  seen 
in  England;  but  as  water  frequently  enters  into  the  receipt,  a 
compensation  can  be  made  by  leaving  out  the  whole  or  part  of 
the  water,  to  suit  the  strength  of  liquor  obtainable. 

Black  for  Objects.—  Wool  or  Mixed  Silk  and  Wool 

1  gallon  boiling  water, 

\  gallon  peachwood  liquor  at  22°, 

1  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  48° ;  add  gradually 

i  gallon  water,  in  which  has  been  dissolved 

|  Ib.  bichromate  of  potash ;  thicken  with 

3J  Ibs.  starch, 

4  Ibs.  gurn  substitute ;  and  while  hot  add 

1£  Ibs.  sal  ammoniac, 

2£  Ibs.  acetate  of  cop.;  when  cooled  a  little  add 

1 J  Ibs.  oxalic  acid ;  then  mix  very  well  with 

|  pint  turpentine ;  and  when  quite  cold  add 

3 f  Ibs.  nitrate  of  iron  at  90°, 

3£  Ibs.  refined  extract  of  indigo. 


BLACK.  85 

The  use  of  bichromate  of  potash  will  be  found  to  present  great 
difficulties  in  practice ;  very  few  color  mixers  can  manage  to 
obtain  a  workable  color  by  this  receipt. 

Black  for  Blotch  and  Objects.— All  Wool. 

1  gallon  togwood  liquor  at  5°, 

1  Ib.  starch  ;  boil,  and  when  cold  add 

1  Ib.  nitrate  of  iron  at  80°, 

4  oz.  nitrate  of  copper  at  80°, 

Pint  of  gall  liquor  at  5°. 

*  Another. 

1  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  5|°, 
1  quart  gall  liquor  at  8°, 
1  pint  archil  liquor, 

1J  Ibs.  starch;  boil,  and  add  while  warm 
10  oz.  extract  of  indigo;  when  cold  add 
SO  oz.  nitrate  of  iron,  which  has  been  neutralized  by  addition 
of  acetate  of  lead. 

Black  upon  Cotton  by  Dyeing. — The  old  fast  black  upon  cot- 
ton was  obtained,  by  giving  a  blue  ground  with  indigo,  then 
galling  and  working  in  sulphate  of  iron,  sometimes  with  addi- 
tion of  logwood  ;  alder  bark,  and  other  similar  substances  were 
also  employed  ;  and  the  goods  usually  finished  in  an  emulsion 
of  oil,  to  take  off  the  harshness  which  iron  mordants  so  gene- 
rally communicate.  Later  on,  what  was  called  the  Manchester 
black,  was  obtained  by  first  steeping  in  galls  or  sumac,  then 
working  in  the  copperas  vat,  and  afterwards  in  logwood  con- 
taining some  verdigris,  and  repeating  these  operations  until 
the  desired  shade  was  obtained.  Galls  are  now  scarcely  ever 
used  ;  sumac,  which  is  cheaper,  being  employed  in  substitu- 
tion ;  and  the  processes,  though  almost  infinite  in  details, 
consist  essentially  of  steeping  in  sumac,  then  working  in  an 
iron  bath,  and  afterwards  raising  in  logwood.  One  method 
said  to  give  good  results,  consists  in  steeping  in  sumac  for 
twelve  hours,  then  working  through  lime-water,  and  exposing 
to  the  air  until  the  light  green  color  at  first  produced  passes  to 
a  dull  heavy  shade ;  the  goods  are  tben  passed  through  solution 
of  green  copperas,  and  exposed  to  the  air  until  they  appeared 
black  while  in  the  wet  state ;  if  dried,  they  would  be  found  to 
be  only  gray  or  slate  color.  To  fill  up  the  color  the  goods  are 
passed  into  the  logwood  bath  (some  authorities  say  it  is  advisa- 
ble to  pass  them  through  lime-water  first)  for  a  sufficient  time ; 
lifted,  some  copperas  added  and  the  goods  raised  in  it;  for  light 
goods  this  suffices  to  produce  a  black,  heavier  goods  require  a 


86  BLACK. 

repetition  of  the  processes.  A  rapid  continuous  method  of 
dyeing  black  on  light  goods  is  practised  in  Lancashire ;  the 
goods  are  passed  through  a  decoction  of  catechu,  then  imme- 
diately into  a  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash,  next  into  decoc- 
tion of  logwood,  then  into  green  copperas,  and  lastly  through 
a  decoction  of  some  red  wood,  as  camwood  or  Brazil  wood. 
The  order  of  these  liquids  may  be  changed  within  certain 
limits.  A  simpler  method  of  dyeing  by  means  of  bichromates 
is  also  given,  which  consists  in  steeping  the  goods  in  logwood, 
exposing  them  to  the  air  and  drying,  then  passing  them  into 
bichromate  of  potash  neutralized  by  crystals  of  soda,  by  which 
the  logwood  is  "struck"  of  an  intense  black  and^xed.  Velve- 
teens are  dyed  black  by  reiterated  passages  in  logwood  and 
green  copperas  until  a  dark  brown  is  produced,  then  passed  in 
sumac  and  sulphate  of  copper,  with  sometimes  addition  of 
peach  wood  or  Brazil  wood.  Fustic  is  an  ingredient  in  all  dyes 
where  a  brownish  or  jet  black  is  desired. 

Black  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  colors  to  dye,  and  no  one 
but  a  practical  man  understands  the  difficulties  of  obtaining 
regular  and  good  results,  especially  when  first  class  colors  are 
aimed  at.  It  is  useless  to  give  weights  and  quantities  when 
these  are  really  only  inferior  elements  of  success ;  a  slight 
change  in  the  quality  of  the  sumac,  something  different  in  the 
"ageing"  or  "mastering"  of  the  logwood,  some  slight  modifica- 
tion in  the  temperature  and  pressure  of  the  "stills"  in  which 
the  liquors  are  made,  and  other  causes  not  more  conspicuous, 
have  frequently  fn  my  experience  put  works  almost  to  a  stand 
still.  And  when  I  have  been  called  in  for  advice,  it  has  been 
evident  that  chemistry  could  only  give  conjectures  as  to  what 
was  wrong.  These  failures  in  producing  satisfactory  colors 
would  not  be  apparent  to  an  unpractised  eye  ;  the  defects  would 
only  consist  in  those  hues  and  reflections  of  shade  being  wanting 
which  were  most  esteemed  and  usually  produced;  Though  it 
is  exceedingly  difficult  in  most  cases  to  trace  the  actual  cause 
of  inferior  results,  there  have  been  in  my  practice  very  evident 
occasions  in  which  a  most  trivial  and  apparently  unimportant 
cause  has  produced  very  embarrassing  effects  ;  the  closest  atten- 
tion on  the  part  of  a  foreman  or  manager  is  most  essential  in 
order  that  these  things  majr  be  avoided,  or  if  they  occur  that 
their  cause  may  be  discovered. 

Black  on  Cotton  by  Printing. — The  oldest  black  applied  topi- 
cally on  cotton  goods,  was  that  called  "chemical  black,"  made 
from  gall  liquor  and  nitrate  of  iron.  I  have  a  receipt  for 
chemical  black  dated  1804,  with  a  patch  annexed ;  the  color 
has  considerably  faded,  but  not  so  much  as  a  logwood  black 
would  have  done.  The  receipt  runs  as  follows: — 


BLACK.  87 

Chemical  Black,  1804. 

28  Ibs.  gall- nuts, 

16  galls,  tar  acid  (pyroligneous  acid),  boil  for  six  hours  and 
strain  the  clear  liquor,  make  up  to  16  galls,  and  thicken  with 
26  Ibs.  of  good  flour,  add  14  gills  aquafortis  killed  with  iron 
nails  (nitrate  of  iron),  "then  boil  it  well  and  get  it  out,  or  else 
it  will  go  thin,  cool  it  and  it  is  fit  for  work." 

Other  receipts  are  very  similar,  but  generally  pure  water  is 
used  to  make  the  gall  liquor,  sometimes  vinegar  is  prescribed  ; 
the  nitrate  of  iron  is  usually  added  after  the  gall  liquor  has 
been  boiled  with  the  thickening,  and  that  is  undoubtedly  the 
preferable  way.  This  black  withstands  a  good  deal  of  rough 
treatment  in  the  way  of  dunging,  dipping,  and  dyeing  after- 
wards, and  was  much  used  in  styles  that  had  to  be  dipped  and 
dyed  after  printing,  as  indigo  blues,  madder  reds,  weld  yellows, 
etc. 

All  the  modern  steam  blacks  on  cotton  may  be  reduced  to 
logwood  liquor,  thickening  matter  and  a  salt  of  iron ;  other 
wood  extracts  and  drugs  may  fulfil  useful  purposes  with  regard 
to  the  shade  of  black,  contiguous  colors,  facility  of  printing, 
washing  off',  etc. ;  but  the  only  essentials  are  the  three  materials 
mentioned. 

Steam  Black  for  Calico. 

1  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  6°, 

1^  Ibs.  starch  ;  boil,  and  while  hot  add 

5  oz.  green  copperas,  stir  well  and  when  nearly  cold  add 

2  oz.  olive  or  gallipolli  oil, 

lU  oz.  nitrate  of  iron,  well  saturated  with  iron,  or  neutralized 
by  addition  of  one-third  its  weight  of  acetate  of  lead. 

Another  Black. 

3  gallons  logwood  liquor  at  12°, 

1  gallon  red  liquor  "  16°, 

1       "       iron  liquor  "  28°, 

1      "       acetic  acid  "  8°, 

7|  Ibs.  flour, 

3  Ibs.  British  gum ;  boil  for  half  an  hour. 

The  following  black  contains  a  large  quantity  of  fatty  matter, 
this  is -added  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  it  to  temporarily  re- 
sist the  penetration  of  chemical  agents  which  would  injure  or 
destroy  it,  but  which  are  necessary  to  the  development  of  some 
other  colors  printed  along  with  it ;  for  example,  it  is  used  in 
conjunction  with  fast  blue  to  be  raised  in  soda;  it  is  used  on' 


88  BLACK. 

Turkey  reds  which  have  to  pass  through  strong  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime  to  produce  a  white,  etc.  The  black  is  for  a 
time  waterproof.  The  prussiate  may  be  left  out  at  discretion, 
but  it  is  used  for  giving  a  blue  black. 

Soda  Black  or  Spermaceti  Black. 

2J  gallons  logwood  liquor  at  12°, 

1  gallon  red  liquor  at  16°, 

1      "       acetic  acid  at  8°, 

8  oz.  yellow  prussiate, 

4  Ibs.  starch  if  for  blocking ;  6  Ibs.  if  for  machine,  boil  well 

and  add  a  warm  mixture  of 
1£  Ibs.  spermaceti, 
10  oz.  gallipolli  oil, 
10  oz.  turpentine,  and  when  cold  add 
1  quart  nitrate  of  iron. 

Black  colors  for  delaines  are  similar  to  those  for  wool ;  log- 
wood and  nitrate  of  iron  being  the  chief  ingredients,  with  sul- 
phate of  indigo  for  a  blue  material,  and  red  woods  for  browning 
the  shade.  Eeceipts  for  black  on  delaine  frequently  assume  an 
extreme  degree  of  complexity,  and  at  other  times  are  nothing 
but  logwood  and  nitrate  of  iron.  Out  of  a  great  number  of 
receipts,  I  give  two  as  illustrations. 

Black  for  Delaines. 

3  gallons  logwood  liquor  at  12°, 

3  Ibs.  starch ;  boil  well,  and  when  cooled  to  90°  F.  add 

1  quart  nitrate  of  iron  at  84°. 

Another. 

1  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  8°, 

1  pint  wood  acid  at  7°, 

1|  pints  of  bark  liquor  at  10°, 
2|  oz.  extract  of  indigo, 
J  oz.  bichromate  of  potash, 

2  Ibs.  flour, 

8  oz.  British  gum ;  boil,  and  when  nearly  cool  add 

4  oz.  sal  ammoniac, 

J  pint  of  muriate  of  iron  at  80°, 

J  pint  of  nitrate  of  iron  at  80°. 

For  madder  black,  see  MADDER. 

Recapitulation. — Blacks  may  be  divided  into  the  following 
classes : — 

1.    Compound    Blacks,   produced   by   mixture   of    separate 


BLEACHING.  89 

elementary  colors,  or  the  extreme  condensation  of  one  or  two 
colors.  This  includes  the  ancient  Gobelin  black,  the  old  En- 
glish "mathered  blacks,"  and  the  blacks  of  all  kinds  dyed  on 
a  blue  basis.  They  are  generally  very  fast  and  permanent 
colors,  but  for  no  other  reason  than  that  the  separate  colors 
from  which  they  are  produced  are  each  the  fastest  and  best  of 
their  kind.  Indigo,  madder,  and  weld  give  respectively  the 
fastest  blues,  reds,  and  yellows,  their  combination  gives, 
consequently,  the  fastest  black  ;  so  madder  and  indigo  without 
weld  give  an  extremely  permanent  brownish-black;  and  all 
goods  dyed  black  with  an  indigo  ground  and  gall  and  logwood 
top  are  fast  in  proportion  to  the  depth  of  that  blue  ground. 
Prussian  blue  is  sometimes  used  as  a  basis  for  black,  and  peach- 
wood  and  Brazil  wood  for  the  red  part;  these  are  true  com- 
pound blacks,  but  as  the  elements  have  no  great  stability,  so 
the  compound  color  itself  is  not  a  permanent  one. 

2.  Astringent  Blades,  derived  from  gall-nuts,  sumac,  chestnrft 
wood,  and  similar  bodies.     These  blacks  owe  their  color  to 
the  formation  of  a  dark  colored  compound  produced  by  the 
combination  of  tannic  or  some  similar  acid  with  oxide  of  iron. 
They  are  very  stable,  resisting  extremely  well  ordinary  wear 
and  exposure ;  but  on  account  of  the  low  covering  power  of 
this  tannate  of  iron,  and  the  consequent  necessity  of  the  accu- 
mulation of  large  masses  of  it  upon  fibrous  material  in  order  to 
produce  a  good  black,  it  is  rarely  used  except  in  combination 
with  logwood. 

3.  Logwood  Blacks. — The  black  pigment,  produced  by  com- 
bination of  the  coloring  matter  of  logwood  and  oxide  of  iron, 
has  great  depth  and  lustre.     It  fades,  however,  very  rapidly 
upon  exposure  to  light  and  air,  going  brown  and  rusty,  and  if 
there  be  not  some  more  permanent  black  in  combination  with 
it,  or  a  fast  blue  basis,  cloth  dyed  with  such  a  black  is  speedily 
injured.     The  comparative  cheapness  of  logwood  continually 
incites  the  black  dyers  to  use  too  much  of  it  in  proportion  to 
galls  and  sumac. 

4.  Chromate  Blacks. — Neutral   chromate  of  potash  gives  a 
deep  black  precipitate  with  logwood  liquor,  and  several  methods 
have  been  devised  of  forming  the  black  compound  on  cloth ; 
but  it  does  not  appear  that  this  combination  of  coloring  matter 
and  oxide  of  chromium  possesses  any  greater  stability  or  powers 
of  resisting  atmospheric  influences  than  the  corresponding  iron 
compounds. 

Bleaching. — The  word  "bleach"  is  derived  from  a  French 
word,  which  means  "to  whiten,"  and  the  rough  meaning  of 
bleaching  is  therefore  whitening,  in  the  sense  of  taking  away 
the  substances  which  color  the  material  being  bleached.  The 


90  BLEACHING. 

old  method  of  bleaching  consisted  in  washing  with  water,  soap, 
and  soda,  and  exposure  to  the  air;  it  was  a  very  slow  process. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  last  century,  a  French  chemist,  Ber- 
thollet,  discovered  that  the  gas  called  chlorine,  then  itself  but 
recently  discovered,  was  capable  of  destroying  vegetable  color- 
ing matter  without  injuring  vegetable  fibre,  and  in  a  short  time 
it  was  practically  applied.  The  present  process  of  bleaching 
calico  consists  in,  first,  removing  from  it  all  greasy  matters, 
dust,  etc.,  which  it  has  acquired  in  transit  or  manufacture,  and 
then  submitting  it  to  the  bleaching  action  of  chlorine  combined 
with  lime.  Cotton  being  so  nearly  white  in  itself  requires  but 
little  chlorine  to  bleach  it.  The  most  important  steps  in  the 
bleaching  process  are  those  which  are  undertaken  to  remove 
the  greasy  substances  and  mechanically  adhering  dirt  not  actu- 
ally belonging  to  cotton  in  its  natural  state. 

Bleaching  for  Madder  Dyeing. — The  method  now  generally 
used  for  the  best  bleaching  for  madder  and  garancine  dyeing 
consists  of  the  following  operations:  — 

1.  Singeing,  followed  by  "rot  steep"  or  "wetting  out  steep." 

2.  Liming — boiling  with  milk  of  lime  and  water  from  twelve 

to  sixteen  hours. 

3.  Washing  out  the  lime  and  passing  in  muriatic  acid  sours, 

or  weak  vitriol. 

4.  Bowking  in  soda  ash  and  prepared  resin,  ten  to  sixteen 

hours. 

5.  Washing  out  of  the  bowk. 

6.  Passing  through  solution  of  chloride  of  lime. 

7.  Passing  through  weak  sours  chiefly  muriatic  acid. 

8.  Washing,  squeezing,  and  drying. 

The  singeing  is  not  a  part  of  the  bleaching  properly  con- 
sidered, it  is  merely  to  remove  the  loosely  adhering  filaments 
and  so  improve  the  cloth  in  appearance  and  for  printing. 

The  "rot  steep"  (so  called  because  the  flour  or  size  with 
which  the  goods  were  impregnated  were  formerly  allowed 
to  enter  into  fermentation  and  putrefaction)  is  intended  to 
thoroughly  wet  the  cloth ;  this  takes  some  time  on  account  of 
its  throwing  off  water  in  places  owing  to  greasy  matters  in  it; 
if  the  cloth  be  not  thoroughly  moistened  there  is  risk  of  irregu- 
larity in  the  after  processes,  and  attention  must  be  paid  to  this 
point. 

The  liming  takes  place  in  large  kiers  or  kettles  capable  of 
holding  from  500  to  1500  pieces  of  cloth ;  the  lime  is  very 
carefully  slacked  some  days  previous  to  being  used,and  brought 
to  a  smooth  milk  of  lime,  being  sieved  so  that  no  small  lumps 
of  quicklime  should  get  into  the  kier ;  it  is  equally  distributed 


BLEACHING.  91 

upon  the  cloth  as  it  enters  the  kiers,  the  cloth  is  pressed  over- 
head in  the  liquor,  and  the  boiling  commenced  and  continued 
for  a  period  of  from  twelve  to  sixteen  hours.  At  the  end  of 
that  time  the  lime  liquor  is  run  off'  and  clear  water  run  in  to 
cool  the  pieces,  which  are  then  taken  out  and  washed.  The 
liming  is  usually  performed  at  a  low  pressure;  but  a  patent 
process  where  a  pressure  of  40  Ibs.  or  more  is  used  seems  to 
answer  very  well  and  to  save  time.  The  apparent  utility  of 
liming  consists  in  its  acting  upon  the  greasy  matters,  forming 
a  kind  of  insoluble  soap  with  them  which  is  easily  taken  out 
by  the  subsequent  processes. 

The  souring  after  liming  removes  all  excess  of  lime  and 
breaks  up  the  insoluble  lime  soap  referred  to  in  the  previous 
paragraph,  still  leaves  the  grease  upon  the  cloth,  but  in  such 
an  altered  state  as  to  be  easily  dissolved  in  the  bowking  which 
follows.  Muriatic  acid  sours  are  sometimes  used  in  this  sour- 
ing; but  it  is  my  opinion  that  common  vitriol  sours  may  be 
safely  used,  for  any  sulphate  of  lime  which  might  remain  in 
the  cloth  would  be  converted  into  carbonate  by  the  soda  ash. 

The  bowking  or  boiling  with  alkali  and  soap  has  for  its  ob- 
ject the  removal  of  the  greasy  matters;  it  dissolves  them,  and 
all  the  dirt  held  by  them  now  comes  out  of  the  cloth  leaving 
the  cotton  nearly  pure.  The  kind  of  alkali  used  is  soda  ash, 
the  soap  is  made  from  resin  and  called  prepared  resin.  The 
boiling  in  this  case  need  not  last  so  long  as  the  liming,  but  de- 
pends in  great  measure  upon  the  size  of  the  kier  and  the 
number  of  pieces. 

The  last  process  of  passing  through  clear  solution  of  bleach- 
ing powder  is  to  destroy  the  slight  tinge  of  color  of  a  buff  or 
cream  shade  still  adhering  to  the  cotton  ;  the  bleaching  powder 
solution  is  very  weak,  so  that  probably  a  piece  of  calico  of  the 
ordinary  size  does  not  take  up  more  than  the  soluble  matter 
from  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  bleaching  powder.  The  goods 
are  allowed  to  rest  some  time  with  the  chloride  of  lime  in 
them,  and  then  passed  through  sours  for  the  final  operation. 
The  acid  has  the  effect  of  setting  the  chlorine  free  from  the 
bleaching  powder  and  completing  the  destruction  of  the  color; 
at  the  same  time  it  removes  the  lime  and  acts  upon  any  traces 
of  iron  that  may  be  on  the  cloth.  I  think  there  is  no  doubt 
that  muriatic  acid  makes  the  best  sour  for  the  last  souring, 
both  because  it  obviates  the  danger  of  the  sparingly  soluble 
sulphate  of  lime  being  fixed  in  the  fibre  and  giving  bad  whites 
in  dyeing,  and  also  because  it  leaves  the  goods  softer  and  more 
effectually  removes  any  iron  rust  that  may  be  on  the  cloth. 

Bleaching  for  dyeing  self  colors  need  not  be  pushed  to  the 


92  BLEACHING. 

extent  of  madder  work,  and  where  the  colors  to  be  dyed  are 
dark  shades,  such  as  blue,  black,  or  brown,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  have  the  cloth  white ;  all  that  is  required  is  to  cleanse  it 
well  from  foreign  matters  which  would  tend  to  make  the  dye 
uneven  or  irregular. 

On  the  other  hand,  goods  sent  into  the  market  as  white 
goods  must  be  of  a  pure  color,  and  there  is  no  necessity  for 
that  searching  treatment  to  which  madder  goods  are  subjected  ; 
the  shortest  and  least  expensive  means  of  making  them  white 
are  adopted ;  if,  however,  the  goods  are  not  "  well  bottomed," 
they  will  not  remain  white  long  when  brought  into  domestic 
use. 

The  proportions  and  strengths  of  the  substances  used  in 
bleaching  are  not  of  much  value,  since  circumstances  must  in- 
fluence them  very  considerably ;  however,  as  a  kind  of  guide, 
I  may  give  the  proportions  used  in  one  or  two  cases  coming 
under  my  observation.  For  14,000  yards  of  nine-eighth  print- 
ing cloth  66  reed,  there  was  used  250  Ibs.  of  quicklime  in 
the  liming;  the  same  quantity  required  110  Ibs.  muriatic  acid 
for  the  first  souring.  The  bowking  was  done  with  140  Ibs.  of 
soda  ash  at  48  per  cent,  alkali  and  80  Ibs.  prepared  resin  (see 
EESIN).  The  last  souring  was  vitriol  sours  at  3°;  the  quantity 
of  bleaching  powder  used  was  not  ascertained,  but  the  solution 
stood  at  1°  Tw.  A  French  process  communicated  by  a  friend 
gives  only  150  Ibs.  of  lime  to  66,000  yards  of  calico  weighing 
about  13,000  Ibs.,  the  liming  lasted  eighteen  hours ;  400  to  500 
Ibs.  muriatic  acid  was  used  in  the  souring,  and  the  bowking 
was  continued  for  the  long  space  of  thirty-six  hours; 

On  the  continent,  caustic  soda  is  frequently  used  in  bowking, 
perhaps  generally ;  it  requires  much  care  to  prevent  damage 
to  the  fibre :  sometimes  the  sours  are  used  warm. 

Linen  is  not  so  easily  bleached  as  cotton,  and  it  appears  to 
suffer  considerably  by  boiling  with  lime,  and  by  contact  with 
chloride  of  lime ;  it  is  mainly  bleached  by  continual  boilings 
with  alkali  and  a  few  sourings,  with  a  chloride  of  lime  treat- 
ment; or,  as  lime  appears  injurious,  the  chloride  of  potash  or 
soda  is  frequently  used  instead. 

1  Bleaching  of  Woollen. — Woollen  goods  are  bleached  by  treat- 
ing with  very  mild  alkaline  liquors,  which  remove  the  fatty 
matters;  putrefied  urine  and  soap,  with  crystals  of  soda,  being 
the  only  substance  usually  employed.  Sulphurous  acid,  or 
vapors  of  burning  sulphur,  are  used  to  finish  wool,  giving  it 
whiteness  and  lustre.  The  following  is  one  of  the  processes 
given  by  Persoz,  as  followed  in  France  for  bleaching  woollen 
for  printing.  It  is  for  40  pieces,  each  50  yards  long :— 


BLEACHING   POWDER.  93 

1.  Passed  three  times  through  a  solution  of  25  Ibs.  carbonate 

of  soda  and  7  Ibs.  of  soap,  at  a  temperature  of  100° 
F  :  freshen  up  with  f  Ib.  of  soap  every  four  pieces. 

2.  Wash  twice  in  warm  water. 

3.  Passed  three  times  through  a  solution  of  25  Ibs.  crystals 

of  soda,  at  a  temperature  of  120°:  freshen  up  with  f 
Ib.  crystals  for  every  four  pieces. 

4.  Sulphured  in  a  room  for  twelve  hours,  using  25  Ibs.  sulphur 

for  the  40  pieces. 

5.  Passed  three  times  through  crystals  of  soda  as  in  No.  3. 

6.  Sulphured  again  as  in  No.  4. 

7.  Crystals  of  soda  again  as  in  No.  3. 

8.  Washed  twice  through  warm  water. 

9.  Sulphured  a  third  time  as  in  No.  4. 

10.  Washed  twice  in  warm  and  then  in  cold  water. 

11.  Blued  with  extract  of  indigo  according  to  taste. 

According  as  the  goods  are  meant  for  dark  or  blotch  styles,  or 
for  fancy  styles,  so  the  process  may  be  shortened  or  must  be 
adhered  to. 

Bleaching  of  Delaines. — This  is  carried  on  upon  precisely 
the  same  principle  as  bleaching  wool,  but  does  not  require  so 
many  operations ;  two  passages  through  soap  and  soda  crystals, 
washing  in  warm  water  and  repeating  the  soaping,  then  sul- 
phuring by  Thorn's  patent  for  twenty  minutes  twice  over,  is 
usually  sufficient  for  all  styles. 

Bleaching  of  Silk. — Nothing  but  soap  and  sulphur  are  used 
in  silk  bleaching,  excepting  a  slight  amount  of  soda  crystals, 
which  helps  to  save  soap.  Alkalies  destroy  or  injure  the  fibre 
of  silk  very  much,  and  must  be  either  avoided  or  applied  with 
extreme  care.  Bran  is  sometimes  used  along  with  soap  in 
order  to  neutralize  any  excess  of  alkali  which  it  might  con- 
tain and  the  process  terminated  by  passing  in  an  extremely 
diluted  sour,  so  weak  as  scarcely  to  be  acid  to  the  taste.  Sul- 
phuring is  not  necessary  when  the  silk  is  to  be  printed  or 
dyed  dark  colors,  and  in  any  case  must  be  cautiously  and 
sparingly  applied. 

Bleaching  Powder,or  Chloride  of  Lime,  Chemic ;  some- 
times also  Oxygen,  Hypochlorite  of  Lime. — Ordinary  bleaching 
powder  is  made  by  slacking  lime  to  a  fine  powder,  and  expos- 
ing it  to  chlorine  gas  in  properly  constructed  chambers  ;  it  ab- 
sorbs the  chlorine  in  large  quantity,  and  gives  it  up  again  when 
treated  with  acids  which  seize  the  lime.  Good  chloride  of  lime 
is  dry  and  dusty,  very  white,  and  does  not  smell  very  strong : 
in  a  dry  place  it  keeps  good  for  a  considerable  period ;  in  a 
damp  place  it  absorbs  moisture,  becomes  pasty,  gives  off 
chlorine  gas,  and  loses  strength :  it  is  not  entirely  soluble  in 


94  BLEACHING   POWDER. 

water,  always  leaving  a  sediment.  The  clear  solution,  when 
in  quantity,  has  a  greenish  color;  it  is  slowly  injured  by  air, 
heat,  and  light,  and  should  consequently  be  kept  in  a  cool, 
shady  place,  and  covered  up. 

Testing  of  Bleaching  Powder. — The  precise  quality  and  value 
of  a  sample  of  bleaching  powder  cannot  be  ascertained  with- 
out chemical  testing;  and  as  it  is  a  substance  liable  to  great 
variations,  it  is  very  desirable  to  have  some  means  of  ascer- 
taining its  value.  The  processes  given  in  chemical  works  are 
quite  satisfactory,  but  require  several  apparatuses  only  found 
in  a  laboratory.  I  give  here  a  process  suited  to  a  color-shop, 
which  will  enable  a  practical  man  to  tell  whether  the  bleaching 
powder  is  below  a  certain  standard  or  not.  The  materials  re- 
quired are  fresh  crystals  of  tin,  spirits  of  salts,  and  a  weak  so- 
lution of  extract  of  indigo,  with  jugs  to  mix  them  in.  Weigh 
two  ounces  of  fresh  crystals  of  tin,  and  mix  them  with  half  a 
pint  of  water  and  a  glassful  of  spirits  of  salts,  and  stir  till  dis- 
solved. Weigh  out  two  ounces  of  the  sample  of  bleaching 
powder  and  mix  it  with  a  half  pint  of  water,  crushing  all  the 
lumps;  when  properly  mixed  pour  it  slowly  into  the  tin 
solution,  stirring  very  well  until  it  is  all  added;  blow  off 
the  gas  from  the  liquor,  and  if  it  now  smells  very  strong 
of  chemic,  and  bleaches  some  of  the  extract  of  indigo  liquor 
dropped  in,  it  is  a  sign  that  the  sample  is  not,  at  least,  very 
bad ;  but  if  it  does  not  smell  of  chemic,  and  does  not  bleach 
the  blue  extract,  it  is  a  sign  that  it  is  weak.  Two  ounces  of  a 
first-rate  bleaching  powder  will  stand  mixing  with  two  ounces 
and  a  quarter  of  crystals  of  tin  and  still  smell  strong  of  chemic, 
and  bleach  extract  of  indigo  liquor. 

Testing  of  Bleaching  Liquors  in  the  course  of  use. — It  is  fre- 
quently required  to  know  how  much  strong  liquor  should  be 
added  to  a  partly  spent  solution  of  chemic  to  bring  it  up  to 
proper  strength  again.  The  method  in  use  in  Lancashire  con- 
sists in  ascertaining  how  much  of  a  certain  solution  of  sul- 
phate of  indigo  a  given  quantity  of  the  liquor  can  bleach ; 
and  as  the  quantity  of  the  original  stock  which  can  bleach  it 
is  known,  a  tolerably  correct  idea  of  how  much  strong  liquor 
is  to  be  added  is  arrived  at.  Mr.  Crum  devised  a  simple 
practical  method,  depending  upon  the  color  which  chloride  of 
lime  communicates  to  a  mixture  of  muriate  of  iron  and  acetic 
acid.  Twelve  white  glass  phials  of  equal  size  are  obtained, 
and  a  mixture  of  equal  measures  of  muriate  of  iron  at  40° 
and  acetic  acid  at  8°  being  prepared,  an  equal  measure  of  it  is 
put  into  each  phial;  if  the  phial  be  four  and  a  half  inches 
high,  the  mixture  should  stand  only  half  an  inch,  that  is  one- 
ninth  of  the  height.  There  are  now  prepared  twelve  strengths 


BLEACHING   LIQUOR— BLOOD.  95 

of  bleaching  liquor,  beginning  with  the  full  strength  used  in 
bleaching,  and  going  down,  by  regular  weakening  with  water, 
to  the  weakest  strength  the  liquor  is  likely  to  be  brought  to  in 
use,  and  the  bottles  are  filled  up  with  these  liquors,  corked, 
numbered,  and  preserved  as  standards  for  comparison.  The 
color  of  the  liquor  in  the  bottles  is  proportioned  to  the  strength 
of  the  bleaching  liquor,  and  by  taking  a  similar  phial,  putting 
in  the  same  amount  of  aceto-muriate  of  iron,  and  filling  up 
with  a  sample  of  bleaching  liquor  of  unknown  strength,  a 
shade  of  color  will  be  produced  which  must  be  like  one  of  the 
twelve  standards  ;  the  strength  of  the  liquor  examined  will 
then  be  the  same  as  that  with  which  the  bottle  was  made  up. 
(See  CHLORINE.) 

Bleaching  Liquor. — This  fluid  is  essentially  the  same  as  a 
solution  of  bleaching  powder,  though  made  somewhat  differ- 
ently. Instead  of  passing  chlorine  gas  over  dry  slacked  lime, 
it  is  made  to  traverse  cisterns  filled  with  a  mixture  of  lime  and 
water.  It  has  precisely  the  same  properties  as  the  solid  pow- 
der, although  some  persons  seern  to  think  it  preferable.  Its 
value  cannot  be  correctly  ascertained  by  the  hydrometer,  be- 
cause common  salt  is  frequently  mixed  with  it  to  make  it  stand 
high  on  the  glass. 

Block  Printing. — The  difference  between  block  printing 
and  cylinder  printing  resides  in  the  fact,  that  while  the  block 
not  only  deposits  the  color  upon  the  cloth,  but  to  a  greater  or 
lesser  extent  forces  it  in,  the  cloth  in  cylinder  printing  has  to 
absorb  the  color  mainly  by  capillary  attraction,  since  the  wrap- 
ping on  the  bowl  does  not  generally  suffice  to  press  the  cloth 
completely  into  the  engraving  of  the  roller.  The  same  colors 
will  not  answer  indifferently  for  block  and  roller.  Block  colors 
can  usually  be  worked  much  thinner  than  machine  colors,  and 
it  is  possible  to  apply  colors  by  block  that  it  is  very  difficult 
to  work  in  a  machine,  such  as  contain  insoluble  matters  like 
pipe  clay,  sulphate  of  lead,  etc.  For  dark  shades  upon  woollen 
cloth  the  block  has  an  undoubted  advantage  over  the  cylinder, 
because  not  only  does  wool  demand  much  more  coloring  matter 
than  cotton  to  produce  a  similar  shade,  but  it  does  not  draw  it 
up  so  quickly;  its  fibres  are  not  wetted  so  soon  as  those  of 
cotton,  and  consequently  it  does  not  take  up  the  color  from 
the  engraving  in  sufficient  quantity.  Dark  blues,  chocolates, 
greens,  etc.,  on  the  finest  class  of  French  woollen  cloth,  require 
blocking  twice  or  three  times  to  apply  sufficient  color  to  give 
rich  dark  shades. 

Blood. — The  blood  of  oxen  has  been  used  for  a  long  time 
in  dyeing  Turkey  reds.  It  seems  as  if  it  was  expected  that 
some  of  the  red  color  of  the  blood  would  be  absorbed  by  the 


96  BLUE  COLORS. 

cloth,  enhancing  its  shade;  but  there  is  not  the  slightest 
ground  for  such  a  belief.  If  blood  be  really  of  any  use  in  the 
dye,  it  will  be  probably  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  serum 
and  fibrine,  substances  coagulable  under  certain  conditions, 
and  possessing  characters  somewhat  resembling  albumen.  In 
the  old  hanging  stoves  of  the  calico  printing,  the  bangers  fre- 
quently tore  their  fingers  with  the  hooks,  and  blood  would  get 
on  the  pieces  and  would  dye  up  in  madder  of  a  dull  brownish- 
red  color,  showing  that  blood  acted  as  a  mordant.  In  the  old 
receipts  for  Turkey  red  about  as  much  ox  blood  as  madder  is 
directed  to  be  used,  and  in  some  cases  the  weight  of  blood 
would  be  double  the  weight  of  madder ;  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  this  quantity  of  blood  would  have  an  influence  of  some 
kind,  although  it  is  not  exactly  known  in  what  it  consists. 

A  species  of  albumen  called  blood  albumen  is  prepared  from 
blood,  and  answers  most  of  the  purposes  of  the  egg  albumen. 

Blue  Colors. — Under  this  head  I  bring  together  the  various 
processes  in  use  for  producing  blue  colors  upon  silk,  wool,  and 
cotton ;  where  the  explanations  of  the  chemical  actions  do  not 
seem  sufficient,  reference  must  be  made  to  the  drugs  used,  where 
their  properties  are  more  fully  described. 

Blues  upon  Silk  by  Dyeing. — The  earliest  dyed  blues  on  silk 
were  from  the  indigo  vat,  these  are  probably  never  produced 
now ;  they  fell  at  once  into  disuse  upon  the  discoverv  of  the 
method  of  fixing  Prussian  blue  upon  silk,  which  was  the  next 
blue  in  chronological  order.  Saxony  blue  or  sulphate  of  indigo 
blue  was  early  in  use  for  light  shades;  within  these  two  or  three 
years  artificial  blue  colors  prepared  from  aniline  or  similar 
bodies  have  been  largely  used. 

For  dark  Prussian  blues  the  silk  is  mordanted  in  a  per-salt 
of  iron  and  a  salt  of  tin.  In  England,  nitrate  of  iron  is  gene- 
rally used  as  the  iron  mordant.  In  France,  a  species  of  per- 
sulphate of  iron  made  by  dissolving  green  copperas  in  nitric 
acid  is  used,  it  is  known  under  the  name  of  "Eaymond's  solu- 
tion." In  England,  the  tin  salt  employed  is  usually  the  com- 
mon crystals  of  tin,  but  it  is  found  useful  to  have  the  tin  pre- 
sent as  sulphate  in  order  to  allow  of  the  tin  combining  easily 
with  the  silk ;  for  this  purpose  sulphuric  acid  or  sulphate  of 
soda  must  be  used  in  combination  with  the  tin.  A  method 
yielding  excellent  results  consists  in  taking  the  quantity  of 
crystals  of  tin  to  be  used,  and  pouring  upon  them  their  own 
weight  of  strong  vitriol  and  stirring  up  and  then  dissolving 
the  pasty  mass  in  water ;  this  may  be  considered  as  a  solution 
of  sulphate  of  tin  in  muriatic  acid.  The  nitrate  of  iron  may 
be  mixed  with  this  or  may  be  added  separately  to  the  dyeing 
vessel.  The  silk  is  worked  in  the  mixture  of  tin  and  iron  in 


BLUE   COLORS.  97 

the  cold,  and  then  passed  through  clear  water  to  remove  all 
loose  mordant.  The  color  is  raised  in  another  vat  which  con- 
tains yellow  prussiate  of  potash  and  made  sharply  acid  by 
addition  of  either  vitriol  or  spirits  of  salts,  the  silk  is  worked 
here  until  it  has  taken  all  the  color  it  can,  then  rinsed  in  water 
and  put  through  the  same  process  again,  even  three  or  four 
times  for  the  fullest  shades.  A  final  passage  in  alum  and  a 
little  vitriol  is  thought  to  brighten  the  shade.  It  is  necessary 
to  wash  the  silk  rather  roughly,  or  else  a  quantity  of  loose 
uncombined  Prussian  blue  will  be  dried  up  in  the  fibres,  which 
will  make  the  silk  feel  harsh  and  cause  it  to  be  dusty,  besides 
injuring  the  color.  Washing  between  the  mordant  and  prus- 
siate is  recommended  for  obtaining  regularity  of  shade  and 
keeping  the  lustre  and  softness  of  the  silk  in  its  best  condition. 
Some  dyers,  however,  do  not  think  this  necessary,  and  merely 
drain  the  goods  between  the  different  processes.  When  a  large 
quantity  of  tin  is  employed,  the  blue  acquires  a  reddish  shade, 
if  the  tin  is  deficient  it  has  a  greenish  shade.  Some  blues  are 
produced  from  red  prussiate  of  potash,  these  require  the  pro- 
tonitrate  of  iron  for  mordant. 

Light  sky  blues  are  obtained  by  refined  extract  of  indigo, 
with  a  little  alum  and  sulphuric  acid. 

Aniline  Blues. — The  new  blue  coloring  matters  which  yield 
magnificent  shades  are  produced  by  working  the  silk,  without 
any  mordant,  in  the  coloring  matter.  Most  of  the  blues  at 
present  in  use  require  raising  in  warm  vitriol  sours  to  take  off 
a  reddish  hue  which  exists  on  them  after  dyeing;  in  some  cases 
the  vitriol  may  be  added  to  the  dye,  and  the  operation  com- 
pleted at  once.  The  best  Prussian  blues  cannot  compete  with 
the  azuline  blue  in  softness  and  brilliancy ;  they  are  tolerably 
stable,  and  leave  nothing  to  desire  but  a  reduction  in  price. 

Bilberries,  elderberries,  mulberries,  whinberries,  and  privet- 
berries  have  been  used  to  give  blue  shades  on  silk,  and  are  still 
employed  on  a  small  scale. 

Blues  upon  Silk  by  Printing. — The  blues  obtained  by  print- 
ing on  silk  are  derived  from  sulphate  of  indigo  chiefly,  dark 
blues  from  prussiate,  some  shades  of  blue  are  produced  by 
logwdbd  and  copper  salts. 

Logwood  and  Extract  Blue  for  Silk. 

1  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  16°  Tvr., 

1  gallon  red  liquor  at  16°, 

10  Ibs.  ground  gum;  stir  till  all  dissolved,  and  add 

10  oz.  tartaric  acid, 

10  oz.  nitrate  of  copper, 

1  gallon  extract  of  indigo. 


98  BLUE   COLORS. 

This  produces  a  violet  blue  on  account  of  the  red  liquor  and 
logwood  modifying  the  extract. 

Extract  Blue. 
1  gallon  water,  hot, 

3 1  Ibs.,  more  or  less,  according  to  strength,  extract  of  indigo, 
f  Ib.  alum. 
1  Ib.  tartaric  acid, 

6  Ibs.  gum,  or  less,  according  to  thickness  required. 

Prussiate  Blue. 

3  Ibs.  yellow  prussiate  potash, 

1  gallon  warm  water,  dissolve,  and  add 

1£  Ibs.,  tartaric  acid;  cool,  and  thicken  the  clear  liquor  with 

7  Ibs.  gum  in  powder,  and  add 
2$  Ibs.  bichloride  of  tin  at  80°.. 

The  steam  blues  given  for  woollens  and  delaines  will  be  found 
applicable  to  silk,  but  will  stand  bringing  down  with  gum 
water. 

Blue  Colors  by  Dyeing  upon  Wool. — Wool  is  dyed  blue :  (1) 
by  the  indigo  vat;  (2)  by  sulphate  of  indigo  ;  (8)  by  prussiate  ; 
(4)  by  logwood ;  (5)  by  the  new  blue  colors  azuline,  cyanine, 
etc.  The  first  method,  which  gives  the  fast  and  permanent  but 
rather  dull  blues  used  in  the  army  and  navy,  presents  no  other 
difficulties  than  occur  in  setting  the  indigo  vats,  for  which  refer- 
ence must  be  made  to  INDIGO.  The  yarn  or  cloth  properly 
cleansed  and  wetted  out  is  dipped  in  the  vat,  left  in  for  not 
more  than  a  hour,  and  then  lifted  and  aired,  to  be  dipped  again 
if  deeper  shades  are  required.  The  wool  takes  up  a  considera- 
ble quantity  of  indigo,  which  being  a  very  expensive  material, 
has  induced  many  parties  to  try  and  save  by  only  half  dyeing 
with  indigo  and  then  finishing  or  topping  with  logwood.  This 
species  of  adulteration  is  detected  by  putting  a  drop  of  strong 
acid  upon  the  cloth :  if  all  indigo,  no  change  takes  place ;  if 
logwood  is  present,  a  violet,  purplish,  or  reddish  color  is  imme- 
diately produced.  Indigo  blues  are  also  topped  with  archil, 
which  gives  them  an  agreeable  bloom,  but  which  fades  directly 
in  air  and  light,  and  is  immediately  washed  off  by  soap. 

The  sulphate  of  indigo  blues  are  of  very  simple  application; 
the  extract  is  mixed  or  dissolved  in  the  water,  to  which  is 
added  some  alum  and  some  acid,  sometimes  tartaric  acid  or 
cream  of  tartar,  and  sometimes  sulphuric  acid;  occasionally, 
also,  oxalic  acid  is  used.  Only  light  shades  of  blue  can  be 
thus  dyed,  and  they  have  a  greenish  shade  when  compared 
with  Prussian  or  azuline  blue.  Logwood  is  frequently  com- 
bined with  this  kind  of  blue,  and  yields  dull  grayish  blues. 


BLUE   COLORS.  99 

The  prussiate  blues  upon  wool  are  very  good  colors,  and 
when  properly  done  possess  a  fair  amount  of  stability ;  there 
are  several  methods  of  producing  them,  all  of  which  will  be 
included  under  one  or  other  of  the  following  processes.  The 
ordinary  method  consisted  in  working  the  wool  in  nitrate  of 
iron,  and  then  in  yellow  prussiate  of  potash,  acidified  with 
sulphuric  acid  ;  the  shades  thus  produced  are  remarkably  im- 
proved by  adding  a  salt  of  tin  to  the  iron ;  in  fact,  no  really 
good  and  dark  blues  can  be  obtained  without  a  considerable 
portion  of  tin  being  fixed  upon  the  wool.  The  salt  of  tin  and 
nitrate  of  irt>n  are  mixed,  and  the  cloth  worked  in  for  half  an 
hour  or  more,  and  then  taken  to  the  prussiate  bath,  which  is 
worked  hot ;  if  the  shade  is  not  deep  enough  the  process  is 
repeated.  Very  fine  royal  blues  are  obtained  from  first  work- 
ing in  a  mixture  of  muriate  of  iron  and  muriate  of  tin,  and 
then  in  red  prussiate  of  potash  liquor;  repeating  the  processes 
until  the  required  depth  of  shade  is  obtained.  Dumas  recom- 
mends in  all  cases  a  little  red  prussiate  to  be  used  with  the 
yellow,  added  towards  the  end  ;  it  strikes  a  blue  with  iron 
which  has  been  deoxydized  by  the  wool,  and  thus  takes  off  the 
greenish  shade  of  blues  dyed  with  yellow  prussiates  only. 
Another  process  of  obtaining  blue  consists  in  doing  without 
iron  salts  altogether,  and  resembles  almost  exactly  the  prussiate 
steam  blue  for  woollen  and  delaine,  and  depends  upon  the 
decomposition  of  the  prussiate  itself  under  the  combined  influ- 
ence of  acids,  heat,  and  air.  For  a  piece  of  thin  woollen  cloth, 
seventy  yards  long,  the  following  materials  are  employed  ac- 
cording to  M.  Dumas: — 

12  oz.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 
12  oz.  sulphuric  acid, 
17  oz.  alum. 

The  whole  dissolve  hot  in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to 
turn  the  piece  through  in  an  apparatus  like  a  "jigger,"  from 
twelve  to  twenty  gallons;  the  piece  is  worked  in  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  100°  F.  for  the  first  hour,  at  140°  for  the  second  hour, 
and  raised  to  the  boil  during  the  third  hour;  about  half  way 
in  the  last  hour  the  piece  is  lifted  in  order  to  add  -about  half  an 
ounce  of  crystals  of  tin,  and  then  entered  again.  The  piece  is 
then  washed,  and  afterwards  turned  for  an  hour  through  a  cold 
mixture  of  alum,  sulphuric  acid,  and  crystals  of  tin.  This  is 
evidently  a  costly  process,  but  it  is  difficult  otherwise  to  obtain 
regular,  even,  light  shades  of  blue.  I  found  that  by  first  pre- 
paring the  wool  with  stannate  of  soda,  very  good  blues  could 
be  obtained  by  this  process,  with  much  less  time  than  given  in 
the  above  directions. 


100  BLUE   COLORS. 

Logwood  blues  are  so  loose  and  deceptive  as  to  have  been  at 
various  times  prohibited  by  law  ;  they  can  be  made  to  imitate 
indigo  tolerably  well,  and  are  sometimes  sold  as  indigo  blues. 
I  believe  a  law  passed  in  the  twenty-third  of  George  III.,  im- 
posing a  fine  of  £20  per  piece  for  dyeing  blue  from  logwood 
and  copper  salts  is  still  unrepealed  ;  but  of  course,  not  enforced. 
The  process  of  obtaining  this  blue  consists  in  aluming  with 
tartar  and  alum,  and  then  dyeing  in  logwood  to  which  sulphate 
of  copper  is  added  ;  or  mordanting  in  alum,  tartar  and  sulphate 
of  copper,  adding  logwood  and  dyeing,  finally  raising  with 
sulphate  of  copper.  A  good  many  blues  on  woollen. consist  of 
this  logwood  blue  dyed  on  a  light  indigo  blue  ground. 

Aniline  Blues. — Aniline  blues  are  extremely  simple  to  work; 
the  coloring  matter  is  properly  diffused  in  water  with  addition 
of  acid,  and  the  goods  worked  in  until  the  color  is  exhausted  ; 
afterwards  they  are  passed  in  warm  dilute  sulphuric  acid  to 
improve  the  shade. 

Blue  Colors  by  Printing  on  Wool. — Sulphate  of  indigo  is  the 
chief  coloring  matter  employed  for  printing  blues,  alum  and 
acids  being  used  in  combination ;  when  it  is  desired  to  have  the 
blue  of  a  reddish  hue,  ammoniacal  cochineal  is  added.  For 
deep  royal  blues,  prussiate  of  potash  in  combination  with  acids 
and  tin  salts  is  employed;  for  these. blues,  the  cloth  should  be 
previously  prepared  with  some  preparation  of  tin.  (See  PRE- 
PARATION.) 

Deep  Blue  for  all  Wool. 
2  quarts  water, 

6  oz.  starch ;  boil,  and  while  warm  incorporate 
12  oz.  pasty  extract  of  indigo, 
5  oz.  alum, 

2  oz.  tartaric  acid, 

3  oz.  oxalic  acid. 

Since  the  quality  of  extract  or  sulphate  of  indigo  is  extremely 
variable,  it  is  evident  that  receipts  in  which  it  is  a  chief  or  im- 
portant ingredient  must  be  of  a  rather  vague  character,  and 
merely  approximative  in  the  quantities  given. 

Ordinary  Dark  Blue. 

1  gallon  gum  water, 
6  oz.  extract  of  indigo, 
8  oz.  alum, 
3  oz.  oxalic  acid, 
\  pint  cochineal  liquor. 

Any  further  receipts  for  this  kind  of  blue  would  only  differ 
from  these  two  in  the  thickening  or  the  quantities  of  material 


BLUE  COLORS.  101 

used,  which  are  partly  influenced  by  the  shade  to  be  produced 
and  partly  by  caprice.  The  red  part,  however,  may  be  increased 
to  a  considerably  higher  proportion  than  given  in  the  receipt 
above  with  advantage  for  certain  shades  of  color. 

Dark  Royal  Blue— All  Wool,  Slock. 

1  gallon  water, 

13  oz.  alum, 

16  oz.  oxalic  acid,  dissolve  and  thicken  to  style  with,  say 

7£  Ibs.  gum,  when  cold  add 

£  Ib.  bichloride  of  tin, 

2 £  Ibs.  red  prussiate  of  potash, 

13  oz.  per-nitrate  of  iron  at  80°. 

There  are  many  modifications  of  this  receipt,  but  as  the  steam 
blues  given  below  for  delaine  may  be  all  applied  upon  wool,  it 
is  not  necessary  to  detail  them  here. 

Steam  Blues  for  Delaine,  applicable  also  to   Wool. — Dark  Blotch 
Blue. 

4  Ibs.  starch,  more  or  less  according  to  requirements, 

3J  gallons  water, 

l£  gallon  red  prussiate  liquor  at  30°, 

3  pints  tragacanth  gum  water;  mix,  boil,  and  while  hot  add 
1^  gallon  prussiate  of  tin  (tin  pulp), 

4  Ibs.  tartaric  acid, 

6  oz.  oxalic  acid,  and  when  cold  add  the  clear  liquor  from 
8  Ibs.  prussiate  of  potash, 
8  Ibs.  tartaric  acid, 
2J  gallons  hot  water. 

Another. 

1  gallon  water, 

2  Ibs.  starch ;  boil  well,  and  add  while  hot 
10J  oz.  muriate  of  ammonia, 

2  Ibs.  10  oz.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 

1  Ib.  5  oz.  red  prussiate  of  potash ;  when  cold  add 

3  Ibs.  tartaric  acid, 

1  gallon  prussiate  of  tin  pulp. 

Another  Dark  Blue. 

Precisely  the  same  as  the  last,  except  the  addition  of  5J  oz. 
of  oxalic  acid  after  the  tartaric. 


102  BLUE   COLORS. 

Dark  Royal  Blue — Delaines. 

5  Ibs.  starch, 

2  gallons  water, 

2  gallons  chloro-prussiate  liquor  at  30°, 

1  quart  tragacanth  gum  water ;  boil,  and  add 

6  quarts  prussiate  of  tin, 
2J  Ibs.  tartaric  acid, 

6  oz.  oxalic  acid ;  when  cold,  add 
8  Ibs.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 
10  Ibs.  tartaric  acid. 

Light  Blue — Block  Delaine. 

3  quarts  water, 

\  Ib.  starch, 

f  Ibs.  tragacanth  gum  water ;  boil,  and  when  cold  add 

1  quart  red  prussiate,  liquor  at  30°, 

2  oz.  tartaric  acid, 

3£  oz.  bichloride  of  tin  at  100°, 
1  Ib.  prussiate  of  tin  pulp. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  these  are  all  steam  colors, 
and  require  raising  either  in  bichrome  or  chemic  before  wash- 
ing off. 

Blue,  Colors  by  Dyeing  upon  Cotton. — The  chief  blue  upon 
cotton  by  dyeing  is  from  indigo  fixed  by  the  vat;  the  skill  in 
dyeing  these  colors  rests  principally  in  the  preparation  of  the 
solution  of  indigo,  which  each  dyer  has  to  make  for  himself. 
The  production  of  the  indigo  styles  forms,  therefore,  a  separate 
subject  which  will  be  treated  under  INDIGO. 

Prussiate  colors  upon  cotton  goods  are  obtained  by  nearly 
the  same  process  as  upon  silks;  for  dark  shades  the  cloth 
should  be  prepared  by  steeping  in  stannate  of  soda  at  14°  Tw., 
wringing  out  and  passing  in  vitriol  sours  at  4°  Tw. ;  this  gives 
a  good  basis  of  tin  and  shortens  the  time  of  dyeing  consider- 
ably. Next  the  cloth  is  worked  in  nitrate  of  iron  of  a  strength 
proportioned  to  the  shade  required,  about  thirty  minutes  will 
suffice  to  fix  iron  enough  for  a  medium  shade  ;  the  goods  are 
rinsed  and  the  color  raised  in  yellow  prussiate,  sharpened  with 
vitriol  or  spirits  of  salts ;  if  the  shade  is  not  deep  enough,  the 
process  must  be  repeated  (but  not  the  preparation),  and  crystals 
or  muriate  of  tin  may  be  mixed  with  the  nitrate  of  iron  bath. 
For  sky  blues  no  tin  is  required  ;  but  for  deep  blues  it  is 
necessary  either  in  the  preparation  or  mixed  with  the  nitrate 
of  iron.  It  is  generally  considered  that  the  blues  are  brighter 
and  softer  when  they  are  finished  off  in  weak  clear  alum  water 
than  when  simply  washed  off  in  common  water. 


BLUE   COLORS.  103 

Napier  gives  the  following  as  a  logwood  blue  upon  cotton, 
the  materials  being  for  10  Ibs.  cotton.  A  light  but  fast  blue 
is  first  dyed  in  the  vat  from  indigo,  the  goods  are  put  in  a 
decoction  of  2  Ibs.  sumac  for  several  hours,  and  then  worked 
for  fifteen  minutes  through  water  containing  one  pint  red  liquor 
and  one  pint  iron  liquor;  wash  from  this  in  two  tubs  full  of 
hot  water,  then  work  twenty  minutes  in  a  decoction  of  2  Ibs. 
logwood,  lift  and  raise  with  half  pint  red  liquor,  work  ten 
minutes  longer,  wash  and  dry.  Since  part  of  the  blue  color 
here  is  derived  from  indigo  which  is  quite  fast  and  another 
part  from  sumac  which  is  tolerably  fast,  this  blue  will  be  of 
moderate  stability,  but  of  a  heavy  dull  shade  compared  with 
Prussian  blue. 

Girardin  gives  a  process  used  in  France  for  obtaining  a  blue 
on  cotton  as  follows :  For  100  Ibs.  cotton  take  5  gallons  log- 
wood liquor  at  4°,  2  ounces  of  bichromate  of  potash,  and  5 
ounces  of  muriatic  acid  ;  the  cotton  is  entered  cold  and  gradually 
brought  to  the  boil.  It  is  not  clear  whether  this  is  actually  to 
dye  cotton  or  merely  the  finishing  of  a  dye  began  with  acetate 
of  copper  and  logwood  liquor. 

Blue  Colors  upon  Calico  by  Printing. — Excluding  those  blues 
which  are  derived  from  indigo,  and  which  will  be  found  under 
INDIGO  ;  the  only  common  blues  are  derived  from  the  prussiates 
and  the  receipts  given  for  delaines  will  answer  perfectly  well 
for  calicoes.  In  order  to  obtain  good  blues  the  cloth  must  be 
well  prepared  with  tin  in  some  form  or  other  (see  PREPARATION 
and  STANNATE);  for  light  blues  this  is  not  so  essential.  I  give 
here  a  few  receipts  for  blues  on  calico  not  applicable  to 
delaines. 

Steam  Blue  for  Calico. 

3  gallons  water, 

4  Ibs.  starch  ;  boil,  and  add 
1  Ib.  muriate  of  ammonia, 

6  Ibs.  crystals  bisulphate  of  potash, 

4  Ibs.  tartaric  acid, 

4  Ibs.  yellow  prussiate  potash, 

8  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

1  gallon  prussiate  of  tin.     (See  TIN.) 

This  blue  reduced  with  gum  water  of  suitable  thickness  yields 
the  light  shades  required.  Whenever  sulphuric  acid  or  bisul- 
phate of  potash  are  used  in  blues,  considerable  care  is  required 
to  prevent  corrosion  or  burning  of  the  cloth ;  the  mixing  must 
be  scrupulously  attended  to,  for  if  any  of  this  acid  be  left  free 
it  is  sure  to  injure  or  rot  the  cloth.  For  the  cheaper  styles  of 
work  sulphuric  acid  may  be  used  with  economy  instead  of  tar- 


104  BLUE   COLORS. 

taric  acid,  but  the  mixing  of  the  colors  must  be  carefully 
watched. 

Another  Blue  for  Calico. 

1  gallon  water, 

l£  Ib.  starch  ;  boil,  and  add 

3£  Ibs.  tartaric  acid, 

10  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

3|  Ibs.  yellow  prussiate ;  and  when  cold 

£  Ib.  oil  of  vitriol. 

1  pint  prussiate  of  tin  pulp. 

Spirit  Blue  for  washing  off  simply. 

1  gallon  water, 

1£  Ibs.  starch ;  boil,  and  cool  to  110°  F., 

1  qrt.  Prussian  blue  pulp  (see  BLUE  PRUSSIAN), 
|  pint  oxymuriate  of  tin. 

Common  Blue,  Standard. 

2  gallons  water, 

4  Ibs.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 

12  oz.  alurn, 

24  oz.  oil  of  vitriol  at  169°. 

Common  Steam  Blue. 

2  quarts  gum  water, 
1  quart  blue  standard, 
Extract  of  indigo  to  sighten. 

All  receipts  for  blue  will  resemble  one  or  other  of  the  receipts 
given  in  this  article;  the  processes  may  be  much  varied  in  detail, 
but  the  usual  method  of  mixing  the  color  for  machine  consists 
in  boiling  the  water  and  starch,  and,  while  quite  hot,  stirring 
in  the  powdered  prussiate  and  sal-ammoniac ;  then,  when  the 
color  has  somewhat  cooled,  stirring  in  the  ground  tartaric  acid 
(or  the  bisulphate);  and  when  almost  cold,  the  oxalic  acid  is 
added ;  and  last  of  all  the  prussiate  of  tin  pulp  is  well  incorpo- 
rated. There  is  always  formation  of  bitartrate  of  potash  in  the 
best  steam  blues,  which  is  disseminated  through  the  mass  in 
small  crystals ;  but  if  the  color  is  pretty  hot  when  the  tartaric 
acid  and  prussiate  of  potash  are  mixed  together,  the  crystals 
are  apt  to  be  of  some  considerable  size  unless  the  color  is  well 
stirred  until  nearly  cold  ;  this  is  objectionable  for  many  reasons, 
and  should  be  obviated  by  so  managing  the  mixtures  that  the 
stirring  is  continued  until  the  color  is  cold ;  the  crystals  are 
then  so  small  that  they  are  not  observable.  The  prussiate  of 


BLUE.  105 

tin  pulp  being  added  last,  and  cooling  down  the  color  will 
usually  prevent  large  crystals  forming ;  but  if  once  formed  they 
are  difficult  to  strain  out,  and  the  color  should  be  warmed  up 
to  about  120°  F.,  and  cooled  quickly,  with  constant  stirring. 
See  POTASH  PRUSSIATE,  etc.,  for  explanation  of  the  chemical 
changes  involved  in  the  production  of  these  colors. 

Blue  Azuline.    (See  AZULINE.) 

Blue  Azure,  smaltz,  zaffre.     (See  AZURE.) 

Blue  Chemic. — Name  frequently  given  to  sulphate  of  indigo 
or  extract  of  indigo.  (See  INDIGO  SULPHATE.) 

Blue,  China. — A  style  of  blue  obtained  from  INDIGO,  which 
see. 

Blue,  Chinese. — A  variety  of  Prussian  blue  is  sold  under 
this  name  which  is  soluble  in  oxalic  acid,  and  which  has  been 
largely  used  in  finishing  printed  calicoes.  (See  BLUE  PRUS- 
SIAN.) 

Blue,  Cyanine. — The  same  as  QUINOLEINE  BLUE,  which 
see. 

Blue,  Dip. — The  name  of  dip  blue  is  given  to  the  variety 
of  styles  produced  by  dipping  cotton  goods  into  indigo  properly 
dissolved  by  means  ^of  lime  and  copperas.  (See  INDIGO.) 

Blue,  Distilled.- — This  curious  name  is  given  to  a  purified 
solution  of  sulphate  of  indigo,  obtained  as  follows  :  Crude  sul- 
phate of  indigo  is  dissolved  in  water  nearly  boiling,  and  a 
quantity  of  old  but  clean  white  flannel  or  other  woollen  articles 
worked  in  it  until  saturated  with  color,  then  washed  well  in 
cold  and  afterwards  in  warm  water  until  the  color  begins  to 
"bleed,"  that  is,  until  the  washing  water  begins  to  remove  the 
blue  and  become  tinged  with  it;  the  woollen  rags  or  flannel  are 
then  washed  sufficiently  ;  they  are  then  treated  with  hot  water 
containing  a  feeble  proportion  of  carbonate  of  soda,  about  half 
a  pound  of  crystals  to  10  gallons  of  water ;  this  removes  the 
blue  color  very  rapidly  from  the  woollen  rags,  leaving  them  of 
a  dull  brown  color.  The  blue  thus  dissolved  is  considered  as 
being  purified  on  the  one  hand  from  hurtful  substances  soluble 
in  water,  which  are  removed  by  washing  the  wool,  and  from  a 
reddish  coloring  matter  which  is  retained  by  the  wool  and  its 
shade  improved.  A  little  acid  being  added  to  the  extracted 
blue  enables  it  to  dye  up  a  good  clear  blue  upon  silk  or  woollen. 
(See  INDIGO  SULPHATE.) 

Blue,  Fast. — The  conventional  name  for  one  of  the  loosest 
colors  obtained  from  INDIGO,  which  see. 

Blue,  Finishing. — The  use  of  blue  in  finishing  is  to  coun- 
teract the  cream  color  which  most  bleached  goods  possess ;  this 
cream  color  may  be  considered  as  a  very  pale  orange  and  com- 
pounded of  red  and  yellow ;  the  addition  of  blue  with  a  strong 


106  BLUE. 

reflecting  white  surface  beneath  neutralizes  the  shade  and  pro- 
duces what  passes  for  white.  But  this  point  is  practically 
impossible  to  hit,  and  all  blued  goods  have  always  an  excess 
of  blue.  Each  market  has  its  own  peculiar  prejudice  as  to  shade, 
and  so  in  accordance  various  finishing  blues  have  to  be  used. 
This  apparently  trivial  matter  is  frequently  a  source  of  the 
greatest  perplexity  to  the  bleacher  and  finisher,  so  that  a  great 
number  of  blues  for  finishing  are  in  the  market.  These  consist 
chiefly  of  indigo  in  paste,  being  simply  indigo  very  finely 
ground;  sulphate  of  indigo  in  a  more  or  less  imperfect  state, 
various  kinds  of  Prussian  blue  in  solution  or  suspension,  and 
also  preparations  of  smalts  and  ultramarine. 

Blue,  Opaline, — A  new  product  of  chemical  art  has  been 
so  called  from  its  yielding  a  shade  of  color  like  the  blue  opal. 
Its  color  upon  delaine  is  of  nearly  the  same  shade  as  China  blue 
•upon  calico,  but  infinitely  more  lustrous  and  beautiful.  The 
process  of  obtaining  this  coloring  matter  is  kept  secret,  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  obtained  from  aniline  or  some  similar 
body. 

Blue,  Parisian,  or  Bleu  de  Paris. — Name  given  to  a  blue 
compound  produced  by  the  action  of  bichloride  of  tin  upon 
aniline  at  a  high  temperature  and  under  pressure.  The  process 
was  published  in  1861  by  Messrs.  Persoz,  de  Luynes,  and 
Salvetat. 

Blue,  Paste. — This  name  is  usually  intended  for  sulphate 
of  indigo,  it  may  sometimes  mean  Prussian  blue  in  a  pasty  state, 
the  context  will  show  which  blue  is  intended. 

Blue,  Pencil. — A  particular  kind  of  blue  obtained  from 
indigo,  and  so  called  because  formerly  applied  by  means  of  a 
modification  of  an  artist's  pencil.  (See  INDIGO.) 

Blue,  Prussian.— This  color,  which  was  one  of  the  earliest 
contributions  of  chemistry  to  the  list  of  artificial  coloring  mat- 
ters, was  obtained  by  accident  in  the  capital  of  Prussia  in  1710.; 
but  it  was  nearly  one  hundred  years  afterwards  before  any  good 
process  was  discovered  for  fixing  it  upon  textile  fabrics ;  and 
it  is  hardly  twenty  years  since  the  present  means  of  fixing  it 
as  a  Bteam  color  was  discovered  and  put  into  practice.  Ac- 
cepting prussiate  of  potash  as  the  correct  name  for  the  salt  so 
known,  then  Prussian  blue  is  a  prussiate  of  iron,  and  the 
readiest  way  of  producing  it  is  to  mix  together  a  solution  of 
iron  and  prussiate  of  potash,  when  it  forAis  as  an  insoluble  pulp 
which  can  be  drained,  washed,  and  dried.  There  is  more  than 
one  kind  of  Prussian  blue,  and  there  are  several  methods  of 
preparing  it.  I  give  receipts  of  some  methods  used  on  print 
and  dye  works  when  Prussian  blue  is  required  to  be  made 
either  for  finishing  or  color  mixing. 


BLUE.  107 


Prussian  Blue  for  Finishing. 

6  Ibs.  green  copperas, 

1 J  gallons  water,  dissolve  ; 

6  Ibs.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 

1J  gallons  water;  dissolve  separately  and  mix 
with  agitation,  add  to  the  whole 

1  Ib.  oil  of  vitriol, 

24  Ibs.  spirits  of  salts,  stir  up  well  and  let  stand  some  hours; 
the  sediment  will  have  a  very  pale  blue  color,  to  bring  it  up 
to  full  shade  it  must  be  oxidized,  which  is  most  conveniently 
accomplished  by  clear  solution  of  bleaching  powder  of  chernic. 
Take  a  rather  weak  solution  of  chemic  and  add  it  gradually  to 
the  liquor,  stirring  all  the  time  until  it  begins  to  smell  deci- 
dedly of  chlorine  ;  it  is  then  time  to  stop,  putting  in  the  chemic. 
The  blue  which  is  now  of  an  intense  dark  color  is  left  to  settle  ; 
the  clear  drawn  off  and  fresh  water  poured  upon  the  blue  to 
wash  it ;  this  repeated  several  times  until  all  the  acid  is  removed, 
leaves  the  blue  fit  for  use.  If  warmed  with  a  small  quantity  of 
oxalic  acid  it  partially  dissolves  and  forms  a  clearer  color. 

Prussian  Blue  for  Spirit  Colors. 

4  Ibs.  prussiate  of  potash, 

1  gal.  water;  dissolve,  and  separately  dissolve 

8  Ibs.  green  copperas  in 

1  gal.  water;  mix  the  two  solutions,  and  add 

1  quart  nitric  acid. 

Leave  some  hours,  then  wash  three  times  by  decantation, 
and  drain  on  a  filter  to  a  paste.  The  nitric  acid  here  acts  the 
same  part  that  the  bleaching  powder  did  in  the  previous  re- 
ceipt. Prussian  blues  are  made  immediately  by  mixing  per- 
nitrate  of  iron  and  yellow  prussiate,  but  the  product  does  not 
answer  so  well  because  it  does  not  dissolve  in  oxalic  acid  or 
tin  salts  so  easily  as  that  prepared  by  one  of  the  above  methods. 
The  reason  of  the  methods  of  dyeing  blue  with  pernitrate  of 
iron  and  yellow  prussiate  will  be  now  intelligible ;  the  cloth 
takes  iron  from  the  nitrate,  and  then  when  brought  to  the 
prussiate  it  acts  upon  it,  producing  the  blue ;  but  this  would 
not  take  place  unless  the  prussiate  was  acid,  because  then  the 
iron  and  it  would  never  come  into  actual  contact.  The  insolu- 
ble blue  powder  being  formed  in  the  pores  of  the  cloth  is  fast, 
but  if  the  cloth  has  been  worked  in  the  blue  ready  formed, 
the  color  would  only  have  been  on  the  surface  and  easily 
washed  off. 

Red  prussiate  of  potash  and  green  coppferas  give  at  once  a 


108  BLUE— BRAN. 

fine  dark  blue;  red  prussiate  and  per-nitrate  of  iron  give  a 
dark  olive  color,  which  becomes  a  splendid  blue  upon  addition 
of  muriate  of  tin. 

The  mere  exposure  of  prussiate  of  potash  mixed  with  an 
acid  to  heat  and  air  produces  a  kind  of  Prussian  blue  without 
addition  of  any  iron,  and  it  is  from  this  reaction  that  our  finest 
blues  are  obtained.  The  chemical  changes  which  take  place 
are  not  clearly  understood;  but  it  is  known  that  prussic  acid 
is  evolved,  and  probably  some  of  the  iron  which  naturally 
exists  in  prussiate  of  potash  forms  the  basis  for  the  blue. 

Blue,  Quinoline,  or  Cyanine. — This  was  an  artificial  blue 
color,  discovered  by  Greville  Williams,  made  from  a  refuse 
product  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  quinine ;  its  production 
was  the  result  of  exquisite  chemical  knowledge,  it  yielded 
very  fine  colors  on  silk ;  but  they  were  so  susceptible  to  the 
action  of  strong  light  as  to  be  entirely  useless.  I  have  seen  a 
magnificent  blue  velvet  become  a  plain  drab  color  in  less  than 
four  hours'  exposure  in  a  window. 

Blue,  Royal. — That  shade  of  Prussian  blue  which  has  a 
reddish  or  purplish  reflection;  the  existence  of  tin  seems 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  production  of  this  shade.  (See 
BLUE  COLOES.) 

Blue,  Saxony. — Old  name  for  sulphate  of  indigo.  (See 
INDIGO.) 

Blue,  Soluble. — Also  a  name  for  sulphate  of  indigo,  but 
lately  also  applied  to  a  modified  Prussian  blue.  Dry  Prussian 
blue  treated  for  forty-eight  hours  with  strong  mineral  acids 
and  then  washed,  is  said  to  lose  iron  and  dissolve  easily  upon 
addition  of  a  minute  quantity  of  oxalic  acid. 

Bluestone. — Common  name  for  sulphate  of  copper,  called 
also  blue  vitriol  and  blue  copperas.  (See  COPPER  SULPHATE.) 

Blue,  Ultramarine.  (See  ULTKAMARINE  and  PIGMENT 
COLORS.) 

Borax. — This  substance  is  a  salt  composed  of  boracic  acid 
and  soda,  and  because  boracic  acid  is  a  very  feeble  acid,  the 
soda  retains  some  of  its  alkaline  properties  in  this  salt.  Bo- 
rax can  be  used  as  a  weak  alkali;  it  is  milder  than  crystals  of 
soda,  it  has  cleansing  or  detergent  properties,  it  dissolves  resin, 
shellac,  anotta,  and  some  other  coloring  matters ;  it  is  but  little 
used  at  present  in  printing  or  dyeing. 

Bowking  or  Bucking. — One  of  the  operations  in  BLEACH- 
ING, which  see. 

Bran. — Bran  has  some  detergent  powers,  and  is  frequently 
recommended  to  clean  fabrics  of  very  delicate  colors.  It  is 
now  sparingly  used  to  clear  some  styles  of  goods,  as  logwood 
blacks,  garancine  pinks,  etc.;  it  was  formerly  very  much  used 


BRAUNA  WOOD — BRAZIL  WOOD.  109 

in  calico  printing  and  dyeing.  Before  soap  was  applied  to 
clearing  the  whites  of  printed  goods,  boiling  in  bran  and  ex- 
posure to  air  were  the  only  means  used.  Bran  added  to  a  dye 
has  the  effect  of  causing  lighter  and  clearer  shades  to  be  pro- 
duced. Growses'  pink  was  produced  by  mixing  madder  with 
a  large  excess  of  scalded  bran  and  dyeing  mordanted  cloth  in 
the  mixture;  it  is  long  since  abandoned  in  favor  of  better 
methods,  but  is  an  illustration  of  the  effects  of  bran  upon 
dyeing  matters. 

Brauna  Wood. — This  wood  is  mentioned  in  a  patent 
dated  April  25th,  1857  ;  it  is  said  to  grow  in  the  Brazils,  and 
its  coloring  matter  to  have  great  affinity  for  cotton,  with  or 
without  mordants,  producing  shades  of  brown,  drab,  slate,  fawn, 
and  black. 

Brazil  Wood,  or  Brasil  Wood. — This  is  one  of  the  class  of 
red  woods  whose  coloring  matter  is  largely  soluble  in  water. 
It  is  from  the  same  kind  of  tree  and  nearly  identical  with 
peach  wood,  Lima  wood,  and  sapan  wood.  The  richest  variety 
is  from  Pernambuco,  and  is  sometimes  called  Fernambuc  wood. 
The  real  Brazil  wood  is  said  to  be  one-half  less  rich  than  the 
Fernambuc  variety,  while  peach,  sapan,  and  Lima  woods  are 
still  more  inferior.  They  all,  however,  contain  the  same  kind 
of  coloring  matter,  and  present  the  same  kind  of  chemical 
reactions.  Brazil  wood  when  freshly  rasped  communicates  a 
bright  red  color  to  water  in  a  few  minutes ;  by  this  test  it  can 
be  distinguished  from  logwood,  which  does  not  sensibly  color 
the  water,  while  inferior  qualities  of  red  wood  give  a  reddish 
brown  color.  Santal  wood  and  barwood  do  not,  under 
similar  circumstances,  color  water.  Decoction  of  Brazil  wood 
gives  a  bright  red  with  alum  and  crystals  of  tin,  which  dis- 
tinguish it  from  logwood,  which  give  purplish  precipitates. 

Brazil  wood  is  usually  kept  some  weeks  after  rasping  in  a 
moist  state  before  being  made  into  liquor.  Though  this  does 
not  appear  so  necessary  for  Brazil  wood  as  for  logwood,  it  is 
very  generally  thought  to  be  beneficial.  It  is  considered  that  a 
decoction  of  Brazil  wood  improves  greatly  by  age,  both  with 
regard  to  the  depth  and  purity  of  the  colors  it  gives,  so  that 
it  is  frequently  kept  several  months  in  vats;  a  fermentation 
appears  to  go  on,  and  tarry  and  other  matters  are  deposited, 
the  absence  of  which  improve  the  shade.  Several  methods  of 
improving  Brazil  wood  liquors  have  also  been  given,  but  they 
seem  rather  impracticable.  One  method  consists  in  adding 
skimmed  milk  to  the  liquor,  and  raising  to  the  boil;  the 
caseine  of  the  milk  coagulates,  and  carries  with  it  some  sub- 
stances injurious  to  the  color.  Another  consists  in  sprinkling 


HO  BRONZE  COLORS. 

the  wood,  before  extracting,  with  water  containing  a  small 
quantity  of  glue  or  bone  size,  and  leaving  it  for  a  few  days. 

Applications. — Brazil  wood  is  used  in  dyeing  for  common 
qualities  of  reds  and  crimsons,  and  as  a  constituent  in  other 
shades  where  a  red  element  is  required.  In  calico  printing  it 
is  also  used  for  the  cheaper  kinds  of  reds  and  crimsons,  and 
as  a  component  of  many  of  the  more  complex  shades,  as  brown 
and  chocolate. 

The  pure  coloring  matter  of  Brazil  wood  is  called  Bresiline. 
As  fixed  upon  textile  fabrics  it  is  one  of  the  loose  fugitive 
colors,  and  only  acquires  a  moderate  degree  of  permanency 
when  combined  with  relatively  large  amounts  of  astringent 
matter. 

Braziletto  or  Brasiletto. — An  inferior  kind  of  Brazil  wood, 
said  to  come  from  Jamaica,  and  sometimes  called  Jamaica  red 
wood. 

British  Gum.     (See  GUM  SUBSTITUTES.) 
Bromine. — The  name  of  one  of  the   elementary  bodies. 
Excepting  mercury,  it  is  the  only  one  existing  in  a  liquid  state 
at  natural  temperatures ;   it  is  comparatively  rare,  and  has 
received  no  application  as  yet. 

Bronze  Colors. — A  bronze  color  is  a  kind  of  brown, 
usually  with  a  greenish  reflection,  or,  perhaps,  rather  with 
some  kind  of  a  shade  which  reminds  the  observer  of  a  metallic 
reflection.  There  are  many  shades  of  bronze.  I  select  a  few 
examples  of  methods  for  producing  what  are  called  bronze 
shades. 

Manganese  Bronze. — This  color  was  at  one  time  very  popular, 
but  is  now  scarcely  ever  required.  It  can  be  produced  of 
various  shades,  from  a  brown  so  dark  as  to  appear  black,  down 
to  a  light  nut  shade,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  liquor 
used.  The  bronze  liquor  was  generally  muriate  of  manganese, 
but  sometimes  also  sulphate  of  acetate;  this  was  simply 
thickened  according  to  the  style,  printed  and  aged  for  a  short 
time,  preferably  in  a  hot  stove,  then  raised  in  a  hot  solution  of 
caustic  soda,  and  winced  in  clear  water  until  the  shade  was 
developed.  For  dark  grounds  the  pieces  were  finally  winced 
in  weak  solution  of  bleaching  powder,  to  raise  the  full  shade 
of  color. 

The  bulk  of  manganese  bronzes  or  browns  are  self  colors, 
and  produced  by  padding  the  cloth  in  bronze  liquor  at  about 
28°,  slightly  thickened  with  gum,  drying,  and  raising  or  fixing 
in  a  hot  and  strong  solution  of  caustic  soda,  the  caustic  standing 
as  high  as  30°  for  the  darkest  shades.  The  oxidation  is 
finished  by  a  passage  in  weak  chloride  of  lime.  Designs  can 
be  produced  upon  these  grounds  by  printing  a  discharge  of 


BROOM— BROWN   COLORS.  Ill 

crystals  of  tin.  (See  DISCHARGE.)  The  color  is  due  to  the 
deposition  of  oxide  of  manganese  upon  the  cloth,  which  is 
oxidized  by  exposure  to  the  air,  and  by  the  chloride  of  lime 
into  the  peroxide  of  manganese.  (See  MANGANESE.) 

Bronze  upon  Wool. 

100  Ibs.  of  wool, 
10  Ibs.  fustic, 
20  Ibs.  alum, 
5  Ibs.  tartar ; 

boiled  for  three  hours  in  this  mixture  with  sufficient  water, 
then  boiled  with  20  Ibs.  of  madder,  and  afterwards  dipped  in 
the  blue  vat  until  the  required  shade  is  obtained.  (Dumas.) 
The  bronze  in  this  case  is  a  mixed  color  produced  from  yellow, 
red,  and  blue,  in  which  the  yellow  predominates,  or  it  is  a 
green  browned  by  orange.  Another  cheaper  bronze  on  wool 
is  given  as  follows: — 

60  Ibs.  fustic, 

40  Ibs.  quercitron  bark, 

5  Ibs.  logwood,  are  boiled  together  for  an  hour ;  then  is 
added 

24  Ibs.  alum, 

4  Ibs.  madder,  and  the  cloth  entered  and  boiled  for  four 
hours.  The  cloth  lifted,  2  Ibs.  green  copperas  added,  and  the 
cloth  worked  in  again  hot.  A  greenish  bronze  is  also  obtained 
by  boiling  the  wool  for  an  hour  in  a  mixture  of  2|  Ibs.  bichro- 
mate potash  and  1^  Ibs.  tartar,  then  dyeing  in  a  mixture  of 
20  Ibs.  fustic,  3  Ibs.  logwood,  3  Ibs.  santal  wood,  6  Ibs.  madder, 
2  Ibs.  turmeric,  and  \\  Ibs.  alum. 

A  bronze  brown  upon  silk  may  be  obtained  by  working  for 
half  an  hour  in  fustic  and  archil  and  raising  in  copperas. 

See  further  BROWN  COLORS,  of  which  bronze  is  actually  one. 

Broom. — A  kind  of  broom,  called  "Dyer's  broom"  (genista 
tinctorid)^  is  locally  used  to  obtain  inferior  yellow  colors  upon 
woollen,  by  means  of  an  alum  and  tartar  mordant. 

Brown  Colors. — Brown  is  produced  by  the  reflection  of 
mixed  rays  of  red,  blue,  and  yellow  in  unequal  proportions ; 
when  reflected  in  equal  or  chromatic  proportions  they  produce 
so-called  blacks  or  whites,  and  when  the  reflection  is  imperfect 
the  class  of  gray  colors  result.  It  is  the  predominance  of  the 
orange  over  the  blue  which  characterizes  brown  ;  and  there  are 
an  infinite  number  of  shades  of  it.  Instead  of  attempting  to 
collect  under  this  head  the  methods  and  processes  employed  for 
all  kinds  of  brown  colors,  it  will  be  found  more  advantageous  to 
confine  the  remarks  to  general  principles,  with  a  few  processes 


112  BROWN  COLORS. 

of  a  characteristic  nature  to  illustrate  them ;  and  to  refer  to 
the  body  of  the  book  for  most  special  shades  of  brown.  The 
popular  names  of  the  brown  colors  assist  this  arrangement  and 
permit  them  to  be  described  under  distinctive  heads,  such  as 
BRONZE,  FAWN,  CHOCOLATE,  NUT,  WOOD,  &c. 

If  we  consider  chestnut  brown  as  the  middle  type  of  a  brown 
color,  the  gradations  of  the  shade  darker  and  lighter  may  be 
considered  as  due  in  the  first  case  to  the  increase  of  the  blue 
element,  and  in  the  latter  to  the  increase  of  yellow  or  red 
parts.  Thus,  if  blue  be  added  to  chestnut  brown  it  becomes  a 
chocolate;  if  mixed  yellow  and  red  be  added  it  becomes  nut 
color;  if  an  excessive  amount  of  blue  is  added  the  brown 
passes  into  black,  or  an  extremely  dark  chocolate;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  if  a  large  quantity  of  orange  is  added  it 
passes  to  fawn  and  buff.  As  the  greatest  number  of  brown 
shades  are  produced  directly  by  combining  yellow,  red,  and 
blue  woods  or  dyes,  this  hint  should  be  a  sufficient  guide 
as  to  how  the  shades  may  be  modified  at  will.  The  only  diffi- 
culty consists  in  the  want  of  a  distinct  comprehension  as  to 
what  colors  certain  ingredients  contribute  to  a  mixture;  about 
indigo,  weld,  and  madder,  with  alum  mordant,  there  is  no  diffi- 
culty, because  it  is  known  they  are  distintly,  blue,  yellow,  and 
red.  But  logwood  does  not  yield  a  pure  elementary  color ; 
with  alum  it  gives  a  color  which  is  a  mixture  of  blue  and  red, 
the  blue  predominating;  with  iron  it  gives  a  blue  so  dark  and 
absorbent  as  to  appear  black  or  gray — it  may  be  considered 
as  a  blue  part  in  brown  colors.  Anotta  gives  a  color  which  is 
a  mixture  of  red  and  yellow,  and  only  requires  blue  to  produce 
light  browns.  Sumac  and  gall-nuts  are  blue  and  darkening  in 
their  action.  Catechu  and  other  substances  give  a  brown 
without  any  combination.  These  simple  natural  browns  will 
be  treated  under  the  head  of  their  coloring  matter. 

Brown  on  Silk  by  Dyeing. — The  largest  class  of  browns  on 
silk  are  obtainable  by  first  dyeing  an  orange  or  yellow  ground 
with  anotta,  and  then  superadding  a  blue  or  black  pigment,  as 
in  the  following  illustrations : — 

Red  Brown. — Dye  the  silk  first  in  anotta,  and  then  work  it 
in  a  mixture  of  logwood  and  nitromuriate  of  tin  or  plum 
spirits.  (See  SPIRITS.)  Here  the  lilac  of  the  plum  spirits, 
composed  of  blue  and  red,  adding  itself  to  the  yellowish-orange 
of  the  anotta  gives  a  light  shade  of  brown. 

Dark  Brown. — Dye  a  deep  orange  in  anotta,  work  in  copperas 
liquor,  wash  and  work  in  fustic,  logwood,,  and  archil,  or  peach- 
wood  may  be  substituted  for  archil;  finish  in  alum  water. 

Quantities. — 10  Ibs.  silk  dyed  with  anotta,  1  Ib.  green  cop- 
peras, 20  minutes ;  6  Ibs.  fustic,  1  Ib.  logwood,  1  quart  archil, 


BROWN   COLORS.  113 

or  1  lb.  peachwood,  30  minutes;  one  pint  of  alum  liquor,  15 
minutes. 

There  is  no  limit  to  the  depth  and  quality  of  shade  to  be 
obtained  by  varying  the  quantity  of  woods ;  the  archil  con- 
tributes greatly  to  the  fulness  and  richness  of  the  color,  but 
may,  nevertheless,  be  replaced  by  the  red  woods.  The  pro- 
duction of  brown  from  the  above  materials  may  be  explained 
by  the  basis  containing  yellow  and  red ;  a  further  amount  of 
red  and  yellow  is  added  by  the  fustic  and  archil  or  peachwood, 
the  logwood  adds  the  blue,  the  alum  forming  a  basis  for  the 
woods.  The  copperas  darkens  the  whole  by  its  forming  the 
black-blue  color  with  logwood. 

Other  Browns. — Anotta,  though  yielding  the  brightest 
browns,  is  not  necessary  as  a  basis ;  for  a  variety  of  browns 
are  obtained  by  first  aluming  the  silk  and  then  working  it  in 
a  decoction  of  logwood  for  the  blue  part,  peachwood  or  brasil 
wood  for  the  red  part,  and  fustic  for  the  yellow  part. 

Deep  Chocolate  Brown.  Quantities. — 10  Ibs.  silk,  steep  60 
minutes  in  alum  at  1  lb.  to  the  gallon;  wash,  6  Ibs.  peachwood, 
2  Ibs.  logwood,  8  oz.  fustic,  30  minutes;  1  quart  alum  solution, 
15  minutes. 

Brown  on  Silk  by  Printing. — The  same  general  principles 
apply  as  in  silk  dyeing,  and  nearly  the  same  materials  are 
employed,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  receipts  following: — 

Chestnut  Brown  on  Silk. 

1  lb.  logwood  liquor  at  3°, 

1  pint  berry  liquor  at  6°, 

8  quarts  Brazil  or  sapan  wood  liquor  at  3°, 

1  lb.  starch,  or  2  Ibs.  gum  if  for  block, 

8  oz.  alum, 

4  oz.  nitrate  of  copper  at  80°, 

8  oz.  oxymuriate  of  tin  at  80°. 

Exactly  the  same  ingredients,  but  in  different  relative  quan- 
tities, may  be  used  for  obtaining  a  dark  chocolate  or  a  light 
nut  brown.  For  chocolates  the  logwood  or  blue  part  must  be 
in  greater  quantity;  for  the  nut  shades  the  berries  or  yellow 
part  must  be  increased. 

Another  Chestnut  Brown  on  Silk. 

1  gallon  berry  liquor  at  11°, 

3  quarts  brasil  wood  or  peachwood  liquor  at  7°, 

3  pints  logwood  liquor  at  7°, 

li  Ibs.  alum. 

10  oz.  sulphate  of  copper,  thickened  with 

8  Ibs.  gum,  more  or  less,  to  pattern. 


114  BROWN  COLORS. 

In  a  few  receipts  the  red  part  consists  of  ammoniacal  cochineal, 
but  it  is  questionable  whether  this  expensive  liquor  is  any 
better  than  a  decoction  of  one  of  the  red  woods  in  such  a 
color.  In  all  the  cases  where  copper  salts  are  used  with  woods 
the  addition  of  muriate  of  ammonia  will  be  found  beneficial. 

Brown  on  Wool  by  Dyeing. — The  following  is  an  example  of 
a  fast  and  durable,  but  expensive  brown  : — 

Chestnut  Brown. — The  wool  is  first  dyed  yellow  in  a  decoc- 
tion of  weld  and  fustic,  or  else  in  quercitron  bark  and  fustic ; 
alumed  and  dyed  in  madder,  then  dipped  in  an  indigo  vat  until 
the  right  shade  is  obtained. 

Quantities.— 100  Ibs.  of  wool,  50  Ibs.  yellow  woods,  60 
minutes  at  boil;  25  Ibs.  alum  and  5  Ibs.  tartar,  boil  for  three 
hours;  three  days,  60  Ibs.  madder;  two  hours,  indigo  vat  at 
discretion. 

In  this  illustration  the  fastest  known  yellow,  red,  and  blue 
elements  are  combined,  and  the  product  is  a  fast  color.  This 
example  serves  very  well  to  show  the  effects  of  the  mixture  of 
the  elementary  colors,  the  disappearance  of  each  particular 
shade,  and  the  blending  of  the  whole  in  a  complex  hue.  For 
cheaper  woollen  cloths  cheaper  dyeing  materials  are  used;  for 
example,  instead  of  dipping  in  indigo,  the  blue  part  is  given 
by  sumac,  logwood,  and  copperas,  or  by  sumac  and  copperas 
without  logwood.  The  fast  but  expensive  red  from  madder  is 
substituted  by  similar  color  from  santal  wood  or  brasil  wood, 
and  the  yellow  obtained  from  fustic.  There  are  many  methods 
of  combining  the  elementary  colors  on  wool  to  obtain  brown,  a 
few  examples  of  which  will  suffice. 

Brown  on  Wool,  No.  1. — Mordant  in  bichromate  of  potash 
and  alum  for  half  an  hour,  wash  and  work  in  a  decoction  of 
fustic,  madder,  cudbear,  logwood,  and  cream  of  tartar.  The 
quantities  of  those  woods  must  depend  upon  the  shade  desired. 

Brown  on  Wool,  No.  2. — Work  the  wool  in  a  decoction  of 
fustic,  madder,  peachwood,  and  logwood,  and  raise  in  copperas. 

Brown  on  WboZ,  No.  3. — The  wool  is  boiled  in  a  mixed  decoc- 
tion of  galls,  santal  wood,  madder,  brasil  wood,  and  fustic;  then 
raised  in  a  mixture  of  logwood  and  green  copperas. 

Quantities. — These  quantities  are  only  suggestive,  and  admit 
of  great  latitude.  For  100  Ibs.  wool,  first  receipt,  3  Ibs.  bichro- 
mate, 3  Ibs.  alum,  3  Ibs.  tartar,  20  Ibs.  fustic,  10  Ibs.  madder, 
5  Ibs.  peachwood,  3  Ibs.  logwood. 

No.  2  Brown— 100  Ibs.  wool,  20  Ibs.  fustic,  20  Ibs.  madder 
10  Ibs.  peachwood,  2|  Ibs.  logwood,  l£  Ibs.  copperas. 

No.  3  Brown— 100  Ibs.  wool,  6  Ibs.  gall  nuts,  12  Ibs.  santal 
wood,  6  Ibs.  madder,  4  Ibs.  brasil  wood,  5£  Ibs.  fustic,  three 
hours;  3  Ibs.  logwood,  2  Ibs.  green  copperas,  45  minutes. 


BROWN  COLORS.  115 

Brown  on  Wool  by  Printing. — The  following  receipts  for 
brown  will  serve  to  show  the  method  of  obtaining  this  color 
on  wool  by  printing : — 

Chestnut  Brown — all  Wool. 
4  pints  bark  liquor  at  18°, 
4  pints  cochineal  liquor  at  4J°, 

2  Ibs.  gum, 

8  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

6  oz.  alum, 

$  pint  bichloride  of  tin,  at  100°, 
•    3  oz.  extract  of  indigo. 

Archil  enters  largely  into  all  the  dark  or  chocolate  shades 
of  brown  for  wool,  and  may  be  used,  but  with  less  advantage, 
for  the  more  yellow  shades,  as  in  the  following  receipt : — • 

Wood  Brown— all  Wool,  Block. 

7  quarts  bark  liquor  at  18°, 

3  quarts  archil  liquor  at  10°, 

7  quarts  cochineal  liquor  at  6°, 
3  Ibs.  starch ;  boil,  and  add 

9  oz.  alum, 

6  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

|  pint  bichloride  of  tin  at  100°, 

3  oz.  extract  of  indigo. 

Or,  as  again,  in  the  following  receipt  for  a  similar  shade  o 
color,  obtained  by  rather  different  means : — 

1  gallon  berry  liquor  at  18°, 

1  gallon  archil  at  18°, 

2  Ibs.  starch  :  boil  and  add 
1  Ib.  alum, 

\  Ib.  tartaric  acid, 
\  Ib.  green  copperas. 

Brown  on  Calico  by  Dyeing. — The  following  methods  will 
serve  to  illustrate  the  compound  brown  on  calico : — 

Spirit  Brown. — Dye  first  a  yellow  from  bark,  by  mordanting 
with  sumac  and  tin — (see  YELLOW) — then  pass  into  peachwood 
or  brasil  wood  mixed  with  logwood  for  half  an  hour,  lift,  and 
add  alum  water  to  raise  the  colors.  The  peachwood  here  gives 
the  red,  and  the  logwood  the  blue  or  purple  constituent.  The 
shades  may  be  modified  to  wish,  by  altering  the  quantities  of 
the  materials. 

Quantities. — 10  Ibs.  cotton  dyed  yellow,  2  Ibs.  peachwood,  1 
Ib.  logwood,  3  oz.  alum  ;  time,  half  an  hour. 


116  BROWN   COLORS. 

Brown  with  a  Chrome  Yellow  Basis. — The  cloth  or  yarn  is 
dyed  chrome  yellow.  (See  CHROME  COLORS.)  The  remaining 
process  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  above. 

Brown  with  Anotta  Basis. — Dye  in  anotta  liquor  (anotta  dis- 
solves in  pearlash),  wash  out,  and  work  in  decoction  of  fustic 
and  sumac;  lift,  and  add  green  copperas  liquor,  and  work  in 
again;  wash,  and  work  for  twenty  minutes  in  a  mixture  of  red 
wood,  fustic,  and  logwood;  lift,  and  again  raise  with  alum.  This 
produces  a  fawn,  or  yellowish- brown,  on  account  of  an  excess 
of  yellow.  The  anotta  color  may  be  considered  as  yellow  with 
a  little  red,  and  then  fustic  being  again  twice  used,  the  yellow 
accumulates  and  gives  a  tone  to  the  brown.  The  sumac  darkens 
the  color. 

Quantities. — 10  Ibs.  of  cotton  dyed  with  anotta,  2  Ibs.  fustic, 
and  1  Ib.  sumac,  twenty  minutes ;  3  oz.  copperas,  twenty 
minutes;  J  Ib.  logwood,  J  Ib.  each  of  fustic  and  peachwood, 
twenty  minutes;  1  oz.  alum,  ten  minutes. 

The  great  majority  of  brown  colors  upon  cotton  are  obtained 
from  catechu,  which  is  a  distinct  brown  coloring  matter  itself. 
In  calico  printing  many  shades  of  brown  and  chocolate  are  ob- 
tained from  madder  and  garancine  with  mixed  mordants.  For  in- 
formation upon  those  colors  the  articles  CATECHU,  GARANCINE, 
and  MADDER  may  be  consulted. 

Brown  Colors  on  Calico  by  Printing. — Catechu  cannot  be  used 
to  advantage  in  steam  browns,  and  the  mixture  of  elementary 
colors  is  necessary.  Steam  brown  on  calico  is  very  seldom 
required;  it  differs  from  chocolate  by  containing  more  red  and 
yellow  and  less  blue.  Frequently  the  color  is  obtained  by 
mixing  steam  orange  and  steam  lilac  together,  the  blue  part  of 
the  latter  turning  the  orange  to  brown.  I  give  a  couple  of 
receipts  as  sufficiently  indicating  the  nature  of  the  mixture  used 
for  brown. 

Steam  Brown  for  Calico. 

3  quarts  bark  liquor  at  12°, 

2  quarts  sapan  liquor  at  10°, 

3  quarts  berry  liquor  at  12°, 

2  quarts  logwood  liquor  at  12°, 
12  Ibs.  British  gum ;  boil,  and  add 
12  oz.  alum, 

8  oz.  sal  ammoniac, 

8  oz.  sulphate  of  copper, 

i  pint  nitrate  of  copper  at  80°, 

3  quarts  of  lilac  standard.     (See  below.) 


BROWNING.  117 

Lilac  Standard  for  Brown. 

1  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  6°,  heat  to  180°,  and  dissolve  in  it 

4  Ibs.  gum  Senegal, 

8  oz.  red  prussiate  of  potash, 

12  oz.  alum, 

1  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

2  oz.  binoxalate  of  potash. 

Wood  Brown  on  Calico. 

1  gallon  berry  liquor  at  3°, 

2  quarts  peach  wood  liquor  at  8°, 
£  pint  logwood  liquor  at  8°, 

1|  Ibs.  crystals  nitrate  of  copper, 

1J  Ibs.  alum;  thicken  with  gum  water,  according  to  shade 
required. 

Browns  on  Delaine  l>y  Printing. — These  are  nearly  the  same 
as  upon  wool.     I  give  one  or  two  examples: — 

Dark  Brown  for  Delaines. 

5  pints  berry  liquor  at  8°, 

12  oz.  alum, 

1  pint  of  archil  at  8°, 

J  pint  sapan  liquor  at  8°, 

£  pint  logwood  liquor  at  11°, 

1  Ib.  starch ;  boil  and  add 

2  oz.  oxalic  acid. 

Wood  Brown  for  Delaines. 

1  gallon  peachwood  liquor  at  9°, 

1  gallon  berry  liquor  at  18°, 

2  quarts  archil  (strong), 

2  Ibs.  starch  ;  boil,  and  add 

1J  Ibs.  alum, 

4  oz.  sal  ammoniac, 

2  oz.  acetate  of  copper. 

The  absence  of  logwood  or  sulphate  of  indigo  in  the  latter 
receipt  would  cause  a  yellowish  or  buff  brown ;  when  the  blue 
part  predominates,  as  before  stated,  the  brown  passes  into  choco- 
late. For  delaines,  sulphate  of  indigo  may  be  used  as  the  blue 
part,  but  not  exclusively,  since  only  the  wool  takes  blue  from 
this  coloring  matter.  (See  CHOCOLATE,  CATECHU,  etc.) 

Browning. — Neutral  colors  of  the  gray  and  dove  species 
upon  cotton  goods  are  darkened  by  passing  them  through  a 
weak  solution  of  green  copperas  alone,  or  mixed  with  a  small 


118  BUCCINUM   LAP1LLUS — BUFF   COLOR. 

portion  of  logwood  liquor  or  decoction  of  galls.  This  process 
is  the  one  sometimes  called  "browning,"  but  in  Lancashire  the 
more  usual  term  is  "  saddening,"  and  colors  so  modified  are 
known  as  "saddened"  colors.  All  the  wood  colors  are  turned 
darker  by  copperas ;  and  even  red  colors,  from  garancine  and 
madder,  are  turned  to  a  chocolate  shade. 

Bnccinum  Lapi.ll.us. — A  species  of  shellfish  or  whelk, 
obtainable  on  the  English  coast,  which  contains  a  viscid  white 
matter  that  acquires  a  purple  color  when  applied  on  calico.  It 
passes  through  several  shades  before  it  is  wholly  changed  into 
purple;  becoming,  first,  pale  yellowish-green;  secondly,  an 
emerald  green;  thirdly,  a  dark  bluish-green;  fourthly,  a  blue 
beginning  to  purple;  and,  finally,  a  purple.  In  strong  sun- 
shine these  changes  take  place  in  less  than  five  minutes;  in 
the  dark  the  color  does  not  get  beyond  the  second  or  emerald 
green  stage.  This  peculiar  and  interesting  liquid  is  mentioned 
by  the  most  ancient  writers,  as  Aristotle  and  Pliny ;  and  there 
seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  coloring  matter  was  formerly 
employed  for  dyeing.  There  is  also  strong  reason  for  suppos- 
ing that  the  famous  Tyrian  purple  of  the  ancients  was  derived 
from  this  or  some  similar  shellfish. 

Bubuline. — A  supposed  constituent  of  cow  dung,  to  which 
some  chemists  desired  to  attribute  its  useful  actions  in  dyeing 
and  printing.  (See  Cow  DUNG.) 

Buckthorn,  Dyers'.— A  plant  called  "nerprun"  in  French 
seems  the  same  as  the  dyers'  buckthorn.  Some  attempts  were 
made  recently  to  obtain  green  dyes  from  it  by  M.  Michel,  who 
was  led  to  the  experiment  from  ascertaining  that  the  Chinese 
extracted  a  green  color  from  the  same  species  of  plant — 
(Rhamnus  utilis  and  R,  chloroforus.)  The  results  so  far  prove 
that  there  exists  a  colorless  substance  in  the  French  indigenous 
buckthorns,  which  upon  exposure  to  light  becomes  green ;  but 
it  has  not  yet  been  extensively  used,  probably  because  the 
color  is  neither  pretty,  durable,  nor  cheap.  (See  ARTICHOKE, 
CHINESE  GREEN.) 

Buff  Color. — A  color  so  named  because  resembling  the 
shade  of  leather  prepared  from  the  buffalo  skin,  called  buff 
or  buffalo  leather.  The  continental  colorists,  probably  more 
familiar  with  the  dressed  skin  of  the  chamois  than  of  the 
buffalo,  gave  the  name  "chamois"  to  this  color.  It  is  yellow 
mixed  with  a  little  red,  or,  according  to  Chevreul's  nomencla- 
ture, yellow  with  some  orange  of  a  low  tone. 

The  chief  buff  color,  or  the  one  distinctively  so  called,  is 
from  iron,  and  prepared  as  follows: — 


BUFF  COLOR.  119 

Buff  Liquor,  Ordinary. 

4  gallons  water, 

20  Ibs.  sulphate  of  iron  (green  copperas), 

5  Ibs.  brown  sugar  of  lead, 
2|  Ibs.  white  sugar  of  lead. 

Another  Buff  Liquor. 
10  gallons  water, 
48  Ibs.  green  copperas, 
20  Ibs.  brown  sugar  of  lead. 

Both  these  are  proto-acetates  of  iron  with  undecomposed  sul- 
phate. The  following  liquor  contains  an  excess  of  lead,  found 
to  work  well  with  chromed  styles,  or  where  a  somewhat  yel- 
lower or  softer  buff  was  required. 

Lead  Buff  Liqnor. 

10  gallons  water, 
25  Ibs.  acetate  of  lead, 
20  Ibs.  green  copperas, 
J  gallon  acetic  acid. 

In  all  cases  the  sulphate  of  lead  is  allowed  to  precipitate,  and 
the  clear  field  only  used.  It  is  thickened  either  with  gum, 
flour,  or  starch.  Old  receipts  give  nitrate  of  potash  along  with 
the  other  ingredients,  and  direct  the  liquor  to  be  kept  for  six 
months  before  using.  Modern  French  receipts  give  the  nitro- 
sulphate  of  iron  as  a  buff  liquor ;  but  for  printing  on  calico 
there  can  be  no  question  of  the  superiority  of  simple  acetate  of 
iron.  The  addition  of  white  arsenic  and  salts  of  copper,  found 
in  some  receipts,  seems  more  likely  to  injure  than  assist  the 
color.  , 

The  buff  color  being  printed,  is  aged  for  a  night,  and  then 
fixed  or  raised  in  an  alkaline  bath,  consisting  of  well  slacked 
lime  with  a  small  quantity  of  soda  ash.  The  pieces  are  en- 
tered carefully,  and,  when  evenly  wetted,  are  winced  in  the 
lime  for  ten  or  twenty  minutes,  then  winced  in  cleaj*  water  until 
the  shade  is  raised,  which  may  take  half  an  hour  or  more ; 
washed,  dried,  and  finished. 

The  lime  and  soda  take  the  acetic  acid  or  sulphuric  acid 
from  the  oxide  of  iron  which  is  then  retained  by  the  fibres ; 
but  it  is  in  the  state  of  protoxide,  and  has  a  greenish  color. 
By  wincing  in  water  the  iron  absorbs  oxygen  and  becomes 
peroxide,  which  is  the  coloring  body. 

To  obtain  regular  and  even  shades  requires  a  good  deal  of 
care  and  attention.  The  cloth  must  be  well  bottomed  in  the 


120  BUTTERNUT  TREE. 

bleaching;  the  gum  used  for  thickening  must  be  one  that 
washes  off  well  and  easily ;  and  in  the  raising  it  is  highly  im- 
portant that  the  pieces  be  kept  moving— any  stopping  in  the 
process  is  injurious. 

Steam  Buff  for  Calico. 

3  gallons  madder  liquor, 

1  gallon  bark  liquor  at  10°, 

2  gallons  red  liquor  at  14°, 
7  Ibs.  starch ;  boil,  and  add 
2  oz.  crystals  of  tin. 

Steam  Buff  for  Wool 
1  quart  bark  liquor  4°, 
1  pint  archil  at  40°, 
6  oz.  alum, 
1£  oz.  tartaric  acid, 
1  gallon  gum  water. 

Steam  Buff  or  Chamois  on  Delaine. 

5  quarts  catechu  liquor,  at  |  Ib.  to  the  gallon, 
8  oz.  alum  dissolved  in 

1  quart  hot  water, 
3  oz.  acetate  of  copper, 
10  oz.  nitrate  of  copper, 

6  quarts  thick  gum  water. 

The  above  buff  is  a  simple  color;  but  those  most  in  use  are 
compounded  of  red  and  yellow.  Anotta  gives  a  species  of  buff' 
on  calico.  On  silk  and  woollen  the  yellow  part  from  Persian 
berries,  and  the  red  part  from  cochineal,  yield  all  shades  re- 
quired. (See  NANKEEN,  RED,  and  YELLOW.) 

Buffaloes'  Milk. — According  to  the  accounts  of  the  mis- 
sionaries in  India,  at  the  end  of  the  last  century,  buffaloes'  milk 
was  rather  largely  used  by  the  natives  in  dyeing  fast  madder 
colors.  It  was  applied  at  the  same  time  as  the  astringent 
matters,  and  appeared  to  partly  answer  the  same  purpose  that 
oil  does  in  Turkey-red  dyeing. 

Butternut  Tree. — The  common  name  for  a  tree  growing 
in  the  New  England  States — a  species  of  walnut  tree  (Juglans 
oblonga  Alba),  so  called  because  the  fruit  it  yields  is  very  oily. 
The  bark  is  stated  to  be  capable  of  communicating  a  lasting 
black  color  to  fibrous  matters  prepared  with 'iron  mordants; 
with  alumina  mordants  it  gives  a  tobacco  brown  color.  The 
rinds  of  the  nut  have  also  the  same  dyeing  powers  as  the  bark 
of  the  tree.  (See  WALNUT.) 


CACTIN — CALCINED   FARINA.  121 


c. 

Cactin. — Vogel  extracted  a  carmine  red  coloring  matter 
from  the  blossoms  of  the  cactus  speciosus ;  the  leaves  yielded 
also  a  quantity  of  a  scarlet  red  substance,  soluble  in  water.  It 
would  be  interesting  to  know  whether  these  colored  matters 
were  similar  in  their  composition  to  the  colors  from  cochineal 
— for  this  plant  is  one  of  the  species  of  shrubs  upon  which  the 
cochineal  feeds.  Wittstein  examined  the  sap  of  the  branches, 
and  the  ripe  fruit  of  another  species  of  cactus  (c.  opuntid),  but 
was  of  opinion  that  the  coloring  matter  of  the  cochineal  did  not 
exist  in  the  tree,  and  that  what  was  extractable  by  solvents 
was  something  different,  and  quite  useless  in  the  arts. 

Cactus  Cochenillifer. — The  botanical  name  of  the  tree 
or  shrub  upon  which  the  cochineal  insect  is  nourished ;  is  a 
native  of  America,  and  there  are  several  species  of  it,  pro- 
ducing fruits  of  various  colors,  as  yellow,  red,  violet,  etc.  It 
is  observed  that  the  crimson- colored  fruit  contains  a  mucilagi- 
nous juice,  which  strongly  colors  the  urine  of  those  who  eat  it. 
It  seems  probable,  that  if  the  cochineal  insect  is  merely  an  ex- 
tractor of  the  coloring  matter  of  the  plant,  that  the  fruit,  etc., 
might  be  more  directly  and  economically  applied  as  a  dyeing 
substance,  than  as  food  for  insects. 

Calcined  Alum,  Alumen  Ustum. — In  some  old  receipts 
alum  is  directed  to  be  dried  in  an  earthen  pot,  and  made  red 
hot  before  being  applied  in  dyeing.  Although  good  modern 
alum  cannot  be  improved  or  changed  beneficially  by  such  a 
process,  it  is  quite  possible  that  inferior  and  impure  alum  would 
be  better  for  a  moderate  calcination.  The  heat  would  have  a 
tendency  to  render  the  iron  in  an  impure  alum  insoluble  in 
water  by  expelling  a  portion  of  the  acid  with  which  it  was 
combined :  if  the  alum  was  also  of  a  very  acid  nature,  some  of 
the  excess  of  acid  would  also,  be  removed  and  its  quality  im- 
proved. 

Calcined  Copperas, — When  sulphate  of  iron,  or  green  cop- 
peras, is  raised  to  a  low,  red  heat,  in  an  earthenware  or  iron 
basin,  it  loses  water  and  some  acid,  and  gains  a  little  oxygen. 
Provided  the  heat  be  not  forced  too  high,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  copperas  thus  treated  is  improved  for  several  of  its  appli- 
cations in  dyeing  and  color  mixing ;  but  the  goodness  and  va- 
riety of  the  iron  mordants,  at  present  obtainable  in  trade,  ob- 
viate the  necessity  of  such  treatments  to  obtain  suitable  solu- 
tions in  iron. 

Calcined  Farina, — A  kind  of  thickening  matter  largely 
used  in  calico  printing,  and  made  by  exposing  the  starch  or 
9 


122  CALCIUM — CAPUCINE  COLOR. 

farina  of  potatoes  to  a  roasting  heat ;  it  is  one  of  the  GUM  SUB- 
STITUTES, which  see. 

Calcium. — This  is  the  name  of  the  metal  which  exists  in 
lime,  chalk,  etc.,  and  from  which  a  good  many  chemical  names 
are  derived  ;  thus,  in  strict  chemical  nomenclature,  lime  is  the 
oxide  of  calcium,  chalk  is  the  carbonate  of  calcium,  muriate  of 
lime  is  the  chloride  of  calcium,  and  so  on. 

Camwood. — This  is  one  of  the  red  woods  obtained  from  the 
Gaboon,  in  Africa,  and  from  Sierra  Leone,  where  it  is  called 
by  the  natives  Kambe,  whence,  by  abbreviation,  Kara  or  Cam,, 
It  has  the  same  properties  as  brasil  wood,  but  dyers  are  not 
agreed  as  to  their  relative  value.  Some  say  it  is  inferior  both 
in  richness  and  durability  to  Brazil  wood,  whilst  the  contrary 
is  also  maintained.  It  appears  to  yield  more  scarlet  shades 
than  peachwood,  having  some  portion  of  yellow  in  its  compo- 
sition, and  may  generally  be  employed  in  all  cases  where 
peachwood,  sapan  wood,  or  brasil  wood  are  prescribed.  It  is 
evident  from  the  contradictory  nature  of  the  statements  made 
with  regard  to  this  wood,  that  it  is  either  very  variable  in 
quality  or  that  the  methods  of  its  application  are  not  generally 
understood. 

Caoutchouc  or  India  Rubber. — Attempts  have  at  various 
times  been  made  to  use  a  solution  of  India  rubber  as  a  vehicle 
for  pigment  colors,  but,  so  far  as  is  known,  without  success. 
In  a  few  cases  solution  of  India  rubber  has  been  applied  to 
fabrics  by  block,  as  a  means  of  fixing  flock  and  metallic  de- 
signs, but  it  is  unsuitable  to  mix  with  pigments.  It  is  solu- 
ble in  coal,  naphtha,  turpentine,  oils,  and  bisulphide  of  carbon. 

Capucine  Color. — The  color  called  capucine  is  a  deep 
toned  reddish  orange.  In  Chevreul's  nomenclature,  it  is  called 
3  red  orange  of  11  or  12  tone;  it  has  some  resemblance  to  a 
deep  chrome  orange  on  cotton.  Upon  wool  and  silk  it  is  ob- 
tained by  a  proper  mixture  or  combination  of  red  and  yellow, 
having  the  red  in  excess,  as  the  following  receipt  for  dyeing 
50  Ibs.  of  wool. 

Yellow  Part.— 3%  Ibs.  fustic, 

8  Ibs.  oxymuriate  of  tin, 
1  Ib.  cream  of  tartar. 
Red  Part.— -2  Ibs.  oxymuriate  of  tin, 
f  Ib.  cochineal. 

The  yellow  is  first  dyed,  and  then  the  cochineal  aad  tin  added. 
In  printing  it  suffices  to  mix  at  once  a  little  made  scarlet  color 
with  orange,  as  for  example  : — 


CAEBAZOTIC  ACID — CARMINE.  123 

Cupucinefor  Wool  and  Shawls. 

4  quarts  orange  for  wool, 
4  pints  scarlet  for  wool. 

Carbazotic  Acid, — The  same  as  PICBIC  ACID,  which  see. 

Carbonate. — In  chemical  language  a  carbonate  is  a  com- 
pound of  carbonic  acid  with  a  base.  The  carbonates  are  all  in 
soluble  in  water,  except  those  of  potash,  soda,  and  ammonia. 
The  soluble  ones  have  all  an  alkaline  reaction,  and  can  neu- 
tralize acids.  All  carbonates  are  known  by  giving  oflf  the  car- 
bonic acid  as  a  gas  when  a  strong  acid  is  poured  over  them  ; 
thus,  when  muriatic  acid  is  poured  on  chalk,  which  is  a  car- 
bonate, a  strong  effervescence  or  bubbling  takes  place,  owing  to 
the  carbonic  acid  gas  forcing  its  way  out  of  the  liquor,  being 
set  free  by  the  muriatic  acid  taking  the  lime  or  calcium  which 
previously  held  the  gas  in  a  solid  state. 

Carbonic  Acid. — This  acid  is  a  gas  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, it  is  one  of  the  weakest  acids  in  chemistry,  never  com- 
pletely neutralizing  the  alkalies.  It  exists  in  small  quantities 
in  the  air,  is  the  cause  of  exposed  lime  water  being  covered 
with  a  skin  of  solid  matter,  but  has  no  direct  influence  in 
printing  or  dyeing. 

Carmelite  Color. — The  color  so  called  is  a  yellowish  orange 
mixed  with  brown,  darker  than  the  colors  called  wood  colors. 
In  Chevreul's  nomenclature — 3  orange,  15  tone.  The  following 
receipt  is  given  by  Dumas: — 

Carmelite. 

1  quart  sapan  wood  liquor  at  6°, 
1  pint  berry  liquor  at  6°, 
1  pint  logwood  liquor  at  6°, 
10  oz.  starch  ;  boil,  and  add 
12  oz.  oxyrnuriate  of  tin. 

In  woollen  dyeing  and  in  cotton  dyeing  carmelite  is  obtained 
by  saddening  orange  or  using  logwood  to  brown  it. 

Carmelite  shades  are  also  obtained  upon  calico  by  printing 
or  padding  in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  bronze  liquor  and 
buff  liquor,  and  raising  in  lime. 

Carmine. — This  name  is  understood  in  England  as  indi- 
cating a  red  pigment  used  by  artists,  prepared  from  madder  or 
cochineal  by  secret  processes.  French  writers,  and  from  them 
English,  however,  speak  of  carmine  of  "indigo"  meaning  a  re- 
fined sulphate  of  indigo  ;  also  "  purple  carmine"  or  "carmin  de 
pourpre,"  meaning  murexide,  using  this  term  generally  for 
some  preparation  yielding  fine  colors  without  regard  to  what 


124  CARRAGHEEN  MOSS— CATECHU. 

kind  of  color.     This  term  frequently  occurs  in  specifications 
of  patents  and  translations  from  French. 

Carragheen  Moss,  Iceland  Moss,  Irish  Moss. — This  sub- 
stance has  been  frequently  proposed  as  a  suitable  thickening 
agent  for  colors,  and  was  probably  the  first  gum  substitute 
tried  in  this  country.  Towards  the  end  of  the  last  century  it 
was  put  into  use,  but  has  never  made  any  progress;  the  muci- 
laginous jelly  it  yields  is  deficient  in  nearly  every  quality  of  a 
good  thickening ;  it  is  watery,  has  no  solidity,  and  is  glairy. 
It  is  a  little  employed  in  block  printing  on  silk  and  in  finishing. 

Cartamus,  Carthamus  (?) — An  empirical  mixture  of  cochi- 
neal, tin  salts,  and  safflower,  was  patented  under  this  name, 
January  22d,  1853,  for  dyeing  tissues  or  stuffs  of  silk  and 
cotton. 

Carthamine. — The  name  of  a  pure  coloring  matter  ex- 
tracted from  safflower,  so  called  from  the  botanical  name  of 
the  plant — Carthamus  tinctorius. 

Caseine. — The  name  is  given  in  chemistry  to  the  pure  curd 
of  milk,  obtained  by  acting  upon  milk  with  weak  acids  and 
purifying  the  curdy  precipitate  from  fatty  matters  attached  to 
it.  It  is  the  same  substance  which  is  extensively  used  in  this 
country  under  the  name  of  LACTAKINE,  which  see. 

Catechu,  Terra  japonica,  Cochou,  Cashew—  Catechu  is  the 
dried  up  juice  of  certain  trees,  from  which  it  is  obtained  either 
by  natural  exudation  or  through  cuts  made  for  the  purpose. 
It  is  a  resinous  looking  body,  dark  on  the  exterior  of  the  lumps, 
but  light  colored  within.  Its  quality  varies  very  much,  not 
only  from  differences  in  its  origin  and  method  of  collection  and 
drying,  but  also  because  it  is  susceptible  of  alteration  by  age, 
and  especially  by  moisture.  Soft  and  uniformly  dark  colored, 
catechu  is  reckoned  inferior ;  it  should  be  brittle  enough  to 
break  upon  the  stroke  of  a  hammer,  and  the  interior  should 
not  be  pitchy  colored  or  soft,  but  rather  of  a  buff  or  a  cream 
color,  somewhat  fibrous,  and  capable  of  being  scraped  into 
powder  with  a  knife,  without  adhering  to  it.  Though  these 
are  the  external  characters  of  a  good  quality  of  catechu,  there 
are  good  samples  which  vary  in  appearance  from  this ;  the 
color  may  be  darker,  and  the  consistency  of  the  mass  less 
brittle,  so  that  a  knife  does  not  scrape  it.  That  depends  upon 
several  circumstances  of  the  carriage  and  storing  of  this  drug, 
and  must  be  decided  upon  according  to  the  judgment  and 
knowledge  of  the  examiner.  The  chemical  characteristics  of 
a  good  catechu  are,  unfortunately,  not  very  well  defined.  It 
ought  to  be  all  soluble  in  hot  water,  and  then  have  a  brown, 
not  blackish  color:  it  ought  not  to  be  all  soluble  in  "cold  water, 
for  that  is  an  indication  of  heating  and  partial  decomposition 


CATECHU.  125 

of  the  catechu;  and  the  hot  water  solution  should,  upon  cool- 
ing, deposit  a  portion  of  the  catechu  in  a  fine  granular  state. 
The  only  actual  and  reliable  test  for  the  quality  of  catechu  is 
to  make  some  color  from  it,  or  to  dye  up  .samples  from  it,  in 
comparison  with  a  known  quality. 

This  substance  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  of  mineral  origin, 
and  went  under  the  name  of  Japan  earth.  It  was  long  known 
in  medicine  before  it  became  cheap  enough  to  be  applied  in 
dyeing  and  printing.  Its  first  successful  applications  in  calico 
printing  were  about  1830;  it  was  used  in  combination  with 
madder  colors,  and  as  its  application  was  kept  secret  for  a 
while  by  the  one  or  two  houses  who  used  it,  much  skill  and 
ingenuity  were  wasted  by  others  in  endeavoring  to  discover 
the  new  mordant,  which  it  was  thought  had  been  used  to  obtain 
this  brown  shade  from  madder.  Its  applications  in  madder 
and  garancine  styles  have  been  of  the  greatest  service  to  the 
trade;  it  has  allowed  a  scope  of  design  and  variety  of  coloring 
which  has  done  much  to  extend  the  use  of  printed  goods.  In 
dyeing,  it  is  largely  used  to  give  various  shades  of  brown,  and 
the  lighter  colors  which  spring  from  it. 

Catechu  is  one  of  the  astringent  or  tannic  substances,  but  not 
of  the  same  kind  as  gall-nuts.  Its  acid  is  called  japonic  acid, 
and  possesses  different  properties  and  characteristics  from  the 
tannic  acid.  The  method  of  application  of  catechu  in  calico 
printing  shows  it  to  be  very  different  from  most  other  coloring 
matters. 

For  the  purpose  of  obtaining  browns  in  printing,  it  is  mixed 
with  sal  ammoniac  and  nitrate  of  copper;  sometimes  the  acetate 
being  used  instead.  From  this  it  would  appear  that  copper  is 
its  proper  mordant;  but  the  copper  is  not  so  much  an  actual 
mordant  as  it  is  an  agent  for  effecting  a  chemical  change  in  the 
catechu.  The  copper  salts  by  themselves  are  oxidizers  of 
coloring  matters,  and  when  mixed  with  sal  ammoniac,  their 
oxidizing  powers  are  greatly  strengthened,  in  a  proportion, 
indeed,  far  beyond  the  amount  of  oxygen  which  is  present  in 
the  whole  of  the  copper  salt  used.  It  acts  as  a  medium  for 
obtaining  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  transferring  it  to  the  cate- 
chu, which  of  itself  absorbs  oxygen  in  a  very  slow  manner. 
The  effect  of  this  oxidizing  upon  catechu  is  to  change  its 
properties,  to  give  it  a  great  hold  and  affinity  for  the  fibre  of 
the  cloth,  and  to  render  it  insoluble  and  unacted  upon  by  water. 
Some  of  the  copper  remains  combined  with  the  color  ;  but  the 
greater  part  is  removable  without  injuring  the  fastness  or  shade 
of  the  catechu  brown — a  fact  which  seems  to  point  out  that 
catechu  can  fix  itself  without  a  mordant.  Such  is  really  the 
case,  but  the  length  of  age  necessary  is  excessive  and  irnprac- 


126  CATECHU. 

ticable.  Even  with  copper  salts,  when  it  is  desired  to  get  dark 
shades,  several  days'  ageing  is  required.  Lighter  shades  take 
less  time. 

Iron  and  alumina  mordants  do  not  give  agreeable  colors 
with  catechu  in  printing;  but  several  shades  can  be  obtained 
by  dyeing  a  mixture  of  such  mordants  and  catechu  in  madder 
and  garancine,  the  resulting  color  being  a  mixture  of  the 
catechu  shade  itself  and  that  which  has  been  produced  by  the 
mordant  and  dying  material  used. 

Muriate  of  iron  and  catechu  give  shades  of  drab,  stone,  and 
gray,  when  dyed  up  in  garancine.  Acetate  of  alumina,  red 
liquor,  and  catechu  give  shades  of  red  brown,  varying,  for  the 
different  amounts  of  fed  liquor,  in  a  certain  quantity  of  color. 
Mixtures  of  catechu  with  salts  of  manganese,  and  other  mineral 
matters,  are  in  use. 

In  dyeing  with  catechu  alum  mordants  are  mostly  employed; 
iron  and  tin  salts  can  be  used  to  obtain  various  shades — copper 
being  but  little  used  in  these  cases.  The  bichromate  of  potash 
has  a  powerful  oxidizing  action  upon  catechu.  It  cannot  be 
applied  mixed  with  it,  because  it  combines  with  the  catechu, 
rendering  it  insoluble  and  curdy ;  but  a  solution  of  bichrome 
can  be  used  to  pass  catechu  colors  in.  It  fixes  them  and  makes 
them  darker.  Soda  and  potash  are  also  used  to  raise  catechu 
colors  in  dyeing ;  their  action  seems  to  be  an  oxidizing  one — 
enabling  the  catechu  to  absorb  oxygen  with  so  much  the 
greater  rapidity  from  the  air,  and  become  fixed  upon  the  cloth. 
The  affinity  of  catechu,  in  its  altered  or  oxidized  state,  for  the 
fibre  of  cotton,  is  very  great.  It  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  of 
all  colors  to  discharge  from  the  cloth.  It  is  valuable  in  calico 
printing,  because  it  is  fast  enough  to  stand  the  dunging  and 
dye  beck,  and  all  the  subsequent  clearing  operations.  It 
suffers,  of  course,  in  passing  through  all  the  various  operations, 
but  still  sufficient  is  left  to  form  good  colors.  It  is  usual  to ' 
add  a  little  bichrome  to  the  dunging  to  help  the  catechu  ;  but 
this  is  rather  dangerous  for  the  other  colors,  and  should  not  be 
used  except  the  circumstances  have  compelled  the  goods  to  go 
to  the  dye  with  a  deficient  age.  If  time  enough  can  be  given 
to  catechu  colors,  the  addition  of  bichrome  to  the  dunging  is 
not  necessary  ;  but  in  case  of  heavy  browns,  which  have  only 
had  two  or  three  days'  age,  it  may  be  used  with  advantage. 
These  shades  of  drab,  etc.,  in  which  the  proportion  of  catechu 
to  a  gallon  of  water  is  only  small,  require  no  longer  age  than 
the  other  colors  they  go  with,  and  no  chrome  in  the  dung. 
Bleaching  powder  solution  should  be  very  sparingly  and 
cautiously  applied  to  catechu  styles — it  soon  takes  the  "  top  " 
or  bloom  of  the  color. 


CATECHU.  127 

The  use  of  large  quantities  of  nitrate  of  copper  in  colors  is 
very  disadvantageous  in  printing,  and  it  is  much  to  be  desired 
that  some  milder  oxidizing  agent  could  be  discovered  for  cate- 
chu. It  compels  the  use  of  composition  doctors,  and  even  acts 
upon  them.  A  resist  brown,  containing  lime  juice  or  citric 
acid,  is  very  difficult  to  work  on  account  of  its  corrosive  action 
upon  the  doctor,  and  consequent  scratching  of  the  roller. 
Without  any  acid,  the  regular  brown  will  resist  light  covers, 
but  not  heavier  ones ;  and  I  believe  the  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  printing  such  an  acid  mixture  have  caused  the  abandonment 
of  this  style  almost  altogether.  I  have  tried  many  chemical 
mixtures  instead  of  copper,  but  none  of  them  gave  any  results 
worth  following  up.  The  applications  of  catechu  are  still 
limited,  and  its  chemical  properties  but  little  known.  It  offers 
a  good  field  for  the  exertions  of  those  who  have  leisure  and 
knowledge  of  coloring  matters,  for  it  is  doubtless  capable  of 
many  more  valuable  applications  than  it  has  yet  received. 

Catechu  Colors. — The  following  receipts  and  remarks  will 
sufficiently  illustrate  the  various  methods  adopted  for  using 
this  coloring  matter  : — 

Catechu  Colors  on  Woollen. — I  am  not  aware  that  catechu  is 
employed  in  woollen  dyeing  in  any  other  way  than  as  an 
assistant  in  some  kinds  of  black  dyeing;  the  browns  which  it, 
yields  are  not  so  desirable  as  those  which  can  be  obtained 
from  a  mixture  of  coloring  matters  and  mordants.  For  ob- 
taining dark  shades  of  drab,  of  a  red  or  brownish  tinge,  it  is 
largely  used  in  woollen  printing,  in  combination  with  other 
coloring  matters,  to  modify  the  shade. 

Tea- Drab  Color— all  Wool 

1  gallon  catechu  liquor  at  24°, 

2  quarts  sapan  wood  at  11°, 
4  oz.  extract  of  indigo, 

1  pint  cochineal  crimson, 

6  oz.  alum, 

6  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

4  Ibs.  gum  if  for  block ;  8  Ibs.  if  for  machine. 

Drab— all  Wool, 

1  gallon  catechu  liquor  at  24°, 

3  oz.  extract  of  indigo, 

\  pint  cochineal  crimson, 

2  Ibs.  gum,  more  or  less  at  discretion, 
8  oz.  oxalic  acid. 

A  great  variety  of  shades  are  obtained  by  varying  the  strength 


128  CATECHU. 

of  the  catechu  and  'the  quantities  of  the  red  and  blue  parts. 
The  cochineal  crimson  is  amrnoniacal  cochineal  with  alum. 

Wood  Ground  for  Delaine.  • 

1  gallon  of  water, 

2  oz.  catechu  ;  dissolve,  strain,  and  add 

2  quarts  substitute  gum  water, 
1J  oz.  green  copperas, 

l|  oz.  acetate  of  copper  crystals. 

Catechu  Fawn,  on  Cotton. — Work  the  goods  to  be  dyed  in 
catechu  liquor  containing  a  little  sulphate  or  nitrate  of  copper ; 
wring  from  this,  and  work  in  a  weak  solution  of  bichromate  of 
potash.  The  fixing  by  bichromate  is  not  necessary  ;  modified 
shades  can  be  obtained  by  passing  the  goods  which  have  been 
worked  in  catechu  into  caustic  soda  or  into  lime  water,  or  into 
water  in  which  green  copperas  has  been  dissolved.  By  using 
other  dyewoods  after  the  catechu  a  vast  variety  of  shades  may 
be  obtained.  (See  DRAB,  STONE,  etc.) 

Catechu  Faivn  or  Brown. 

1  gallon  water, 
2|  Ibs.  catechu, 
1  pint  acetic  acid ;  dissolve  hot,  and  a4d 

3  Ibs.  gum  Senegal, 

10  oz.  nitrate  of  copper. 

This  color  was  for  raising  in  lime  or  soda,  in  conjunction  with 
fast  blue  (indigo);  it  required  at  least  three  days'  ageing,  and 
was  found  to  age  best  in  a  cool,  moist  place. 

Catechu  Brown  for  Garancine. 

6  Ibs.  catechu, 

1  gallon  water, 

1£  Ib.  sal  ammoniac;  boil,  strain,  and  add 

2  gallons  gum  water, 

2£  pints  nitrate  of  copper  at  80°, 
1J  pints  acetate  of  copper  (p.  45). 

By  adding  red  liquor  to  this  color  the  resulting  brown  is 
modified  towards  the  red  side.  This  color  must  be  aged  for 
not  less  than  three  days ;  dyed  in  garancine  as  usual. 

Catechu  Brown  for  Madder. 

4  Ibs.  catechu, 

2  quarts  ordinary  vinegar, 
2  quarts  acetic  acid  at  8°, 
1  Ib.  sal  ammoniac, 
1  quart  acetate  of  copper. 


CATECHU.  129 

The  clear  liquor  from  the  above  only  was  used,  and  served 
as  a  standard  or  stock  liquor.  To  make  a  dark  brown  take  as 
follows : — 

Dark  Brown  for  Madder. 

1  gallon  catechu  liquor  above, 

4  oz.  sal  ammoniac, 

^  pint  acetate  of  copper, 

17  oz.  starch  ;  boil  and  strain. 

This  color  must  be  aged  as  long  as  possible  before  dunging; 
by  mixture  with  red  liquor  red  browns  are  obtained. 

Catechu  Brown. 
9  gallons  water, 
15  Ibs.  powdered  catechu ;  boil  and  dissolve,  take  the  clear 

liquor  only,  and  add 
11  Ibs.  flour, 

1  Ib.  gum  tragacanth;  mix,  and  boil  well ;  when  cold,  add 
3  gallons  caustic  soda  at  6°. 

After  printing,  steam;  then  pass,  for  a  minute  or  two  only, 
in  chrome  liquor,  neutralized  with  carbonate  of  soda,  and  heated 
up  to  170°  F. 

The  following  receipt  is  only  inserted  to  show  the  possible 
modifications  of  this  color  : — 

Catechu  Brown  for  Madder  (French}. 
1J  gallon  water, 
1  pint  acetic  acid  at  8°, 
2f  Ibs.  catechu  ;  boil,  dissolve,  and  add 
3J  Ibs.  sal  ammoniac, 
1  pint  acetate  of  lime  liquor  (see  below), 
7  Ibs.  gum  Senegal;  when  cold,  add 
10  oz.  nitrate  of  copper  at  90°. 

Acetate  of  Lime  Liquor. 

2|  Ibs.  lime,  slacked, 

3  quarts  acetic  acid  ;  use  the  clear. 

The  acetate  of  lime  would  undoubtedly  resolve  itself  by 
contact  with  the  nitrate  of  copper  into  nitrate  of  lime  and 
acetate  of  copper,  as  far  as  the  quantities  would  permit ;  the 
nitrate  of  lime  being  a  deliquescent  salt,  would  tend  to  keep 
the  color  soft,  and  so  help  its  ageing.  (See  further,  DKAB,  FAWN, 
MADDER  COLORS,  etc.) 


130  CHAMOIS   COLOR — CHICA. 

Chamois  Color. — This  color  is  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
same  as  buff.  It  is  a  mixture  of  yellow  and  red  of  a  low  tone. 
In  the  systematic  nomenclature  of  Chevreul,  it  is  2  orange, 
from  2  to  6  tones.  (See  COLORS.)  The  word  chamois  is  very 
little  used  among  British  colorists  as  yet.  Analogous  colors 
are  STRAW,  SALMON,  FLESH,  NANKEEN,  etc.,  which  see. 

Charcoal. — The  charcoal  or  carbon  obtained  from  the  im- 
perfect combustion  of  vegetable  substances  constitutes  the  basis 
of  all  printing  inks,  but  up  to  the  present  time  it  has  not  been 
used  in  calico  printing  for  a  black.  For  a  shade  of  gray  obtain- 
able from  a  species  of  charcoal  see  LAMP  BLACK.  Yery  finely 
ground  charcoal  has  been  successfully  employed  as  a  sighten- 
ing  in  block  printing. 

Chayaver  or  Ghay  root. — An  East  Indian  product,  belong- 
ing to  the  same  natural  order  of  plants  as  madder,  and  capable 
of  dyeing  good  and  permanent  reds.  It  is  said  to  be  the  only 
coloring  matter  used  by  the  natives  of  Malabar,  and  the  Coro- 
mandel  coast,  in  producing  the  well-known  durable  red  colors 
of  those  localities.  The  accounts  and  descriptions  of  it  which 
I  have  been  enabled  to  consult  are  not  clear  or  satisfactory, 
but  it  appears  to  be  similar  to  the  MUNJEET,  employed  to  some 
extent  in  Lancashire. 

Chemie. — Name  commonly  given  to  bleaching  powder  or 
bleaching  liquor  in  Lancashire.  Chernic  blue  is  the  vulgar 
name  for  sulphate  or  extract  of  indigo. 

Chestnut  Bark  and  Wood. — As  stated  under  BLACK,  the 
bark  and  wood  of  the  chestnut  tree  are  successfully  employed 
in  France  as  cheap  and  effective  substitutes  for  gall-nuts  and 
sumac.  I  am  not  informed  as  to  their  being  generally  used  in 
this  country.  The  right  to  use  it  in  Great  Britain  was  secured 
by  a  patent  dated  Nov.  8,  1825,  in  which  it  was  proposed  to 
form  a  solid  extract  from  it  by  decoction.  This  extract  received 
the  uncouth  name  of  "Damajavag." 

Chestnut  Colors. — These  are  browns,  and  treated  of  under 
that  head.  Marron  is  the  French  word  equivalent,  which,  under 
the  English  form  "Maroon,"  expresses  the  same  meaning.  In 
Chevreul's  nomenclature  chestnut  is  4  orange,  of  16,  17,  or  18 
tone,  which  is  equivalent  to  saying  it  is  black  lightened  down 
by  a  mixture  of  rather  yellowish  orange. 

Chica,  Crajura  or  Carajura. — A  pigment  used  by  the  In- 
dians, in  Central  America,  for  ornamenting  their  persons, 
applied  by  means  of  the  fat  of  the  cayman  or  alligator.  It  has 
also  been  used  in  painting  to  a  limited  extent,  but  not,  that  I 
can  ascertain,  in  dyeing  or  printing.  It  is  extracted,  by  macera- 
tion and  heat,  from  the  leaves  of  the  bignonia  chica,  a  plant 
growing  in  equinoctial  America.  A  sample,  which  I  examined 


CHICORY— CHINA  BLUE— CHINESE   GREEN.  131 

some  years  ago,  to  ascertain  its  value  as  a  dyestuff,  is  in  frag- 
ments and  powder  of  a  bright  red  raddle  appearance.  The 
lumps  are  softer  than  starch,  and  acquire  a  metallic  appearance 
when  rubbed  by  the  thumb  nail  or  any  polished  body.  It  is 
scarcely  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  or  ether.  It  does  not  dye 
cotton  mordanted  with  iron  or  alumina,  nor  communicate  any- 
thing beyond  a  faint  color  to  wool  or  silk.  This  inertness  I 
found  was  owing  to  the  coloring  matter  being  in  combination 
with  some  earthy  base,  for,  upon  treating  the  chica  with  acid, 
or  with  muriate  of  tin,  I  found  I  could  dye  up  very  deep  colors 
upon  wool ;  and  by  treating  it  with  acid,  and  washing  the  free 
acid  away,  I  succeeded  in  dyeing  up  full  and  deep  colors  upon 
mordanted  calico.  The  colors  it  yields  with  the  alumina  and 
tin  mordants  are  very  similar  to  those  yielded  by  lac  dye;  they 
are  not  nearly  so  bright  as  cochineal,  but  they  appear  more 
permanent,  resisting  washing  and  exposure  somewhat  better.  I 
have  no  doubt  that,  if  the  product  was  imported  at  a  reason- 
able price,  it  would  find  a  permanent  place  in  the  dyeing  arts. 

Chicory. — According  to  a  statement  in  the  specification  of 
a  patent  dated  Nov.  21,  1844,  the  leaves  of  the  chicory  plant 
are,,  being  treated  as  the  leaves  of  the  woad  plant  are  usually 
treated,  capable  of  dyeing  blue  and  other  colors. 

China  Blue,  Crockeryware  Blue,  Bleu  de  Faience.— One  of 
the  colors  obtained  by  a  peculiar  method  of  fixing  indigo  upon 
calico.  (See  INDIGO.) 

Chinese  Green,  Chinese  Green  Indigo. — This  is  a  coloring 
matter  introduced  into  Europe  about  1857  from  China.  It  is 
in  thin  scaly  pieces,  of  an  olive  green  color,  scarcely  soluble  in 
water  or  alcohol,  but  brought  into  solution,  or  a  fine  state  of 
suspension,  by  means  of  alkalies.  It  is  applied  to  dyeing  silk, 
as  follows :  80  grains  of  the  color  (lo  kao)  is  steeped  three  days 
in  500  grains  of  alurn  liquor  at  7°  ground  up  with  it,  and 
mixed  with  a  pint  of  the  same  alum  solution,  the  mixture 
stirred  frequently;  the  liquor  becomes  dark  green,  almost  black; 
it  is  made  up  to  a  quart  by  water,  the  sediment  is  kept  for  a 
fresh  treatment ;  the  quart  of  liquor  is  mixed  with  five  gallons 
water,  preferably  a  hard  spring  water,  and  1  Ib.  of  silk,  pre- 
viously bleached  and  wetted  out,  is  entered  and  worked  in  it 
for  thirty  minutes;  to  obtain  dark  shades,  four  or  five  such 
treatments  are  necessary.  It  would  appear  that  the  presence 
of  lime  in  the  water  facilitates  the  fixing  of  the  color,  and  lime 
is  considered  as  being  its  appropriate  mordant.  The  color  so 
produced  is  an  agreeable  green,  whose  most  esteemed  property 
is  that  of  keeping  all  its  lustre,  and  nearly  the  same  shade,  by 
gas  or  candlelight  as  in  daylight.  It  is  tolerably  stable  for  a 
fancy  color.  The  Chinese  dye  common  cotton  cloths  from  a 


132  CHLORATE    OF    POTASH— CHLORIDES. 

similar  green  coloring  matter,  and  obtain  a  deep,  but  somewhat 
dull,  grass  green.  It  appears  that  the  green  dye  sent  to  Europe, 
and  which  sells  at  an  enormous  price,  is  obtained  by  extract- 
ing the  excess  of  color  from  pieces  originally  dyed  by  a  process 
that  very  much  resembles  indigo  dipping.  It  is  evident,  there- 
fore, that  the  green  color  used  in  Europe  is  a  kind  of  lake,  and 
that  the  Chinese  retain  themselves  the  original  materials  for 
dyeing  a  cheap  green.  M.  Michel  has  shown  that  certain  plants, 
indigenous  to  France,  contain  a  colorable  matter,  which,  upon 
exposure  to  air  and  light,  give  a  green  similar  to  the  Chinese 
green  (see  BUCKTHORN),  and  has  endeavored  to  apply  them 
practically  as  dyeing  materials ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that 
these  natural  self-colored  greens  have  as  pleasing  an  effect  as 
the  greens  compounded  by  blue  and  yellow. 

Chinese  green  is  interesting,  as  being  the  first  known  green 
not  compounded  of  blue  and  yellow.  The  chemists  and  color- 
ists  who  examined  the  samples  of  green-dyed  cloth,  obtained 
by  the  agents  of  the  French  Government,  were  surprised  at 
not  being  able  to  split  the  color  into  its  supposed  elements,  and 
were  forced  to  conclude  that  it  was  a  natural  simple  green; 
further  inquiry  showed  their  surmises  to  be  correct.  Since 
that  period  (1851)  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  extract 
and  apply  the  green  color  of  grass  and  leaves,  but  up  to  this 
time,  with  no  particular  success. 

Chlorate  of  Potash. — This  salt  is  used  in  calico  printing 
as  an  oxidizing  agent,  or,  perhaps,  as  a  chloridizing  material, 
for  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  it  can  directly  yield  oxygen  in  any 
of  the  forms  in  which  it  is  applied.  It  is  found  in  receipts  for 
sapan  wood  reds,  for  chocolates,  for  greens  and  olives,  and  as 
a  prepare  for  hastening  the  ageing  of  madder  and  garancine 
mordants.  Its  purity  is  ascertained  by  testiug  it  with  nitrate 
of  silver  and  chloride  of  barium,  with  neither  of  which  should 
it  yield  any  precipitate.  If  the  crystals  are  large  and  clear, 
they  may  be  depended  upon  as  pure. 

Chlorides. — The  class  of  bodies  called  chlorides  are  so 
called  because  they  contain  the  element  chlorine,  in  combina- 
tion with  some  metal  or  basic  substance.  They  can,  for  the 
most  part,  be  produced  directly  from  chlorine  gas  and  the 
metal,  but  are  more  usually  prepared  from  hydrochloric  acid 
and  the  metal.  Thus,  hydrochloric  acid,  which  is  a  compound 
of  hydrogen  and  chlorine,  when  put  into  contact  with  zinc  dis- 
solves it  with  effervescence  and  escape  of  a  gas.  The  gas  is 
hydrogen,  and  the  chemical  action  consists  in  the  metal  zinc 
taking  the  place  of  the  gas  hydrogen,  and  the  result  is  chloride 
of  zinc.  The  term  muriate,  frequently  used  in  this  book,  and 
in  general  use  in  trade,  is  equivalent  to  chloride.  Thus  muriate 


CHLORINE.  133 

of  manganese  and  chloride  are  the  same.  So  also  muriate  and 
chloride  of  iron,  etc.  The  chlorides  have  few  general  properties 
as'  a  class,  each  one  owes  its  character  more  to  the  base  than 
to  the  chlorine.  All  the  chlorides  are  soluble  in  water,  except 
those  of  lead,  mercury,  and  silver;  and  all  the  soluble  ones 
are  sufficiently  characterized  by  giving  a  white  precipitate 
with  nitrate  of  silver,  which  is  not  dissolved  by  pure  nitric 
acid.  The  individual  chlorides  or  muriates  are  described  under 
the  head  of  their  metallic  base. 

Chlorine. — This  is  the  element  spoken  of  in  the  above 
article.  It  is  a  gas  of  a  yellowish-green  color,  and  has  a  most 
suffocating  and  irritating  effect  when  inspired.  It  is  produced 
when  bleaching  powder  and  vitriol  are  mixed  together,  and  is 
the  real  bleaching  agent  in  all  cases  where  chloride  of  lime  or 
bleaching  powder  is  employed  in  conjunction  with  an  acid. 
"When  chlorine  gas  was  first  proposed  as  a  bleaching  agent,  by 
the  celebrated  Berthollet,  it  was  used  much  in  the  same  way  as 
sulphur  is  now  in  bleaching  woollen  goods ;  afterwards  a  solu- 
tion of  this  gas  4n  water  was  employed,  but  the  final  improve- 
ment was  Tennant's  patent,  of  combining  the  gas  with  lime,  to 
form  chloride  of  lime.  In  more  recent  times  it  has  been  pro- 
posed to  return  to  the  older  methods,  but  it  is  difficult  to  see 
where  the  advantage  lies. 

Theory  of  Chlorine  Bleaching. — Chlorine  is  supposed  to 
destroy  colors,  by  combining  with  the  hydrogen  of  them  to 
form  hydrochloric  or  muriatic  acid.  But  as  dry  colors  are  not 
destroyed  by  dry  chlorine,  some  theorists  consider  that  water 
acts  an  essential  part,  and  that  the  oxygen  of  the  water  is  the 
real  bleaching  material,  it  being  set  free  by  the  chlorine  remov- 
ing its  hydrogen.  Either  hypothesis  presumes  that  a  coloring 
iriatter  is  such  on  account  of  a  nicely -balanced  arrangement  of 
the  atoms  of  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen  composing  it,  and 
if  this  arrangement  be  disturbed  by  the  removal  of  a  portion 
of  the  hydrogen  a  new  arrangement  ensues.  There  is  nothing 
which  would  enable  us  to  predicate  of  this  new  arrangement 
that  it  must  produce  a  colorless  body;  but  in  the  vast  majority 
of  cases  this  is  evidently  the  fact.  But  it  is  an  accidental  fact; 
and  it  would  be  incorrect  to  assume  this  as  an  essential  pro- 
perty of  chlorine.  There  are  some  substances  at  least  to  which 
chlorine  communicates  a  color,  such  as  colorless  solution  of 
aniline,  which  it  turns  purple,  or  white  silk  or  woollen,  which 
it  turns  yellow. 

Chlorine  acts  upon  cotton  in  a  very  energetic  manner  when 
warm  and  concentrated,  and  it  acts  injuriously  even  in  the 
cold  and  dilute  if  contact  be  prolonged.  Care  must  be  taken, 


]34:        CHLOROPHYLL— CHOCOLATE  COLORS. 

therefore,  in  all  chlorine  treatments  to  get  the  chlorine  well  out 
of  the  cloth  as  soon  as  it  has  performed  its  part. 

Chlorophyll, — This  is  the  name  given  to  the  green  color- 
ing matter  of  leaves,  grass,  etc.  Until  the  introduction  of  the 
Chinese  green  color,  no  idea  was  entertained  of  applying  this 
coloring  principle  to  dyeing;  but  since  that  time  several 
attempts  have  been  made  to  extract  it  in  a  state  fit  to  dye  with, 
but  as  far  as  my  information  extends,  with  but  little  practical 
effect.  By  treating  common  grass  with  boiling  water,  so  as  to 
remove  all  soluble  principles,  and  then  digesting  it  in  carbonate 
of  soda,  at  4°  Tw.,  the  green  coloring  matter  will  be  dissolved 
in  a  tolerable  state  of  purity.  The  chlorophyll  being  of  a 
resinous  or  waxy  nature,  is  not  sensibly  acted  upon  by  water 
only,  but  yields  to  alkaline  solutions;  this  property  enables  us 
to  separate  the  various  soluble  matters  in  grass  from  it.  By 
neutralizing  the  alkaline  solution  with  muriatic  acid  the  color- 
ing matter  is  then  thrown  down  in  an  insoluble  flocculent 
precipitate.  This  precipitate  being  washed  a  little,  dissolved 
in  an  alkaline  solution,  thickened  and  mixed  with  salt  of  tin, 
yields  green  colors  upon  wool  and  silk  by  printing.  Upon 
tin  mordanted  cloth  the  shades  can  be  obtained  by  dyeing.  It 
is  not  probable  that  chlorophyll  will  ever  be  an  important  dye- 
ing material,  on  account  both  of  its  instability,  its  cost,  and  the 
comparative  dulness  of  the  shades  it  yields. 

Chocolate  Colors. — A  chocolate  is  a  dark  brown,  in  which 
the  blue  part  overbalances  the  red  and  yellow.  There  are 
many  shades  of  chocolate,  such  as  red  chocolate,  black  choco- 
late, purple  chocolate,  green  chocolate,  etc.  In  M.  Chevreul's 
nomenclature  the  color  of  chocolate  in  cakes  is  defined  as  5 
orange  18|  tone ;  but  puce  and  grenat,  which  are  French  equiv- 
alents for  some  of  our  shades  of  chocolate,  are  classed  very 
differently,  ^wce  being  4  blue  violet  13  tone,  and  grenat  3  violet 
red  16  tone.  I  give  some  receipts  for  chocolate  colors,  with 
observations  how  to  proceed  in  modifying  the  shade. 

Chocolate  Colors  by  Dyeing. — There  is  -little  to  add  on  this 
head  to  the  information  given  under  browns.  The  general 
rule  is  to  increase  the  blue  or  violet  part  of  the  brown,  to  pro- 
duce the  chocolate  shade.  As  an  illustration,  let  us  take  a 
catechu  brown  upon  cotton,  dyed  by  immersion  in  catechu,  and 
fixed  in  bichromate  of  potash.  To  convert  this  into  a  choco- 
late, work  the  cotton  in  logwood,  and  raise  in  alum.  This 
adds  blue  to  the  neutral  or  rather  yellowish-brown,  and  con- 
verts it  into  a  chocolate,  the  shade  and  depth  of  which  depend 
upon  the  proportions  of  materials  used,  and  may  be  varied  at 
will. 

In  the  cases  of  brown  dyeing  where  the  red,  yellow,  and  blue 


CHOCOLATE   COLORS.  135 

parts  are  distinctly  defined,  it  is  entirely  a  question  of  quantity 
of  blue  as  to  what  shade  of  chocolate  is  produced.  For 
example,  several  kinds  of  browns  are  obtained  by  first  dyeing 
a  yellow  with  a  tin  mordant  and  bark,  and  then  dyeing  again 
in  a  mixture  of  some  red  wood  (like  peachwood)  and  logwood. 
If  now,  the  peachwood  be  left  out  altogether,  and  alum  and 
logwood  alone  used,  the  resulting  color  will  be  a  chocolate 
instead  of  a  brown,  because  the  logwood  dyes  a  blue  with  little 
red  in  it,  which,  mixing  with  the  yellow  already  formed,  gives 
the  chocolate  shade. 

Chocolate  Colors  by  Printing. — The  colors  for  silk,  wool,  and 
delaine  are  very  similar,  so  that  what  answers  for  one  will  fre- 
quently answer  for  the  other. 

Chocolate  for  Silk. 

1  gallon  sapan  wood  liquor  at  20°, 

1  quart  logwood  liquor  at  20°, 
10  oz.  alum, 

2  oz.  sal  ammoniac, 

8  oz.  acetate  of  copper, 
5  Ibs.  gum. 

In  this  color  we  only  have  the  red  and  blue  elementaty  colors, 
but  the  blue  is  of  a  very  dark  nature,  and  the  mixture  will 
produce  a  bluish  or  purplish  chocolate ;  the  want  of  a  yellow 
makes  it  heavy  and  dark. 

Chocolate  for  Silk. 

1  gallon  peachwood  or  sapan  wood  liquor  at  5°, 

1  quart  berry  liquor  at  11°, 

1  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  5°, 

2£  Ibs.  starch, 

4  Ibs.  gum  substitute ;  boil,  and  while  warm  add 

1^  Ibs.  alum  ;  when  cold, 

10  oz.  sulphate  of  copper. 

In  this  color  the  three  elementary  colors  are  present,  and  the 
quality  of  the  chocolate  may  be  varied  at  will  by  increasing 
the  strength  or  quantity  of  the  red,  yellow,  or  blue  part.  The 
alum  is  the  real  mordant;  the  sulphate  of  copper  is  useful  in 
developing  the  colors.  As  with  other  copper  salts,  its  action 
is  supposed  to  be  of  an  oxidizing  nature. 


136  CHOCOLATE   COLORS. 

Dark  Chocolate  for  Silk. 

1  gallon  sapan  or  peachwood  at  20°, 
5  quarts  berry  liquor  at  17°, 
7  pints  of  logwood  liquor  at  20°, 
15  Ibs.  gum  in  powder, 
2£  Ibs.  alum, 

8  oz.  sal  ammoniac, 
14  oz.  acetate  of  copper. 

Archil  Chocolate  for  Wool 

1  gallon  archil  liquor  at  17°, 

1  gallon  gum  water, 

2  oz.  sulphate  of  indigo. 

Dark  Archil  Chocolate  for  Wool 

5  quarts  blue  archil  at  17°, 

10  oz.  alum, 

1J  oz.  sal  ammoniac, 

1^  oz.  oxalic  acid,  agitate  until  the  effervescence  has  subsided, 

then  thicken  with 
14  oz.  starch,  and 
14  oz.  calcined  farina,  and  add 
5  oz.  sulphate  of  indigo. 

In  order  to  make  this  chocolate  darker  it  may  be  mixed  with 
a  small  quantity  of  black  color  for  wool.  (See  BLACK.)  To 
obtain  a  redder  chocolate  cochineal  liquor  is  the  best  addition, 
and  the  ammoniacal  cochineal  is  to  be  preferred. 

Red  Chocolate  on  Wool  from  Archil  and  Cochineal 

1  gallon  archil  liquor  at  17°, 

7  oz.  prepared  ammoniacal  cochineal, 

4  oz.  alum, 

1  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

4  oz.  sal  ammoniac;  stir  until  the  effervescence  has  subsided, 

strain,  and  thicken  with 
1  Ib.  starch,  and  then  add 
3  oz.  sulphate  of  indigo. 

The  colors  from  archil  have  a  peculiar  softness  and  lustre  upon 
wool,  which  causes  it  to  be  largely  used ;  but,  as  this  coloring 
matter  ha&  no  affinity  for  cotton,  it  cannot  be  employed  upon 
cotton  goods,  and  only  sparingly  upon  delaines,  where,  in  fact, 
it  is  useful  for  the  woollen  part  of  the  fabric  only.  Chocolates 
may  be  also  obtained  upon  wool  by  the  process  given  below 
for  delaine. 


CHOCOLATE   COLOKS.  137 

Dark  Chocolate  for  Delaine. 

1  gaUon  sapan  wood  liquor  at  11°, 

1  pint  bark  liquor  at  14°, 

1 J  pint  logwood  liquor  at  14°, 

6  Ibs.  gum, 

1£  Ib.  alum, 

1  Ib.  muriate  of  copper  crystals, 

5  oz.  sal  ammoniac. 

Dissolve  the  last  three  ingredients  in  one  gallon  warm  gum 
water,  and  mix  all  together. 

Another  Dark  Chocolate  for  Delaines. 
2J  gallons  sapan  liquor  at  8°, 
3  quarts  red  liquor  at  16°, 
3  quarts  nitrate  of  alumina, 
1  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  10°, 

3  pints  bark  liquor  at  18°, 

7  J  Ibs.  starch,  boil ;  and  when  nearly  cool  add 

4  oz.  red  prussiate  of  potash, 

8  oz.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 
8  oz.  chlorate  of  potash. 

The  blue  part  in  this  chocolate  is  partly  composed  of  Prussian 
blue.  This  color  can  be  made  darker  by  addition  of  a  small 
quantity  of  black  color,  of  the  following  or  similar  composi- 
tion : — 

Black  for  Darkening  Chocolate. 

If  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  12°, 
1  quart  iron  liquor  at  24°, 

1  quart  red  liquor  at  16°, 

2  Ibs.  starch. 

Another  Chocola.te  for  Delaines. 

1  gallon  sapan  wood  liquor  at  30°, 
1  gallon  red  liquor  at  24°, 
J  pint  vinegar, 

3  Ibs  starch, 

4  Ibs.  gum  substitute ;  boil,  and  add 
|  Ib.  alum,  dissolved  in 

If  pint  logwood  liquor  at  30°,  and 
1  pint  bark  liquor  at  30°,  then  add 
1  Ib.  chlorate  of  potash,  dissolved  in 
3  quarts  of  tragacanth  gum  water,  and 
8  oz.  muriate  of  ammonia, 
3  oz.  sulphate  of  copper. 
10 


138  CHOCOLATE   COLORS. 

This  is  a  French  receipt.  The  liquors  being  very  concentrated, 
it  would  yield  a  good  chocolate  for  small  objects.  As  a  blotch 
it  is  too  strong,  and  this  would  be  found  upon  washing  off,  on 
account  of  the  large  amount  of  color  which  would  come  out. 
It  might  be  worked  with  rollers  engraved  for  calico.  In  the 
above  and  following  receipts,  the  oxidizing  powers  of  chlorate 
of  potash  are  employed,  and  the  quantity  of  copper  salts 
greatly  reduced.  This  is  an  advantage  in  some  respects,  as  for 
example,  in  the  printing  it  cleans  better,  because  the  doctor  is 
not  so  liable  to  corrosion  ;  but  in  steaming  the  color  is  liable 
to  evolve  chlorine,  and  attack  pale  colors  from  woods,  but  it 
is  not  to  be  feared  in  conjunction  with  masses  of  blue,  green,  or 
olive. 

Gum  Chocolate  for  Delaines. 
1  gallon  sapan  wood  liquor  at  20°, 
1  gallon  nitrate  of  alumina, 
1  quart  bark  liquor  at  30°, 
3  pints  logwood  liquor  at  30°, 
14  Ibs.  gum  in  powder. 
10  oz.  chlorate  of  potash,  dissolved  in 
8  quarts  of  boiling  water ;  and,  lastly, 
3  oz.  sulphate  of  copper. 

The  nitrate  of  alumina  for  the  above  chocolate  is  obtained  as 
follows : — 

2  gallons  hot  water, 

10  Ibs.  alum, 

13  Ibs.  nitrate  of  lead. 

The  nitrate  of  alumina  supplies  alumina  as  a  mordant,  and  at 
the  same  time  nitric  acid  as  an  oxidizing  agent.  I  conclude 
the  chocolate  receipts  on  delaine  by  one  on  which  a  portion  of 
the  blue  is,  as  in  a  previous  case,  composed  of  Prussian  blue, 
derived  from  an  impure  solution  of  red  prussiate  of  potash, 
called  chloro-prussiate  liquor. 

Chocolate  for  Delaine. 

1  gallon  sapan  wood  liquor  at  16°, 
3  Ibs.  starch  ;  beat  up,  and  add 

3  quarts  red  liquor  at  16°, 

2  quarts  logwood  liquor  at  12°  ;  boil,  and  add^ 

3  oz..tartaric  acid, 
6  oz.  sal  ammoniac, 

5  pints  chloro-prussiate  liquor  at  30°, 
J  pint  oil. 


CHOCOLATE   COLORS.  139 

The  chocolate  colors  for  calico  have  a  great  resemblance  to 
those  for  delaines,  but  are  less  concentrated,  on  account  of  the 
lesser  capacity  of  pure  cotton  for  absorbing  coloring  matters. 
One  or  two  examples  will  suffice  as  specimens,  although  the 
modifications  are  numberless. 

Paste  Brown  Chocolate  for  Calico. 
9  quarts  sapan  wood  liquor  at  8°, 
9  quarts  water, 

6  quarts  logwood  liquor  at  12°, 
3  quarts  red  liquor  at  16°, 
12  oz.  muriate  of  ammonia, 
12  oz.  sulphate  of  copper, 
12  oz.  alum, 
13J  Ibs.  flour, 
3J  Ibs.  British  gum. 

The  liquors  are  thickened,  and  the  salts  stirred  in  as  usual. 

Spirit  Chocolate  for  Calico. 

3  quarts  sapan  wood  liquor  at  8°, 
2  quarts  logwood  liquor  at  10°, 

1  quart  bark  liquor  at  14°, 

2  Ibs.  starch;    boil,  cool  to  110°,  and  add 
1  pint  oxymuriate  of  tin, 

|  pint  nitrate  of  copper, 
1  pint  oil. 

To  be  aged  three  days  in  a  cool  place,  and  washed  off. 

Red  Chocolate  for  Calico. 

3  gallons  sapan  wood  liquor  at  9°, 

3  quarts  nitrate  of  alumina  (see  below), 

1J  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  12°, 

6  oz.  yellow  prussiate, 

6  oz.  red  prussiate, 

6  oz.  chlorate  of  potash, 

9  Ibs.  starch.     To  be  boiled  well. 

Nitrate  of  Alumina  for  Red  Chocolate. 

1  gallon  boiling  water, 

3  Ibs.  nitrate  of  lead, 

3  Ibs.  alum  ;  dissolve,  and  add 

3  oz.  crystals  soda.     Use  the  clear  only. 


140  CHROMATES, 

Another  Chocolate  for  Calico. 

5  quarts  sapan  wood  at  8°, 
3  pints  red  liquor  at  16°, 

3  pints  nitrate  of  alumina. 

4  pints  logwood  liquor  at  18°, 
If  pint  bark  liquor  at  18°, 

4  Ibs.  starch ;  boil,  and,  when  cool,  add 
2  oz.  red  prussiate  of  potash, 
4  oz.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 
4  oz.  chlorate  of  potash. 

For  the  chocolate  colors  produced  in  madder  and  garancine 
styles  see  GARANCINE  and  MAPPER  respectively. 

Chromates. — The  chromates  are  a  class  of  salts  formed  by 
the  union  of  chromic  acid  with  a  metal  or  base.  They  are  all 
colored,  without  exception  ;  but  the  dyer  has  only  been  able 
to  avail  himself  of  two  of  them  as  coloring  matters,  viz.,  the 
red  and  yellow  chromates  of  lead. 

The  only  commercial  chromates  are  those  of  potash  and 
soda,  and  there  are  two  of  each.  The  bichromate,  or  red  chro- 
mate  of  potash,  is  a  salt  containing  two  atoms  of  chromic  acid 
to  one  of  potash ;  the  yellow  chromate  of  potash  contains  but 
one  atom  of  chromic  acid  to  one  of  potash,  and  is,  consequently, 
less  rich  in  chromic  acid.  There  is  a  corresponding  bichro- 
mate and  chromate  of  soda,  but  they  are  not  commercial  arti- 
cles. The  salt  sold  as  chromate  of  soda  is  of  variable  composi- 
tion, and  cannot  be  correctly  represented  by  any  chemical  name 
or  formula. 

Bichromate  of  Potash,  Bichrome,  Red  Chrome,  etc.— This  is  the 
chief  and  only  trustworthy  chromate  for  the  use  of  the  dyer 
and  printer.  If  it  be  in  clean,  well  defined  crystals,  and  of  a  uni- 
form color,  without  admixture  of  white  or  yellow  crystals,  it 
may  be  considered  as  pure.  It  does  not  lose  weight  by  drying, 
being  an  anhydrous  salt.  A  gallon  of  cold  water  will  dissolve 
about  one  pound  of  bichromate  ;  in  hot  water  it  is  much  more 
soluble,  but  the  excess  over  one  pound  crystallizes  out  on 
cooling. 

Yellow  Chromate  of  Potash. — This  salt  is  rarely  met  with  in 
trade  ;  it  can  be  prepared  by  adding  caustic  potash  to  solution 
of  red  chromate  until  it  becomes  slightly  alkaline;  the  red 
chromate  loses  its  characteristic  color,  and  becomes  of  an  in- 
tense yellow.  In  practical  receipts  it  is  sometimes  directed  to 
neutralize  bichromate  with  soda  crystals ;  this  is  practically 
making  neutral  or  yellow  chromate.  The  yellow  chromate  is 
much  more  soluble  in  water  than  the  bichromate,  and  is  often 
used  in  printing  or  padding  on  that  account. 


CHROMATES.  141 

Chromale  of  Soda  or  Chrome  Salts. — The  samples  of  yellow 
chrome  salts  that  I  have  had  occasion  to  test  or  examine  have 
varied  so  much  in  quality  and  actual  value,  and  are  so  easily 
adulterated,  that  I  would  advise  having  nothing  to  do  with 
them  unless  their  quality  can  be  satisfactorily  ascertained.  If 
they  contain  a  proportionate  quantity  of  chromic  acid,  they 
can  be  applied  to  all  the  purposes  of  bichromate  of  potash  with 
equal  results. 

Chromate  and  Dichromate  of  Lead. — These  substances  are 
trade  pigments,  but  not  applied  in  printing  or  dyeing,  They 
form  the  yellow  and  orange  chrome  colors  on  cotton ;  but  as 
they  are  produced  by  a  dyeing  process  in  the  fibres  of  the 
cloth  they  are  considered  under  CHROME  COLORS. 

The  yellow  chromate  of  lead  is  sometimes  employed  in 
printing  as  a  sightening  for  chrome  mordants.  It  is  prepared 
by  mixing  nitrate  of  lead  and  bichromate  of  potash,  both  in 
solution,  washing  the  precipitate  and  draining  to  a  pulp. 

Applications  of  the  Chromates. — Bichromate  of  potash  is  ap- 
plied in  printing  and  dyeing  in  a  great  variety  of  ways,  the 
whole  of  which  may  be  classified  in  three  divisions.  (1)  Oases 
where  the  chromic  acid  acts  as  a  coloring  matter  :  these  are  all  in- 
cluded in  the  article  on  CHROME  COLORS.  (2)  Cases  in  which 
the  chromic  acid  acts  as  an  oxidizing  agent.  (3)  Cases  in  which 
the  application  depends  upon  the  oxide  of  chromium  /  the  third 
class  of  cases  are  included  in  the  article  on  CHROMIUM  COLORS. 
It  only  remains,  therefore,  to  indicate  here  the  cases  in  which 
the  oxidizing  powers  of  bichromate  are  brought  into  play.  The 
raising  or  development  of  the  stearn  blue,  green,  and  olive 
colors,  depends  upon  the  oxidating  effect  of  bichromate  of 
potash ;  so  also  the  fixing  of  catechu  colors,  and  those  few 
cases  in  which  bichromate  of  potash  is  used  in  color  mixing. 
The  chromate  discharge  upon  indigo  blue  is  another  illustra- 
tion of  its  oxidizing  powers,  in  this  case  exerted,  not  to  develop, 
but  to  destroy  a  color.  (See  DISCHARGE.)  Whether  the  use 
of  bichromate  in  woollen  dyeing  belongs  to  the  second  or  third 
class  of  applications  is  a  point  upon  which  there  appears  to 
be  no  satisfactory  information.  Some  experimenters  incline  to 
believe  that  the  salt,  as  a  whole,  is  taken  up  by  the  wool,  and 
that  when  worked  in  the  dye-wood  it  is  deoxidized  by  the  or- 
ganic matters,  reduced  to  the  state  of  green  oxide  of  chromium, 
in  which  condition  it  acts  as  a  mordant.  It  seems  proved 
that  nearly  the  same  colors  are  obtained  whether  the  chromed 
wool  enter  the  dye  in  its  yellow  state,  or  whether  it  be  brought 
to  the  green  state  by  deoxidizing  agents,  but  that  the  color  is 
more  quickly  dyed  when  it  is  in  the  yellow  state.  Other  ex- 
perimenters think  its  principal  action  is  in  oxidizing  the  wool. 


142  CHROME   COLORS. 

In. cases  where  the  wool  has  been  sulphured  before  dyeing,  I 
should  attribute  part  of  the  useful  action  to  the  oxidation  of 
the  sulphurous  acid  retained  in  the  wool. 

In  steam  blues,  and  catechu  colors,  raised  by  means  of  bi- 
chromate of  potash,  a  small  quantity  of  chromium  remains 
attached  to  the  cloth  or  color ;  this  has  been  looked  upon  as 
constituting  an  essential  part  of  the  color ;  but,  as  it  is  very 
evident,  that  other  oxidizing  agents  can  procure  the  same  effect, 
and  it  is  at  least  probable,  that  in  the  very  act  of  oxidation, 
some  oxide  of  chromium  falls  on  the  fibre  and  is  retained,  it  is 
more  reasonable  to  look  upon  the  presence  of  chromium  as 
accidental  rather  than  as  essential  to  the  color. 

Chrome  Colors. — As  before  mentioned,  the  only  colored 
chromates  which  adapt  themselves  to  the  wants  of  the  dyer  and 
printer  are  those  of  lead,  and  the  chrome  colors  are  conse- 
quently limited  to  the  orange  and  yellow  shades  yielded  by 
the  lead  basis.  The  chromate  of  lead,  which  contains  single 
atoms  of  the  acid  and  base,  is  yellow  ;  it  is  produced  by  simply 
mixing  solution  of  bichromate  and  any  salt  of  lead.  The 
orange-colored  chromate  of  lead  is  produced  by  acting  upon 
the  yellow  with  dilute  alkalies,  such  as  lime  water  or  weak 
caustic  soda.  The  alkali  abstracts  one-half  of  the  chromic  acid 
from  the  yellow  chromate  of  lead,  leaving  a  compound  which 
contains  two  atoms  of  lead  to  one  of  chromic  acid,  and  which 
has  a  deep  orange  color.  If  the  alkali  is  strong,  or  its  action 
long  continued,  it  abstracts  the  whole  of  the  chromic  acid  from 
the  lead,  leaving  it  colorless,  and  ends  by  dissolving  up  the 
lead  and  all.  Hence,  in  turning  the  chrome  yellow  into  orange, 
much  caution  has  to  be  exercised  not  to  pass  the  right  point. 

In  dyeing  chrome  colors  the  cloth  is  first  mordanted  in  a 
salt  of  lead,  and  then  passed  into  bichromate.  The  insoluble 
chromate  of  lead  is  formed  by  double  decomposition  in  the 
fibre,  where  it  is  retained.  This  is  the  yellow  salt.  It  is  con- 
verted into  the  orange  by  alkalies.  The  following  practical 
process  will  illustrate  the  various  methods  of  proceeding  to 
obtain  the  yellow  and  orange  shades  : — 

Chrome  Yellow  and  Orange  by  Printing. — The  mordant  is 
very  simple,  either  acetate  of  lead  or  nitrate  of  lead,  or  a  mix- 
ture of  the  two  salts. 

Dark  Paste   Orange. 

2  Ibs.  brown  sugar  of  lead, 

1  gallon  water;  dissolve,  thicken  with 

IJlb.  flour; 

sighten  with  precipitated  chromate  of  lead  pulp.  The  amount 
of  sugar  of  lead  may  be  increased  to  as  high  as  8  Ibs.  to  a  gal- 


CHROME    COLORS.  143 

Ion  of  water  when  dark  shades  are  wanted,  or  when  the  design 
includes  small  objects. 

Pale  Paste  Orange. 
1  gallon  water, 
f  Ib.  nitrate  of  lead, 
l|lb.  of  flour. 

There  is  apparently  some  advantage  in  employing  nitrate 
of  lead  for  the  paler  shades,  but  the  acetate  could  be 
equally  as  well  used.  After  printing,  the  goods  are  aged  to 
soften  them,  and  then  passed  in  warm  dilute  sulphuric  acid  or 
sulphate  of  soda.  This  fixes  the  lead  upon  the"  cloth  as  sul- 
phate. The  cloth  is  washed  to  remove  any  loosely  adhering 
lead  salts,  and  then  entered  into  the  bichromate.  From  two 
ounces  to  half  a  pound  of  bichromate  are  added  to  a  beck  of 
warm  water  for  each  piece  of  calico,  and  the  goods  run  in 
for  about  ten  minutes,  when  they  will  have  acquired  a  full 
yellow,  and,  if  to  remain  yellow,  must  be  taken  out  then.  To 
convert  them  into  orange,  the  readiest  method  is  to  lift  the 
pieces  when  they  have  acquired  a  full  yellow,  and  add  half  a 
pint  of  caustic  soda,  at  30°  Tw.,  for  every  five  pounds  of  bi- 
chromate employed ;  stir  up  well,  and  run  the  pieces  again  for 
ten  minutes.  If  the  full  orange  shade  is  not  developed,  a  little 
more  soda  may  be  cautiously  added,  taking  care  to  stop  the 
pieces,  and  turn  them  into  clear  water,  upon  the  slightest  ap- 
pearance of  their  losing  color.  Another  process  consists  in 
taking  the  pieces  at  the  yellow  and  wincing  them  in  water, 
and  then  raising  the  orange  by  means  of  boiling  lirne  water, 
or  very  weak  caustic  liquor.  Or,  again,  instead  of  passing  the 
pieces  in  bichromate,  they  may  be  passed  into  neutral  chro- 
mate,  made  by  adding  crystals  of  soda,  or  caustic  soda,  to  bi- 
chromate. The  method  given  first  leaves  nothing  to  desire  if 
carried  out  with  care  and  intelligence. 

Sulphate  of  lead,  though  an  insoluble  salt,  when  printed  upon 
calico  and  dipped  in  lime,  forms  an  intimate  combination  with 
the  fibre,  and  may  serve  very  well  as  a  mordant  for  chrome 
orange.  One  method  of  applying  it  consists  in  melting  brown 
acetate  of  lead,  and  adding  to  it  strong  sulphuric  acid;  a  great 
portion  of  the  acetic  acid  is  expelled,  and  the  lead  wholly  or 
partially  converted  into  sulphate.  This,  slightly  thickened, 
printed,  dipped  in  lime,  and  raised  in  chrome  as  above,  gives 
very  good  oranges.  This  method  of  obtaining  the  chrome 
orange  is  subject  to  irregularities,  and  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended. 

The  yellow  from  chrome  is  scarcely  ever  produced  in  print- 


14:4  CHROME   COLORS. 

ing.  The  orange  is  very  often  worked  in  combination  with 
iron  buff.  When  orange  alone  is  produced  sulphuric  acid  is 
the  best  fixing  agent,  but  if  accompanied  by  buff^  sulphate  of 
soda  must  be  used,  and,  if  necessary,  some  carbonate  of  soda 
added  to  it. 

Chrome  Colors  by  Dyeing  on  Calico. — The  colors  produced  by 
the  chromates  of  lead  upon  calico  by  dyeing  receive  various 
names,  according  to  their  depth.  A  very  light  shade,  obtained 
by  using  from  2  Ibs.  to  3  Ibs.  of  acetate  of  lead  for  100  Ibs.  of 
cotton,  and  raising  in  2  Ibs.  bichromate,  may  be  called  straw 
color.  The  process  consists  in  working  the  goods  for  twenty 
minutes  through  the  acetate  of  lead  liquor;  drain,  and  work 
through  the  chrome  ten  minutes,  and  finish  in  the  lead.  The 
shades  are  sometimes  modified  by  using  anotta  along  with  the 
chrome. 

Lemon  Yellow. — 10  Ibs.  sugar  of  lead,  4  Ibs.  bichromate  of 
potash,  100  Ibs.  cotton.  Work  as  in  the  previous  case. 

By  increasing  the  weight  of  drugs,  or  by  repeating  the  dips, 
any  desired  depth  of  yellow  can  be  obtained.  Nitrate  of  lead 
may  be  used  instead  of  the  acetate. 

Plombate  of  Soda  Yellow. — In  this  method  advantage  is  taken 
of  the  power  which  alkalies  possess  of  dissolving  hydrated 
oxide  of  lead  in  the  following  manner:  For  100  Ibs.  of  cotton, 
5  Ibs.  bichromate  and  10  Ibs.  of  acetate  of  lead  are  taken.  The 
acetate  of  lead  is  dissolved  in  water,  and  strong  caustic  soda  is 
gradually  added;  it  produces  a  bulky  white  precipitate  at  first, 
but  continued  addition  of  the  soda  dissolves  this  precipitate. 
In  order  not  to  have  an  excess  present,  it  is  well  to  leave  a  lit- 
tle of  the  precipitate  undissolved.  The  goods  are  worked  in 
the  clear  liquor,  and  then  passed  into  the  chrornate  as  before. 

Chrome  Orange. — The  orange  is  obtained  by  working  the 
yellow  in  boiling  lime-water,  or  weak  caustic,  as  in  calico 
printing. 

Subacetate  of  Lead  Orange. — A  subacetate  of  lead  is  prepared 
by  boiling  20  Ibs.  brown  sugar  of  lead  and  10  Ibs.  litharge  in 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  rain  water,  working  the  goods  in  this 
solution,  which  yields  up  its  lead  more  easily  than  common 
acetate,  and  fixing  in  lime-water.  As  it  is  necessary  to  have  a 
considerable  quantity  of  lead  on  the  cotton  for  deep  orange, 
this  process  must  be  repeated  two  or  three  times,  then  worked 
in  the  chrome  10  Ibs.,  and  the  orange  color  raised  by  boiling 
1  i  in  e- water. 

Sulphate  of  Lead  Orange. — By  working  the  cotton  in  acetate 
of  lead,  wringing,  and  passing  in  sulphuric  acid  sours,  at  4° 
Tw.,  then  washing,  and.  passing  in  warm  bichrorne  and  boiling 


CHROMIUM  COLORS.  145 

lime-water,  a  full  deep  orange  can  be  obtained  without  any 
repetitions,  and  with  great  certainty  and  regularity. 

Plombate  of  Lime  Orange. — Similar  to  the  plombate  of  soda 
yellow,  only  that  lime-water  is  employed,  instead  of  soda,  in 
excess,  to  dissolve  the  oxide  of  lead  precipitated  in  the  first 
instance.  It  requires  three  or  four  repetitions  to  obtain  the 
darkest  shade  of  orange. 

The  chromate  of  lead  colors  have  a  moderate  degree  of  sta- 
bility ;  they  are  weakened  by  soap  and  friction,  and  also  by 
washing  soda.  Like  all  colors  containing  lead,  they  are  black- 
ened by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  so  that  they  are  entirely  un- 
fitted for  hangings  for  dwelling-houses,  where  sulphurous 
emanations  are  always  more  or  less  present. 

Chrome  yellow  forms  the  yellow  basis  of  some  green  styles 
in  which  indigo  is  the  blue,  and  of  some  shades  brown  and 
chocolate.  (See  BROWN  and  GREEN.) 

Chromium. — Chromium  is  the  name  of  the  metallic  basis 
of  the  chromates  ;  it  combines  with  oxygen  in  two  proportions, 
the  one  compound  being  called  oxide  of  chromium,  or  green 
oxide  of  chromium,  and  the  other  chromic  acid.  The  pure 
metal  chromium  is  almost  unknown,  and  the  oxide  is  always 
obtained  from  the  chromic  acid  compounds  or  chromates  by  one 
of  the  methods  given  below.  A  class  of  colors  is  obtained 
from  the  oxide  of  chromium,  which  may  be  distinguished  as 
CHROMIUM  COLORS.  A  pigment  green,  which  is  an  oxide  of 
chromium,  prepared  by  a  peculiar  process,  has  been  used  in 
calico  printing,  fixed  by  means  of  albumen  or  lactarine.  This 
preparation,  known  asGuignets'  green,  is  obtained  by  making  an 
intimate  mixture  of  about  three  parts  of  boracic  acid  with  one 
part  of  bichromate,  and  calcining  it,  at  a  low  temperature,  in  a  re- 
verberatory  furnace;  the  chromic  acid  loses  oxygen,  and  becomes 
changed  into  green  oxide  of  chromium.  There  are  many  ways 
of  preparing  the  green  oxide  different  from  this,  but  that  which 
is  produced  by  this  particular  method  has  a  beauty  of  color  en- 
tirely peculiar  to  itself.  It  is  sold  in  the  pasty  state,  at  a  price 
about  equivalent  to  10s.  per  Ib.  of  the  dry  oxide ;  this  high 
price  has  considerably  limited  its  applications  in  printing. 

Chromium  Colors. — The  chromium  colors  are  those  which 
have  oxide  of  chromium  as  a  basis.  The  first  process  is  to 
make  some  salt  of  chromium,  which  is- printed,  and  then  raised 
or  fixed  in  lime  or  soda,  precisely  the  same  as  an  iron  buff. 

Sulphate  of  Chromium  Standard. 
\  gallon  of  boiling  water, 
4  Ibs.  bichromate  of  potash, 
2£  Ibs.  sulphuric  acid, 
1  Ib.  brown  sugar ; 


14:6  CHROMIUM   COLORS. 

dissolve  the  bichromate  in  the  water,  add  the  acid  with  care, 
and  then  the  sugar,  by  small  portions.  A  violent  action  follows 
each  addition  of  sugar,  accompanied  by  escape  of  gas  and 
swelling  of  the  liquid  ;  in  order  to  prevent  loss,  it  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  have  large  vessels,  and  to  add  the  sugar  with 
care. 

Muriate  of  Chrome  Standard. 

2  quarts  boiling  water, 
2  Ibs.  bichromate  potash, 
4  Ibs.  muriatic  acid, 
14:  oz.  sugar; 

proceed  as  in  the  making  of  sulphate  of  chromium,  observing 
the  same  precautions. 

The  sulphate  of  chromium  is  the  more  frequently  employed 
of  these  two  solutions:  when  properly  prepared,  it  is  a  viscous 
dark  green  fluid;  sometimes,  owing  to  a  deficiency  of  acid,  or 
the  heat  not  being  high  enough,  it  sets  into  a  jelly,  or  is  full  of 
curdy  lumps.  Such  a  color  will  be  very  unsafe  ;  it  should  be 
made  quite  fluid  either  by  heating  it,  or  if  that  is  not  sufficient 
by  adding  more  acid.  It  should  stand  about  90°  Tw.  It  is 
difficult  to  thicken  properly,  having  a  great  tendency  to  coagu- 
late starch  and  bad  gums.  Three  quarts  of  the  standard  to  one 
quart  of  thick  tragacanth  gum  water  will  usually  work  well; 
sometimes  the  liquid  has  a  sufficient  amount  of  thickness  to 
work  without  thickening. 

When  raised  in  lime  and  soda  it  .produces  a  grayish-green, 
of  a  shade  similar  to  green  tea  leaves,  hence  sometimes  called 
tea  color  ;  it  has  also  been  called  Victoria  green. 

Arseniate  of  Chromium  Standard. 
9  gallons  of  hot  water, 

9  Ibs.  bichromate  of  potash, 
11  Ibs.  white  arsenic ; 

"  boil  this  mixture  for  fifteen  minutes  ;  an  action  takes  place,  and 
a  precipitate  forms,  which  is  collected  upon  a  filler  and  drained 
to  a  pulp;  the  pulp  is  scraped  into  a  mug  and  mixed  with  3 
quarts  of  nitric  acid,  and  kept  at  a  boiling  heat  until  the  pulp 
is  dissolved,  or  nearly  so ;  when  cold,  mixed  with  3  quarts  of 
acetic  acid  at  8°.  The  clear  liquor  should  stand  at  from  80° 
to  90°  Tw.,  and  may  be  thickened  with  tragacanth  gum  water. 
A  much  simpler  receipt  is  as  follows  : — 

1  gallon  of  water, 

5  Ibs.  bichromate  of  potash, 

7  Ibs.  white  arsenic, 

10  Ibs.  muriatic  acid  ; 


CINNAMON  COLOR.  147 

heat  until  the  bichromate  is  entirely  deoxidized  :  if  the  acid  is 
not  sufficient,  a  little  more  must  be  added  ;  but,  in  order  to 
avoid  an  excess  of  acid,  it  is  well  to  boil  the  liquor  down  to 
90°  or  100°  Tw.,  by  which  the  free  acid  is  mostly  expelled. 

In  both  these  processes  the  white  arsenic,  or  arsenious  acid, 
takes  oxygen  from  the  chromic  acid,  and  becomes  arsenic  acid, 
which  combines  with  the  oxide  of  chromium  produced  to  form 
arseniate  of  chromium,  which  is  kept  in  solution  or  dissolved 
by  excess  of  acid. 

Eaised  in  lime,  these  liquors  produce  the  same  grayish- 
green  shades  as  the  sulphate  and  chloride  of  chromium.. 

'By  passing  the  chromium  green  shades  through  weak  solu- 
tion of  blue  copperas,  a  somewhat  livelier  tint  is  obtained. 

Modifications  of  the  Chromium  Shades. — By  mixing  other 
mineral  colors,  or  vegetable  extracts,  with  the  chromium 
standards,  a  variety  of  shades,  all  of  a  dull  character,  may  be 
produced.  Thus,  buff  liquor,  bronze  liquor,  etc.,  may  be  mixed 
with  them.  A  shade  of  color  of  a  soft  gray  or  drab  may  be 
produced  as  follows : — 

Green  Dove  Color. 

1  gallon  of  red  liquor  at  8°, 

1  Ib.  of  ground  madder;  steep  24  hours,  and  strain 

2  quarts  of  the  above, 

3  pints  of  sulphate  of  chromium  ; 

thicken  with  soluble  gum  substitute.  Raised  in  lime  or  weak 
soda,  it  gives  a  pleasant  greenish  dove  color. 

Oxide  of  chromium  appears  to  be  of  no  use  as  a  mordant ;  it 
has  but  a  very  slight  affinity  for  coloring  matters,  and  the 
shades  it  gives  are  dull  and  dry. 

Chrome  Alum  is  a  double  sulphate  of  chromium  and  potash, 
and  may  be  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  sulphate  of  chro- 
mium. It  is  employed  on  the  continent,  but  is  not,  as  far  as  I 
am  aware,  an  article  of  commerce  in  this  country. 

Chrysammic  Acid. — A  golden  yellow  colored  substance, 
obtained  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  upon  aloes.  It  gives 
highly  colored  salts,  and  hopes  were  entertained  of  making  it 
applicable  to  dyeing,  but  so  far  it  has  not  been  practically 
applied. 

Cinnamon  Color,  Cannelk. — The  color  of  Cinnamon,  as 
exposed  for  sale  in  this  country,  may  be  defined  as  a  yellowish 
brown,  of  a  rather  low  tone.  Chevreul  defines  it  as  a  yellowish 
orange  of  a  deep  tone,  or  orange  darkened  with  black  ;  he  gives* 
it  two  formulas,  3  orange  14  tone,  and  2  orange  T55  black  of  9 
to  12  tone.  In  dyeing,  it  may  be  considered  as  a  yellow 
brown,  and  its  production  depends  upon  the  excess  of  the  yellow 
in  the  composite  color. 


148  .  CITRIC  ACID. 

Madder  and  bark  cinnamon  shades  are  produced  by  mor- 
danting calico  in  red  liquor,  dyeing  in  bark  first,  and  then  in 
madder,  until  the  desired  shade  is  obtained.  The  bark  and 
madder  may  be  mixed  in  the  dye-beck,  but  the  shade  is  more 
under  control  when  they  are  used  separately,  because  the  mad- 
der is  a  stronger  dye  stuff  than  the  bark,  and  the  brownish-red 
of  the  madder  can  displace  or  drive  out  more  or  less  of  the  bark 
yellow.  For  producing  rather  darker  shades  of  cinnamon, 
small  quantities  of  iron  liquor  may  be  mixed  with  the  red  ;  but, 
if  the  proportions  amount  to  more  than  one  part  of  iron  liquor 
to  ten  parts  red  liquor,  the  color  becomes  nearer  a  chocolate 
than  cinnamon. 

For  common  calico  shades,  the  processes  for  brown  may  be 
followed,  increasing  the  red  wood  and  decreasing  the  logwood  ; 
the  yellow  part  being  preserved  of  the  same  intensity. 

Calico  mordanted  in  copper  and  raised  in  prussiate  of  potash, 
as  in  dyeing  Prussian  blues,  gives  a  cinnamon  shade. 

Upon  "woollen,  cinnamon  shades  are  obtained  by  aluming  as 
usual,  and  then  dyeing  in  a  mixture  of  madder  and  some  yellow 
dye  stuff,  which  may  be  either  weld,  bark,  or  fustic.  In  low 
class  work  the  cheaper  red  woods  may  be  used  instead  of  mad- 
der, but  in  that  case,  a  little  iron  will  have  to  be  employed  to 
sadden  down  the  shade. 

The  class  of  cinnamon  colors  obtained  by  printing  are  illus- 
trated by  the  following  receipts: — 

Cinnamon  for  Wool  or  Delaine.     Block. 

2  gallons  of  bark  liquor  at  18°, 

2|  Ibs.  of  ground  cochineal ;  keep  hot  for  some 

time,  then  pass  through  a  straining  cloth, 

and  thicken  with 
7  Ibs.  gum  Senegal,  and  add 
6  oz.  sulphate  of  indigo, 
18  oz.  crystals  of  tin. 

This  color  contains  a  large  quantity  of  red  and  yellow  to  a 
small  quantity  of  blue,  and  consequently  yields  an  orange- 
colored  brown,  tending  to  the  yellow  side.  Cinnamon  colors 
upon  calico  can  be  obtained  by  modifying  the  receipts  given 
under  brown. 

Citric  Acid. — This  acid  is  obtained  from  the  juice  of  lemons, 
limes,  and  similar  fruit.  When  pure,  it  is  in  colorless  crystals, 
•of  a  strong,  pleasant  acid  taste;  dissolving  easily  in  hot  or  cold 
water.  The  pure  acid  is  not  much  used  either  in  dyeing  or 
printing,  on  account  of  its  high  price ;  but  in  some  places  it  is 
employed  as  a  resist  on  madder  work,  and  for  throwing  down 


CITRIC  ACID.  149 

the  coloring  matter  of  safflower  after  it  has  been  dissolved  by 
alkali,  but  for  either  of  these  purposes  ordinary  lime  juice  of 
good  quality  will  answer  nearly  if  not  quite  as  well.  Citric 
acid  is  occasionally  adulterated  by  admixture  with  tartaric  acid, 
which,  besides  being  a  fraud,  is  liable  to  cause  much  injury  to 
the  printer.  It  is  possible  to  discover  five  per  cent,  of  tartaric 
acid,  and  any  greater  quantity  in  citric  acid,  by  means  of  caustic 
potash  in  the  following  manner;  dissolve  a  couple  of  ounces  of 
the  acid  to  be  tested  in  as  little  water  as  possible,  from  three 
to  four  ounces  at  the  most,  then  take  one  half  of  the  solution 
in  a  glass  tumbler,  and  add  strong  caustic  potash  (soda  will 
not  do)  drop  by  drop  until  the  acid  is  neutralized,  then  mix 
with  it  the  other  half  of  the  dissolved  acid,  and  stir  well  up 
together.  If  a  heavy  white  crystalline  powder  falls  to  the 
bottom  of  the  glass,  it  indicates  tartaric  acid  ;  if  the  quantity  of 
tartaric  acid  is  small,  it  will  not  appear  directly,  and  the  glass 
should  be  left  for  about  six  hours  in  a  cool  place,  when,  if  the 
liquor  is  quite  clear,  or  only  a  little  gelatinous  substance  in  it, 
the  citric  acid  may  be  considered  as  being  free  from  tartaric.  • 
Citric  acid,  whether  in  pure  crystals  or  in  lime  juice,  is  the 
best  resistant  for  iron  and  alumina  mordants.  Its  power  does 
not  rest  simply  in  its  acidity,  although  that  is  very  great,  being 
able  to  neutralize  or  dissolve  nearly  as  much  of  an  oxide  as  an 
equal  weight  of  oil  of  vitriol,  but  partly  in  a  power,  like  that 
ot  tartaric  acid,  of  masking  the  usual  properties  of  metals,  and 
putting  them  beyond  the  action  of  the  agents  usually  influenc- 
ing them.  That  it  is  not  simply  the  acid  is  evident  from  the 
fact  that  when  the  acid  is  quite  neutralized  with  either  potash 
or  soda,  the  citrate  of  potash  or  soda  is,  for  the  quantity,  of 
citric  acid  present  in  any  given  bulk,  nearly  as  good  as  before 
for  resisting,  though  it  cannot  act  as  a  discharge.  When  an 
iron  mordant  is  printed  over  a  citric  acid  resist,  citrate  of  iron 
is  formed,  which,  unlike  the  majority  of  the  salts  of  iron,  does 
not  oxidize  on  the  cloth,  even  when  exposed  for  a  very  long 
time  to  the  air,  and  which  can  be  removed  from  it  by  simply 
washing  in  water;  the  usual  fixing  agents  having  no  action 
upon  the  salt.  When  citrate  of  potash  is  employed,  its  first 
action  is  mechanical,  to  receive  the  superimposed  mordant,  and 
then  to  effect  a  decomposition  by  which  citrate  of  iron  is  formed, 
and  so  kept  from  fixing  itself  upon  the  fibre  of  the  cloth.  That 
citric  acid  has  the  power  of  changing  the  bearings  of  metals  to 
other  bodies,  is  capable  of  being  proved  easily :  if  caustic 
potash  be  added  to  a  weak  solution  of  copperas,  it  precipitates 
all  the  iron  as  oxide ;  but  if  a  sufficient  quantity  of  citric  acid 
be  mixed  with  copperas,  and  then  potash  added  in  any  quantity, 
there  will  be  no  precipitate  formed,  owing  to  some  agency  of 


150  CITRIC  ACID. 

the  citric  acid  ;  the  same  or  a  similar  agency  keeping  the  iron 
or  alumina  of  the  mordant  from  precipitating  upon  the  cloth, 
whenever  it  meets  the  citric  acid. 

The  combinations  which  citric  acid  makes  with  the  alkalies 
and  metals  are  not  employed  in  dyeing  or  printing,  except  the 
citrate  of  soda,  mentioned  above,  which  is  used  to  resist  catechu 
brown,  and  in  one  or  two  other  cases. 

Lime  Juice,  or  Lemon  Juice. — The  acidity  of  this  juice  is 
owing  to  citric  acid,  and  its  value  depends  upon  the  quantity 
of  this  acid  which  is  present  in  it.  Lime  juice  is  very  varia- 
ble as  to  quality,  depending  upon  the  method  of  extraction, 
the  quality  of  the  fruit,  and  the  honesty  of  the  shipper.  The 
best  kind  in  English  market,  for  the  use  of  printers,  is  a  dark 
treacly-looking  fluid,  marking  from  48°  to  54°  Twaddle,  and 
containing  from  30  to  36  per  cent,  of  pure  citric  acid.  There 
are  many  inferior  qualities  which,  though  standing  nearly  as 
high  on  the  hydrometer,  contain  not  more  than  two-thirds  or 
one-half  of  that  quantity  of  real  acid.  The  sellers  in  this 
country  charge  the  acid  so  much  per  gallon  per  degree,  as  in- 
dicated by  an  arbitrarily  graduated  instrument,  supposed  to 
show  the  percentage  of  pure  citric  acid  in  the  lime  juice,  but 
which  gives  unreliable  results.  At  certain  times  all  lime  juice 
is  bad,  containing  a  great  deal  of  sediment  and  some  peculiar 
substance  which  prevents  it  giving  good  whites  as  a  resist  for 
madder  and  garancine  work.  This  is  understood  to  be  owing 
to  a  bad  harvest  of  limes;  the  quantity  of  fruit  being  much 
less  than  usual,  the  manufacturers  abroad  appear  to  press  it 
more  completely  to  make  up  the  quantity,  besides  using 
damaged  fruit  and  substances,  whose  only  resemblance  to  limes 
or  lemons  consists  in  their  giving  some  kind  of  juice;  but  the 
citric  acid — the  real,  active  element  of  lime  juice — is  not  there 
in  the  proper  quantity,  or  is  injured  by  a  mass  of  other  matters. 
It  may  be  generally  observed  that  as  lime  juice  becomes  dearer, 
its  quality  deteriorates ;  as  it  becomes  cheaper,  it  gets  clearer, 
less  sediment  in  the  cask,  and  sharper  and  more  agreeable  to 
the  taste.  The  strength  of  lime  juice  cannot  be  well  ascer- 
tained by  Twaddle;  the  real  test  is  to  ascertain  how  much 
alkali  it  will  neutralize,  and  that  no  cheap  acid  has  been  added 
to  make  it  apparently  strong.  I  have  found  lime  juice  adul- 
terated with  potashes,  which  raises  the  density  without  (for  a 
certain  quantity)  materially  injuring  its  resisting  power;  for 
citrate  of  potash  itself  is  known  to  resist  tolerably  well,  and 
especially  when  mixed  with  free  citric  acid.  The  adulteration 
can  be  detected  by  mixing  very  strong  solution  of  tartaric  acid 
with  the  suspected  lime  juice;  if  potash  be  present  there  will 
be  formed  in  a  short  time  a  crystalline  deposit  of  bitartarte  of 
potash  at  the  bottom  and  on  the  sides  of  the  vessel.  It  must 


CITRON.  151 

be  observed  that  some  potash  is  naturally  present  in  lime  juice, 
and  care  must  be  made  to  distinguish  between  what  may  be 
allowed  and  what  is  evidently  a  falsification.  Citric  acid  is 
made  from  lime  juice  by  adding  ground  chalk  to  the  acid 
mixed  in  water,  washing  the  citrate  of  lime  from  the  impuri- 
ties which  are  dissolved  in  the  water,  and  afterwards  decom- 
posing it  with  sulphuric  acid ;  if  the  citric  acid  is  not  white 
enough  animal  black  is  used  to  decolorize  it.  It  is  possible  for 
the  calico  printer  thus  to  purify  his  lime  juice,  and  to  bring  it 
into  citric  acid  if  he  thinks  proper. 

Analysis. — Citric  acid  or  lime  juice  may  be  tested  in  just  the 
same  manner  as  acetic  acid  and  other  acids.  (See  ACIDIMETRY.) 
I  have  found  citric  acid  to  contain  as  much  as  ten  per  cent,  of 
tartaric ;  this  was  in  a  sample  of  brown  acid  sent  as  of  the  first 
crystallization — without  doubt  it  was  purposely  adulterated.  I 
have  never  found  the  finished  white  crystals  adulterated. 

Lime  juice  is  only  valuable  on  account  of  the  citric  acid 
which  it  contains,  and  which  varies  considerably.  A  good 
quality  of  lime  juice,  marking  from  46°  to  50°  Tw.,  will  neu- 
tralize from  70  to  76  grains  of  pure  crystallized  carbonate  of 
soda.  For  commercial  purposes  each  grain  of  carbonate  neu- 
tralized may  represent  a  half  grain  of  crystallized  citric  acid 
(equal  to  0.38  grain  of  dry  acid),  and  the  value  of  the  lime 
juice  be  calculated  in  proportion.  Upon  evaporation  and  cal- 
cination at  a  red  heat  the  citrate  of  soda  will  be  converted  into 
carbonate,  and  being  tested  by  the  alkalimeter  should  indicate 
the  same  amount  of  alkali  as  was  at  first  added;  sometimes  it 
will  be  found  to  indicate  more,  which  arises  from  potash  present 
in  the  lime  juice ;  to  correct  this  a  quantity  of  the  lime  juice 
should  be  evaporated  and  incinerated  separately.  I  have  had 
occasion  to  test  samples  of  lime  juice  not  containing  more  than 
18  per  cent,  of  citric  acid  although  marking  full  strength  on 
the  hydrometer ;  they  were  overloaded  with  vegetable  extrac- 
tive matter. 

Citron,  or  Lemon  Color. — The  lemon  yellow  or  citron  color 
may  be  considered  as  pure  yellow  with  a  little  red  or  orange 
in  its  composition  ;  in  Chevreul's  nomenclature  4  yellow  orange 
6  tone.  The  chrome  yellows  upon  cotton,  and  picric  acid  yel- 
lows upon  wool  and  silk,  may  be  called  lemon  yellows.  Weld 
and  alum  give  very  pure  lemon  yellows.  The  following  receipt 
is  for  a  lemon  yellow  upon  wool  or  delaine — 

1  gallon  berry  liquor  at 

3  Ibs.  gum, 

8  oz.  alurn, 

1J  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

8  oz.  oxyrnuriate  of  tin. 


152  CLEANSING. 

By  mixing  with  a  small  quantity  of  red  or  scarlet  the  shade 
can  be  modified,  as  in  the  following  receipt  for  machine: — 

1  gallon  berry  liquor  at  7°, 

1  Ib.  starch ;  boil,  and  when  cooled  add 

8  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

10  oz.  bichloride  of  tin,  at  100°, 

i  pint  cochineal  scarlet. 

Cleansing. — In  the  process  of  calico  printing,  after  the 
thickened  mordants  have  been  applied  to  the  cloth,  and  ex- 
posed a  sufficient  length  of  time,  the  goods  are  ready  for  dye- 
ing, in  so  far  as  the  mordant  has  become  fixed,  and  not  remov- 
able by  water.  But  there  has  been  in  all  cases  a  great  deal  of 
mordant  applied,  which  either  never  comes  into  actual  contact 
with  the  cloth,  or  is  more  than  it  can  absorb  and  retain.  This 
removable  by  water,  and,  if  the  pieces  were  to  be  placed  in  the 
dye  vessel,  would  dissolve,  and  seriously  interfere  with  the  dye- 
ing. If  the  pieces  were  washed  in  water  simply  before  dyeing, 
the  object  would  be  partially  attained,  that  is,  the  loose  mor- 
dant would  be  removed;  but  another  difficulty  would  occur, 
the  excess  of  mordant  liberated  at  one  point  would  be  absorbed 
by  the  cloth  at  another  where  the  design  required  a  white  or 
colorless  part;  or,  in  case  of  different  mordants  being  on  the 
same  piece  of  cloth,  they  would  intermix  and  spoil  one  another; 
the  red  would  turn  the  purple  into  chocolate,  and  the  blacks 
would  give  a  purplish  color  to  the  reds.  It  was  necessary  for 
the  calico  printers  to  find  some  fluid  in  which  the  pieces  could 
be  washed  from  the  excess  of  mordant,  and  the  now  useless 
thickening  matter,  which  at  the  same  time  should  prevent  the 
loose  mordant  from  being  at  liberty  to  fix  itself  upon  any  part 
of  the  fabric.  Such  a  fluid  was  first  found  in  a  mixture  of  hot 
water  and  cow  dung;  but  now  various  manufactured  substances 
are  successfully  used  for  that  purpose.  Although  cow  dung  left 
nothing  to  desire  as  far  the  cleansing  was  concerned,  the  supply 
was  not  regular — in  certain  localities  it  was  scarce — and  the 
animals  have  had  to  be  kept  near  to  the  print  works,  actually  for 
the  sake  of  their  dung.  In  other  places  the  supply  fails  in  the 
summer  months,  when  the  cows  are  grazing,  and  their  dung  is 
spread  over  the  pastures ;  add  to  this  the  unpleasantness  of 
working  in  such  a  material,  and  it  will  be  easily  understood 
why  substitutes  have  been  called  for,  and  are  now  very  exten- 
sively adopted. 

The  term  "dunging"  was  naturally  enough  applied  to  this 
process,  because  nothing  but  the  excrement  of  cows  was  form- 
erly used  for  the  purpose ;  but  now  that  it  seems  probable  that 
the  use  of  cow  dung  will  be  given  up  the  continuance  of  the 


CLEANSING.  153 

name  is  neither  desirable  nor  exact.  The  process  is  frequently 
called  "cleansing,"  which  is  an  appropriate  name,  since  the  real 
use  of  the  process  is  to  clean  the  cloth  from  loose  matters  which 
would  interfere  with  the  dyeing.  This  name  is  sufficiently  dis- 
tinct from  "clearing,"  by  which  is  understood  processes  subse- 
quent to  the  dyeing.  M.  Persoz  proposes  to  change  the  name 
of  dunging  into  "fixing  of  mordants;"  this,  besides  being  a 
somewhat  clumsy  expression,  is  expressive  of  a  theory  which 
may  not  be  true,  since  the  fixing  of  the  mordants  takes  place 
before  dunging,  if  not  wholly,  at  least  in  great  part.  I  shall 
adopt  the  word  "cleansing,"  as  sufficiently  characteristic,  and 
on  the  whole  preferable  to  the  term  dunging,  which  is  in  many 
cases  obviously  incorrect  at  this  day. 

The  analysis  of  cow  dung  does  not  point  out  any  particular 
principle  in  it  which  can  be  said  to  be  the  active  agent  ia 
cleansing.  Its  power  has  been  at  various  times  attributed  to 
each  of  several  substances  it  contains:  its  albumen,  and  its 
peculiar  animal  matters,  were  supposed  at  one  time  to  be  the 
active  elements;  again,  the  mineral  matters  it  contained  were 
said  to  be  the  real  principles  which  were  useful  in  it,  and  so 
on  in  turn  every  single  element  has  been  at  some  time  or  by 
some  person  considered  the  essential  matter  in  it.  That  cow 
dung  does  not  possess  any  principle  peculiar  to  itself,  which 
enables  it  to  be  used  for  cleansing,  is  plainly  evident  from,  the 
fact  of  the  successful  employment  of  substitutes  which  have 
no  resemblance  to  it  in  any  way.  But  that  it  possesses  some 
principles  that  fit  it  for  such  a  duty  is  evident;  but  it  does  not 
seern  necessary  to  fix  upon  any  single  one  as  the  essential  one, 
but  rather  to  view  the  action  exercised  as  one  resulting  from 
the  combined  influence  of  two  or  more  of  its  constituents.  My 
observations  and  experiments  have  led  me  to  conclude  that 
cow  dung  owes  its  efficacy  to  two  things,  namely,  the  finely 
ground  up  or  chewed  organic  matter,  the  remains  of  the  hay, 
grass,  or  other  food  of  the  animal,  and  to  a  species  of  greenish 
olive  coloring  matter  which  is  present.  The  effect  of  a  passage 
in  dung  appears  to  me  in  great  part  to  be  mechanical,  and  to 
be  an  illustration  of  the  power  of  surface  in  attracting  chemical 
matters.  The  undigested  fibrous  parts  in  the  dung  fix  upon 
themselves  the  excess  of  mordant  as  soon  as  it  leaves  the  piece, 
and  so  prevent  it  spreading  either  on  the  whiter  or  the  neigh- 
boring colors.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  considering  that  this 
would  be  a  sufficient  explanation  if  it  were  allowed  that  the 
insoluble  parts  of  the  cow  dung  could  exercise  this  affinity  for 
the  mordant  which  is  set  at  liberty  by  the  liquor.  When  it  is 
considered  that  the  chemical  composition  of  the  fibrous  matter 
of  cow  dung,  and  its  physical  constitution  also,  resemble  very 
11 


154  CLEANSING. 

closely  that  of  cotton  fibre,  it  is  not  difficult  to  imagine  it  as 
having  at  least  as  great  an  affinity  for  the  mordant  which  is 
loosened  as  the  surrounding  cotton  fibres  themselves;  but, 
because  it  is  in  a  finer  state  of  division,  and  in  contact  with  the 
actual  particles  of  mordant,  it  has  an  advantage  over  the  cotton 
fibres  which  are  at  some  distance,  and  could  only  receive  the 
excess  of  mordant  through  the  medium  of  the  bath  ;  conse- 
quently, the  superfluous  mordant  is  retained  by  the  insoluble 
floating  particles  of  the  cow  dung.  This  action  of  the  cow 
dung  I  consider  all  that  is  essential  to'it;  it  has  other  actions 
upon  the  mordant  and  cloth,  but  they  are  either  of  no 
importance  in  their  result  or  only  of  secondary  importance. 
The  coloring  matter  referred  to  seems  to  act  a  useful  part,  but 
it  is  not  clear  what  it  is.  The  mordants  take  it  up  and  retain 
it  through  the  washings ;  but  in  the  dyeing  it  is  driven  out  by 
the  stronger  coloring  matter  of  the  madder  or  garancine.  If  a 
fent,  mordanted  for  black  and  purple,  be  dipped  in  hot  caustic 
soda,  at  one  or  two  degrees  of  Twaddle,  it  will  come  out  with 
the  mordants  of  a  light  buff  shade ;  in  this  state  they  do  not 
dye  well  in  madder — the  colors  produced  are  poor,  and  it  takes 
a  longer  time  and  higher  temperature  to  dye  them.  If  the 
fent  be  taken  from  the  caustic  soda  to  a  regular  passage  in 
dung,  it  soon  changes  its  color,  coming  to  nearly  the  same 
shade  as  if  it  had  been  at  once  passed  into  dung;  in  this  state 
it  dyes  up  well  and  quickly.  The  change  of  color  may  be  at- 
tributed to  the  absorption  of  coloring  matter  from  the  cow 
dung;  and  the  better  colors  produced  upon  dyeing,  and  the 
shorter  time  required,  must  be  attributed  to  some  action  of  the 
cow  dung — not  necessarily  to  the  coloring  matter,  but  the 
weight  of  probability  is  in  favor  of  it.  Some  actual  chemical 
change  in  the  mordant  is  possible;  if  any,  it  must  be  in  the 
way  of  deoxidation.  I  have  found  a  decoction  of  cow  dung  to 
act  powerfully  as  a  deoxidizing  agent. 

It  may  not,  perhaps,  be  accepted  as  a  fact  that  the  presence 
of  coloring  matter  of  the  cow  dung  would  have  any  useful 
action  in  dyeing,  but  I  am  convinced  it  has,  and  especially  in 
madder  colors.  Experience  proves  that,  in  the  case  of  the 
best  dung  substitutes,  or  cleansing  compounds,  a  final  wince  in 
cow  dung  before  dyeing  is  advantageous.  It  is  better  for  the 
mordanting  oxide  that  it  should  go  into  the  beck  in  a  partly 
saturated  state  than  in  a  state  of  the  highest  activity.  In  a 
majority  of  cases  the  colors  will  be  more  solid,  brighter,  and 
faster  when  the  combination  between  the  mordant  and  the 
coloring  matter  is  slow  and  gradual  than  when,  on  the  contrary, 
it  is  rapid  and  completely  effected  in  a  short  time.  In  the  case 
of  madder,  this  might  be  explained  upon  the  assumption  of  a 


CLEANSING.  155 

variable  displacing  power  of  the  true  and  false  coloring  princi- 
ples present  in  it.  It  may  be  supposed  that  the  dun  coloring 
principle  cannot  displace  the  coloring  matter  of  the  cow  dung, 
but  that  the  alizarine  can  do  so,  and  does  so  by  degrees  in  the 
course  of  the  dyeing;  and  it  may  be  supposed  that,  by  this 
means,  a  pure  color  is  produced,  which  suffers  less  in  the 
clearing  operations  than  if  the  mordant  was  partly  filled  with 
the  easily  removable  secondary  coloring  matters  of  the  madder. 
In  other  coloring  matters  it  may  be  considered  that  they  cannot 
combine  so  rapidly  with  the  mordant,  because  it  is  partly  com- 
bined already  ;  but  this  combination  is  a  weak  one,  and  gives 
way  to  the  power  of  a  stronger  agent,  and,  being  formed 
slowly,  seems  to  be  more  stable;  just  as  in  painting,  a  thick 
layer  of  paint,  equal  to  the  whole  quantity  required,  might  be 
applied  at  once,  but  it  would  not  be  so  good  as  if  applied  in 
two  or  three  separate  coats. 

The  dung  substitutes  at  present  in  use  are  chiefly  the  arsenite 
and  arseniate  of  soda,  the  silicate  of  soda,  mixtures  of  the  two, 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  various  compounds  containing  other 
substances  in  addition  to  those  named,  but  whose  utility  is  of  a 
very  questionable  nature.  As  mentioned  just  now,  caustic 
soda  would  act  as  a  dung  substitute  for  black  and  purple  mor- 
dants, but  not  for  red  mordants,  because  the  alumina  forming 
a  soluble  combination  with  the  alkali  would  be  entirely  re- 
moved. The  silicate,  arsenite,  and  arseniate  of  soda  may  be 
looked  upon  as  caustic  soda,  the  more  energetic  properties  of 
which  are  modified  by  the  arsenical  and  silicious  acids.  The 
alkalinity  is  modified,  not  destroyed.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  the  carbonates,  bi-carbonates,  and  phosphates  of  the  alkalies, 
which  have  been  sparingly  used  as  dung  substitutes.  The 
chemical  action  of  these  substitutes  differs  from  that  of  cow 
dung;  for,  while  I  do  not  look  upon  cow  dung  as  possessing 
any  notable  fixing  powers,  it  is  certain  that  the  arsenites  and 
silicates  do  enjoy  such  a  power.  They  actually  neutralize  the 
acid  remaining  in  the  mordant,  and  precipitate  the  oxide  upon 
the  cloth  in  greater  quantity  than  dung,  and  under  different 
circumstances.  At  the  strength  at  which  the  substitutes  are 
employed  in  the  cleansing  apparatus,  very  little  of  this  precipi- 
tation of  oxide  upon  the  cloth  actually  takes  place;  the  action 
of  the  substitute  is  confined  to  rendering  the  loosened  mordant 
insoluble  at  the  moment  it  quits  the  cloth,  and  so  preventing 
its  combining  with  other  parts  of  the  fabric.  But,  if  the 
strength  be  increased,  the  precipitation  upon  the  cloth  takes 
place,  and  darker  colors  are  produced — of  course  at  the  expense 
of  the  dyeing  material,  and  frequently  also  at  the  expense  of 
goodness  of  shade.  It  is  not  well  that  the  cleansing  liquor 


156  CLEANSING. 

should  be  also  a  fixing  liquor  ;  in  ordinary  cases  of  calico  dye- 
ing the  two  processes  should  be  distinct. 

Dunging  or  cleansing  is  one  of  the  most  important  parts  in 
dyeing  for  calico  printing;  it  deserves  the  utmost  attention  of 
the  superintendent,  for  upon  it  depends,  in  a  remarkable 
manner,  the  success  of  the  dyeing.  The  heat  of  the  cleansing 
liquor  and  its  strength  must  vary  with  the  styles,  and  be  skil- 
fully adapted  to  them.  The  rule  is  to  use  such  a  temperature 
and  strength  as  will  cleanse  effectually,  and  not  to  go  beyond 
that  strength  and  temperature.  The  nature  of  the  thickening 
must  be  attended  to;  if  it  is  a  gum  thickening,  and  one  which  is 
easily  soluble  in  water,  the  temperature  may  be  kept  low,  but 
the  strength  must  be  rather  greater  than  for  paste  thickenings; 
if  a  mixture  of  paste  and  gum  thickenings,  the  heat  must  be 
higher  and  the  strength  medium  ;  if  all  paste,  the  heat  must  be 
high  and  the  strength  of  the  liquor  entirely  in  proportion  to 
the  kind  of  printing — being  the  strongest  for  blotch  and  heavy 
covered  patterns,  and  weaker  in  proportion  as  the  pattern  is 
lighter.  As  a  general  rule  the  heat  should  be  kept  at  the 
lowest  point,  this  may  be  as  low  as  100°  F.  for  light  plate  pat- 
terns without  black ;  for  black  and  acids  for  madder  work  a 
temperature  of  from  140°  to  160°  is  the  best;  for  garancines 
the  temperature  must  be  high,  but  need  not  exceed  180°  F.  in 
the  first  cleansing.  For  light  reds  and  purples,  especially  for 
the  former,  a  low  temperature  is  necessary  to  success.  In 
styles  which  contain  much  acid,  as  also  in  those  which  have  a 
large  quantity  of  red  in  them  containing  crystals  of  tin,  the 
addition  of  chalk  to  the  cleansing  dolly  is  very  useful,  and  in 
fact  necessary.  The  cleansing  is  usually  divided  into  two  parts; 
the  open  passage  of  the  pieces  by  means  of  rollers  through  the 
"  dolly,"  and  the  fly  wincing  afterwards.  About  two  minutes 
is  all  the  time  necessary  in  the  first  liquor;  that  is  sufficient  to 
fix  the  loose  mordant,  and  to  loosen,  but  not  to  remove,  the 
thickening.  The  second  cleansing  requires  a  longer  time  and 
a  rougher  motion  of  the  pieces,  in  order  to  remove  all  the 
thickening  matter  from  the  cloth ;  it  may  take  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  minutes,  or  even  longer,  if  the  nature  of  the  thickening- 
is  opposed  to  easy  solution.  There  must  be  no  stinting  of 
time;  the  cloth  must  be  well  cleansed,  or  there  will  be  nothing 
but  confusion  in  the  dyeing.  The  pasty  thickenings  sometimes 
get  into  a  state  very  difficult  to  deal  with  ;  they  swell  out  but 
do  not  dissolve  from  the  fibre,  adhering  to  it  like  a  jelly  ;  rapid 
motion  is  necessary  to  detach  them,  or  some  mechanical  appli- 
ance. The  clear  substitute  liquors  do  not  act  so  effectively  in 
this  case  as  cow  dung,  its  insoluble  matter  acting  mechanically 
upon  the  cloth,  scours  it  by  attrition ;  probably  if  some  light 


CLEAEING.  157 

substances  like  sawdust  were  added  to  the  substitutes  their 
energy  would  be  increased.  It  is  not  usual  to  wash  the  pieces 
between  the  cleansings,  except  by  simply  passing  them  through 
clear  water ;  it  is  very  necessary  that  they  should  receive  a 
perfect  washing  after  the  last  cleansing — about  fifteen  minutes 
in  a  dashwheel,  or  three  to  six  passages  through  a  washing 
machine,  depending  upon  the  style  and  nature  of  the  thickening. 
I  have  tried  the  effect  of  a  brush  revolving  against  the  open 
piece  in  the  first  cleansing  to  help  in  detaching  the  paste  thick- 
ening ;  it  acted  very  well,  and  if  applied  near  the  end  of  the 
dolly  cannot  do  any  harm.  This  or  some  similar  mechanical 
appliance  may  be  beneficially  used  when  the  thickening  does 
not  come  off'  well ;  but  under  ordinary  circumstances  it  is  not 
necessary,  the  motion  of  the  pieces  in  the  beck,  and  a  good 
washing  with  plenty  of  water,  will  generally  suffice  to  remove 
all  adventitious  matter,  and  leave  the  cloth  clean  for  dyeing. 
(See  Cow  DUNG,  DUNG  SUBSTITUTES,  and  PHOSPHATES.) 

Clearing. — By  this  term  calico  printers  understand  the 
operations  of  obtaining  the  undyed  parts  of  their  work  of  a 
pure  clear  white.  In  all  kinds  of  dyeing  upon  mordanted  cloth, 
where  a  portion  of  the  fabric  is  left  unmordanted,  or  from 
which  the  mordant  has  been  removed  previous  to  dyeing  for 
the  purpose  of  leaving  some  parts  white,  the  process  of  clearing 
is  necessary  in  order  to  give  those  whites  their  highest  degree 
of  purity.  Thus  in  madder  dyeing,  in  logwood  dyeing,  or  in 
garancine  dyeing,  though  'the  coloring  matters  employed  are 
said  to  have  no  affinity  for  calico,  unless  this  is  mordanted,  yet 
it  is  always  found  that  the  unmordanted  parts  are  stained  and 
discolored  to  a  degree  which  would  much  injure  the  appearance 
of  the  print  if  finished  in  that  state.  It  is  necessary,  therefore, 
to  treat  the  cloth  in  such  a  manner  as  to  bleach  these  parts,  at 
the  same  time  having  due  regard  to  the  integrity  of  the  colored 
parts.  The  oldest  method  of  clearing  was  a  modification  of 
the  old  method  of  bleaching,  namely,  exposure  of  the  printed 
goods  to  the  action  of  the  air  and  moisture  upon  grass;  this 
was  done  at  night  to  avoid  the  injurious  influence  of  strong 
daylight  or  sunshine.  Although  this  is  spoken  of  as  an  obso- 
lete method,  it  is  yet  practised  where  there  is  convenience 
for  it. 

Bran  is  sparingly  used  for 'clearing  some  qualities  of  dyed 
goods,  as  logwood  blacks  and  garancine  reds ;  the  bran  is 
scalded,  mixed  with  water,  and  the  goods  passed  through  at 
about  140°  F. 

Cow  dung  has  been  used  in  cleaning  garancines,  but  its  em- 
ployment for  this  purpose  is  not  to  be  recommended. 

Chloride  of  lime  or  bleaching  powder  is  the  most  generally 


158  coccus  POLONICUS. 

used  clearing  agent;  it  is  applied  in  several  ways.  For  clear- 
ing madders,  the  goods  are  run  through  a  very  dilate  hot  solu- 
tion of  the  bleaching  powder,  until  the  dyer  or  clearer  con- 
siders the  whites  sufficiently  clear;  for  garancines,  the  same 
process  may  be  adopted,  but  experience  has  shown  that  the 
higher,  temperature  employed  in  garancine  dyeing  tinges  the 
whites  more  deeply  than  madder,  while  the  less  stability  of  the 
colors  produced  render  it  dangerous  to  let  the  pieces  run  long 
enough  to  clear  the  whites.  In  consequence,  two  other 
methods  of  clearing  garancines  are  adopted :  the  first  consists 
in  padding  the  piece  to  be  cleared  in  solution  of  bleaching 
powder,  standing  at  l£°  or  2°  Tw.:  the  padding  is  done  by  an 
engraved  roller,  and  so  arranged  that  only  a  small  quantity  of 
the  bleaching  liquor  is  transferred  to  the  piece,  the  piece  is 
then  passed  over  the  steam  chest  or  drums  and  either  washed 
off  or  finished  without  washing.  The  other  and  better  method 
consists  in  padding  the  pieces  in  a  bleaching  solution  not 
quite  so  strong  as  the  last,  and  then  passing  them  through  a 
steam  box  in  which  they  remain  two  or  three  minutes  exposed 
to  low  pressure  steam,  and  from  this  pass  through  three  or  four 
boxes  of  water  to  wash  them.  The  only  delicate  point  in  clear- 
ing is  to  hit  such  a  strength  of  clearing  liquor  as  shall  effectually 
clear  the  whites  without  acting  too  much  upon  the  colors.  In 
dark  work  there  is  a  considerable  margin,  because  the  heavy 
colors  do  not  show  a  little  punishment  by  excess  of  clearing, 
but  in  light  colors  the  point  is  not  easy  to  hit;  and,  in  fact,  it 
is  preferable  to  clear  them  in  the  beck,  where  they  can  be 
watched. 

It  appears  from  my  experiments  that  nearly  all  dyed  colors 
can  better  withstand  the  action  of  strong  clearing  solution  for 
a  short  time  than  of  weak  clearing  solution  for  a  longer  time, 
and  that,  in  consequence,  it  is  better  to  clear  quickly  with 
strong  liquors  than  slowly  with  weak  liquors.  In  madder  and 
garancine  styles,  where  the  dyeing  material  is  in  very  fine  pow- 
der, the  clearing  will- not  be  satisfactory  unless  preceded  by  a 
very  good  washing  to  expel  the  mechanically  enclosed  parti- 
cles of  spent  dyewood.  (For  the  use  of  soap  in  clearing,  see 
SOAP  and  MADDER.) 

COCCUS  PolpnicilS,  Polish  Berries  or  European  Cochineal — 
This  is  a  small  insect  very  similar  to  Kermes,  used  in  Southern 
Russia,  Turkey,  and  Armenia,  as  a  red  dye  stuff.  It  seems  to 
belong  to  the  same  kind  of  insect  as  cochineal,  and  before  the 
introduction  of  the  rich  American  cochineal  into  Europe,  it 
was  one  of  the  chief  dyeing  materials  for  producing  crimson 
colors  upon  silk  and  wool.  It  is  now  only  employed  locally 
in  remote  districts  of  the  tract  of  country  where  it  flourishes. 


COCHINEAL.  159 

Cocoa  Nut  Tree. — It  is  stated  that  the  whole  of  the  cocoa- 
nut  tree,  but  more  especially  the  husk  which  encloses  the  nut, 
and  the  foot  stalks  of  the  leaves,  may  be  used  as  a  dyeing  ma- 
terial. From  the  claims  made  in  a  patent,  bearing  date  March 
29,  1825,  it  would  appear  to  have  astringent  properties,  but  I 
am  not  aware  that  it  has  ever  been  practically  applied. 

Cochineal. — This  important  dyeing  material  consists  of  an 
insect,  feeding  on  a  species  of  cactus  called  Nopal  by  the  Mexi- 
cans. It  was  formerly  considered  to  be  a  berry,  and  even 
years  after  travellers  had  brought  home  true  accounts  of  the 
real  nature  and  origin  of  cochineal,  European  observers  of 
some  eminence  persisted  in  the  belief  of  its  vegetable  nature, 
not  being  able  to  detect  the  usual  external  marks  of  an  insedt. 
It  is,  however,  an  insect  having  six  legs,  no  wings,  and  a  very 
small  head ;  the  legs  are  disproportionately  small  when  com- 
pared with  the  body  of  the  insect ;  they,  in  fact,  appear  only 
to  be  used  by  the  insect  in  its  earliest  state,  for  after  it  has  set- 
tled upon  the  branch  of  a  nopal  it  employs  them  no  more,  and 
they  are  not  developed  like  the  rest  of  the  body ;  this  refers  to 
the  female  insect,  the  male  insects  having  better  defined  limbs, 
but  there  is  only  one  male  to  about  two  hundred  females.  The 
females  remain  fixed  to  the  branch  like  berries,  feeding  upon 
the  sap  until  they  are  brushed  off  and  killed.  The  method  of 
killing  the  insect  practised  by  the  extensive  cultivators  consists 
in  putting  a  basket  full  of  them  into  a  hot  stove;  the  smaller 
cultivators  kill  them  by  immersing  the  baskets  in  hot  water. 
Cochineal  insects  killed  by  the  latter  process  are  said  to  be 
mostly  burst  open  and  acquire  a  reddish  or  foxy  appearance, 
and  to  be  somewhat  inferior,  while  those  killed  by  the  stoving 
process  are  gray  and  most  esteemed. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  cochineal,  known  commercially  as 
silver  and  black.  The  silver  cochineal  is  said  to  be  the  im- 
pregnated female  just  before  laying  eggs,  while  the  black 
cochineal  is  the  female  after  laying  and  hatching  the  eggs. 
The  black  cochineal  appears  to  be  the  most  valuable,  but  the 
bulk  of  that  imported  is  the  silver,  the  black  only  being  what 
has  been  kept  for  breeding  purposes.  Formerly  there  was 
a  kind  of  cochineal  called  "  English  black  cochineal,"  which 
was  the  Mexican  silver  grain,  dyed  by  immersion  in  decoction 
of  cochineal. 

The  value  of  cochineal  can  be  very  closely  ascertained  by 
the  simple  inspection  of  a  practised  observer  ;  being  one  of  the 
most  expensive  dye  drugs,  there  are  considerable  inducements 
to  fraud,  and  some  kinds  of  cochineal  are  actually  known  in 
the  market  as  "  doctored  cochineal."  The  usual  adulteration 
consists  in  adding  some  powdery  matter  to  the  cochineal,  to 


160  COCHINEAL. 

increase  its  weight.  French  chalk,  white  lead,  and  ground  talc 
are  said  to  be  chiefly  used,  and  as  much  as  ten  per  cent,  of  this 
mineral  matter  may  be  added  without  the  appearance  of  the 
cochineal  attracting  the  attention  of  an  inexpert  observer.  A 
fine  metallic  powder  is  also  used  to  weight  cochineal,  and  it  is 
said  that  as  much  as  30  per  cent,  of  weight  can  be  thus  added 
to  it.  These  adulterations  are  easily  detected  upon  analysis, 
for  by  calcining  the  mixture  at  a  red  heat,  the  true  matter  of 
the  cochineal  is  burned  away,  leaving  the  added  mineral  adul- 
teration, the  quantity  and  nature  of  which  can  be  then  ascer- 
tained. Practical  methods  of  testing  cochineal  consist  in  dyeing 
up  silk  and  woollen  in  comparison  with  a  known  good  quality, 
also  in  ascertaining  how  much  chlorine  is  required  to  bleach 
the  decoction  from  a  known  weight  of  the  insects,  and  lastly 
by  comparing  the  intensity  of  a  colored  solution  obtained  by 
treating  a  certain  weight  of  cochineal  with  strong  ammonia. 
The  dyeing  test  is  the  only  really  trustworthy  test,  and  when 
applied  with  due  care  gives  very  exact  results. 

Cochineal  is  a  very  rich  coloring  substance,  yielding  about 
half  its  weight  of  real  coloring  matter.  This  coloring  matter 
is  very  soluble,  and  easily  extracted  from  the  insect  by  boiling 
it  in  water.  The  extract  contains,  besides  pure  color,  a  quan- 
tity of  animal  matter,  and  it  is  liable  to  putrefy  in  the  concen- 
trated state  when  kept  in  warm  places.  It  acquires  a  very 
disagreeable  smell,  but  even  then  does  not  appear  to  be  much 
injured  in  its  powers  of  dyeing  or  yielding  colors  in  printing, 
though  it  would  not  be  safe  to  allow  this  putrefaction  to  con- 
tinue to  any  considerable  degree.  The  extract  of  cochineal 
may  be  boiled  down  to  a  syrupy  consistence,  but  for  general 
purposes  it  is  not  used  stronger  than  about  9°  Tw.,  and  is  re- 
duced from  that  for  most  shades.  The  pure  coloring  matter 
of  cochineal  has  received  the  name  of  carmine  ;  it  is  red,  solu- 
ble in  alcohol  and  water,  and  besides  being  itself  of  a  magnifi- 
cent color,  readily  yields  all  those  shades  which  the  cochineal 
itself  does  to  mordanted  cloth. 

The  colors  which  are  derived  from  cochineal  are  red,  and  its 
modifications  of  pink,  scarlet,  and  crimson.  The  alumina  mor- 
dants give  the  crimson  colors ;  they  are  very  fine,  deep,  and 
solid  shades,  but  have  not  any  great  brilliancy  to  distinguish 
them.  The  scarlet  is  obtained  by  means  of  a  tin  mordant,  and 
no  color  can  compare  with  a  good  cochineal  scarlet  for  bril- 
liancy, fastness,  and  fire.  The  pink  is  obtained  from  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  cochineal  color,  obtained  by  boiling  the  insect 
with  ammonia  and  water  instead  of  water  alone.  Alumina  is 
the  proper  mordant  for  it.  It  is  a  difficult  color  to  obtain  in 
its  best  state,  and  as  a  pink  has  not  so  much  beauty  as  safflower 


COCHINEAL   COLORS.  161 

pink,  but  is  much  more  stable.  Other  shades  besides  these 
can  be  obtained  from  cochineal,  but  they  are  seldom  worked, 
being  expensive  and  capable  of  close  imitation  by  cheaper  col- 
oring matters.  The  greatest  affinity  of  cochineal  is  for  wool ; 
with  it  it  yields  its  deepest,  brightest  and  fastest  colors.  It  is 
applicable  on  silk  and  cotton,  but  the  same  depth  of  shade 
cannot  be  obtained.  The  greatest  consumption  of  cochineal  is 
in  dyeing  woollen  cloth  scarlet,  but  large  quantities  are  also 
used  in  calico  and  delaine  printing,  for  obtaining  reds  of  the 
scarlet  nature,  and  also  pinks  and  crimsons. 

Cochineal  Colors.  Scarlet  on  Wool. — The  principal  color 
for  which  cochineal  is  employed  in  dyeing  is  that  of  scarlet 
upon  wool.  The  process  consists  in  first  mordanting  the  woollen 
cloth  in  solution  of  tin,  and  then  dyeing  in  the  cochineal,  with 
a  further  addition  of  tin  solution.  The  dyers  generally  prepare 
their  own  solution  of  tin;  and  most  dyers  consider  that  their 
own  method  has  some  advantages  over  that  of  others,  and 
guard  their  processes  as  secret.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
very  much  depends  upon  the  tin  solution  ;  but,  at  the  same  time, 
it  is  certain  that  almost  any  tin  solution  may  be  made  to  yield 
good  colors.  The  explanation  of  many  differences  among 
dyers  upon  this  matter  would  be  found  to  consist  in  points  of 
practical  detail :  for  example,  one  solution  of  tin  yields  the 
metal  quickly  at  a  low  temperature;  another  yields  it  but 
slowly  or  not  at  all  at  a  low  temperature,  but  well  enough  at 
the  boil.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  in  the  case  of  such  differences 
of  composition,  differences  of  subsequent  treatment  are  essen- 
tial. The  solution  in  use  is  generally  a  mixture  of  per  and 
protochloride  of  tin,  prepared  by  dissolving  the  metal  in  nitric 
acid  mixed  with  common  salt  or  muriate  of  ammonia.  It 
appears  from  practical  authorities  that  the  solution  is  best  when 
made  slowly,  and  when  the  solution  of  the  tin  is  not  accom- 
panied by  evolution  of  gas,  or  with  but  little  evolution;  such 
a  state  of  affairs  indicates  the  formation  of  ammonia  in  the 
solution,  and  seems  to  point  to  the  production  of  some  double 
salt  of  tin.  The  proportions  used  in  one  case  are 

10  Ibs.  nitric  acid  (aqua  fortis), 
5  Ibs.  water,' 

10  to  20  oz.  common  salt, 
20  oz.  feathered  tin. 

The  tin  is  added  bit  by  bit,  waiting  for  one  portion  to  dissolve 
before  another  is  added,  until  the  whole  is  dissolved.  Whatever 
the  composition  of  the  tin  solution  may  be,  and  a  variety  of 
receipts  will  be  found  under  the  article  TIN,  the  woollen  cloth, 
well  wetted,  is  boiled  with  it.  In  the  above  tin  solution  there 


162  COCHINEAL   COLORS. 

will  be  rather  more  than  an  ounce  of  the  metal  in  each  pound 
of  the  liquid;  and  for  a  quantity  of  woollen  cloth  weighing 
100  Ibs.,  and  intended  to  be  dyed  a  full  scarlet,  about  20  Ibs.  of 
the  composition  are  taken  and  divided  into  two  portions  of  13 
and  7  Ibs.  respectively.  The  cloth  is  boiled  in  water,  to  which 
the  larger  portion  has  been  added,  along  with  8  Ibs.  of  crude 
tartar ;  a  little  cochineal,  about  6  oz.,  is  also  added  to  tint  the 
cloth  and  serves  to  indicate  the  progress  of  the  mordanting. 
The  whole  is  kept  at  the  boil  for  about  two  hours,  and  'then 
winced  in  clean  water;  it  is  next  entered  into  the  dyeing  ves- 
sel, either  copper  or  tin,  or  part  tin  and  part  copper,  with  from 
five  to  six  pounds  of  finely  ground  cochineal,  and  the  remainder 
of  the  tin  solution;  the  whole  kept  at  the  boil  for  about  half 
an  hour,  or  until  the  cochineal  is  spent  and  the  dye  liquor 
nearly  colorless.  In  some  cases  tartar  is  used  in  the  dyeing  as 
well  as  in  the  mordanting,  its  effect  being  to  give  a  more  fiery 
or  orange  scarlet. 

Bancroft  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  draw  attention  to  the 
fact  that  scarlet  differed  from  crimson  by  the  addition  of  a  yel- 
low part  derived  from  some  source;  but  where  cochineal  alone 
is  used  as  the  coloring  matter  it  is  evident  that  the  yellow  could 
only  be  derived  from  the  change  of  its  red  coloring  matter. 
This  change  was  considered  at  that  time  as  being  accomplished 
by  means  of  the  tartar  used  in  mordanting  and  dyeing,  and 
the  more  yellow  or  fiery  the  scarlet  was  desired  the  more 
tartar  was  employed.  I  consider  that  it  was  the  nitrous  acid 
or  hyponitric  acid  contained  in  the  tin  solution  which  produced 
this  effect ;  but  however  produced,  it  was  evident  that  red  color 
was  destroyed,  and  Bancroft  had  the  idea  of  economizing  cochi- 
neal by  first  dyeing  a  yellow  basis  upon  the  woollen  cloth.  He 
made  many  experiments  with  quercitron  bark,  but  the  results 
do  not  appear  to  have  pleased  the  dyers,  the  shades  being  defi- 
cient in  brilliancy,  since  quercitron  yellow  does  not  withstand 
very  well  the  strongly  acid  solutions  used  in  dyeing  scarlet. 
At  this  day  the  yellow  colors  derived  from  fustic  and  turmeric 
are  employed  to  economize  cochineal  in  obtaining  the  yellower 
kind  of  scarlets,  but  the  best  scarlets  are  still  obtained  from 
cochineal  alone  as  coloring  matter,  and  these  alone  resist  wear 
and  exposure,  and  are  not  stained  by  liquids  or  dirt  as  the 
compound  scarlets  are. 

The  quality  of  the  water  has  a  great  influence  in  scarlet 
dyeing ;  it  should  be  as  pure  as  can  be  possibly  obtained  :  all 
earthy  matters  contained  in  it  either  tend  to  dull  the  color  or 
to  bring  it  towards  the  rose  or  crimson  shade,  which  is  fatal  to 
a  bright  scarlet.  Additions  are  frequently  made  to  the  water 
with  a  view  of  correcting  impurities.  Sometimes  bran,  flour, 


COCHINEAL   COLORS.  163 

or  starch  are  added  ;  and  in  France  it  is  customary  to  boil  some 
coarse  wool  in  the  solution  of  tin  and  tartar  before  entering 
the  cloth  to  be  dyed;  this  is  supposed  to  attract  the  dreaded 
impurities  and  so  remove  them  from  the  dye-bath.  To  obtain 
the  very  finest  shade  of  scarlet  requires  great  experience  and 
a  multitude  of  precautions,  which  can  only  be  learned  by  assi- 
duous attention  to  practical  operations. 

One  ounce  of  cochineal  is  generally  reckoned  as  sufficient  for 
one  pound  of  wool :  inferior  colors  are  obtained  by  diminishing 
the  quantity. 

The  cochineal  crimson  on  wool  is  obtained  by  mordanting 
in  alum,  tin,  and  tartar,  and  dyeing  in  cochineal,  mixed  with 
ammoniacal  cochineal.  It  is  not  much  in  request. 

Crimson  vpon  Kilk. — This  color  is  obtained  by  working  the 
silk  in  a  warm,  weak  bichloride  of  tin  for  a  sufficient  length  of 
time,  then  dyeing  in  cochineal  and  water. 

Cochineal  Pink  on  Silk. — This  color  is  obtained  by  the  use  of 
the  prepared  or  ammoniacal  solution  of  cochineal  (the  process 
of  which  is  given  further  on)  upon  a  tin  mordant.  By  simply 
diminishing  the  quantity  of  cochineal  used  in  dyeing  crimson 
a  pink  can  be  obtained,  but  not  of  a  good  shade.  The  cochineal 
pink  is  not  so  much  in  vogue  as  that  from  safflower.  A  scarlet 
is  obtained  upon  silk  by  first  giving  it  a  yellow  or  orange 
ground  with  anotta,  and  then  passing  it  through  the  process  for 
crimson. 

The  cochineal  dyed  styles  upon  calico  or  cotton  goods  are 
quite  unimportant.  If  calico,  printed  with  the  usual  mordants 
for  madder,  be  dyed  in  cochineal,  it  will  be  found  that  the  dark 
red  takes  a  violet-hued  crimson,  the  light  reds  dye  up  bluish- 
pinks,  the  light  iron  mordants  dye  up  shades  of  violet  gray, 
and  the  strong  iron  mordants  dye  up  a  grayish-black.  There 
is  a  style  of  work  occasionally  produced  from  cochineal  by 
printing  a  red  liquor  mordant,  dunging  or  fixing  as  usual,  and 
dyeing  in  cochineal,  or  a  mixture  of  cochineal  and  gall-nuts. 
On  account  of  some  peculiar  action  which  spent  cochineal 
liquor  has  upon  alumina  mordants,  injuring  the  colors  as  if  it 
were  acid,  it  is  found  desirable  to  divide  the  dyeing  into  two 
portions,  so  as  not  to  have  the  liquor  too  concentrated. 

Cochineal  Colors  in  Printing. — For  the  application  of  cochineal 
in  printing,  the  coloring  matter  may  be  applied  in  three  states  : 
The  first  being  the  insect,  ground  as  fine  as  possible,  and 
simply  mixed  up  with  the  thickening  and  salts  employed. 
This  method  may  probably  insure  the  extraction  of  the  largest 
amount  of  coloring  matter,  but  it  is  evidently  unfitted  for  any 
kind  of  good  printing.  The  second,  and  most  usual  condition, 
is  a  solution  of  cochineal,  or  cochineal  liquor,  made  by  boiling 


1 64  COCHINEAL .  COLOES. 

the  insect  with  water  until  exhausted  as  much  as  possible  of 
coloring  matter,  and  then  concentrating  the  solutions  to  a 
strength  of  10°  or  12°  of  the  hydrometer.  The  third  state  of 
cochineal  is  where  the  solution  of  coloring  matter  is  made  by 
means  of  ammonia,  and  the  preparation  is  frequently  spoken 
of  as  ammoniacal  cochineal,  and  cochineal  in  cake  or  paste. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  methods  followed  in  obtaining 
this  preparation,  which  is,  without  doubt,  the  best  form  in 
which  cochineal  can  be  employed  for  crimson  and  pink  colors 
upon  woollen  and  delaine: — 

Ammoniacal  Cochineal. — Persoz  gives  as  follows  for  the  dry 
preparation: — 

10  Ibs.  ground  cochineal 
80  Ibs.  ammonia, 
4  Ibs.  gelatinous  alumina. 

The  cochineal  is  placed  in  a  stoppered  bottle  or  carboy,  and 
mixed  well  with  the  ammonia;  the  whole  is  left  closely  corked 
for  a  month,  then  mixed  with  the  alumina,  prepared,  I  presume, 
by  precipitating  alum  with  crystals  of  soda,  put  into  a  tinned 
copper  and  kept  hot  until  the  ammonia  is  dissipated  ;  when  the 
paste  has  acquired  a  sufficient  consistence  it  is  spread  upon  a 
cloth,  and  the  drying  completed  in  a  stove.  A  pasty  ammo- 
niacal cochineal  is  prepared  by  digesting  equal  weights  of 
ground  cochineal  and  ammonia  for  a  week,  and  dissipating  the 
ammonia  by  evaporation. 

In  England  the  compound  is  mostly  prepared  by  putting  the 
unground  cochineal  into  a  close  tin  or  tinned  copper  boiler, 
mixing  with  the  ammonia,  and  keeping  at  the  boiling  point  for 
eight  or  ten  hours;  straining  and  keeping  the  liquor  hot  in  an 
open  vessel  until  the  ammonia  is  dissipated.  If  steam,  at  eight 
or  ten  pounds  pressure,  can  be  used  in  the  operation  it  appears 
advantageous. 

Dumas  gives  directions  as  follows:  15  Ibs.  of  ground  cochi- 
neal are  mixed  with  17J  Ibs.  of  ammonia  in  a  close  vessel,  and 
left  to  digest  cold  for  six  or  eight  days,  then  heated  gently  for 
about  eleven  hours,  with  constant  stirring,  until  the  smell  of 
ammonia  has  disappeared:  this  leaves  about  27  or  28  Ibs.  For 
dark  colors  this  answers,  he  says,  very  well,  but  for  light  and 
delicate  shades,  a  dry  cochineal  lake  is  prepared  by  mixing  the 
gelatinous  alumina  obtained  from  1J  Ib.  of  alum  wiih  the  paste 
produced  as  above,  and  washing  the  lake  several  times  upon  a 
filter,  then  drying  until  the  product  weighs  only  16  or  17  Ibs. 

I  am  of  opinion  that  the  method  of  simply  keeping  the 
ammonia  and  cochineal  together  in  a  heated  state  for  some 
hours,  gives  the  best  and  most  economical  preparation.  It  is 


COCHINEAL   COLORS.  165 

true  that  the  whole  of  the  coloring  matter  is  not  exhausted,  but 
the  residuum  may  be  extracted  and  used  for  darker  and  scarlet 
shades. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  ammonia  is  driven  away  before 
the  solution  is  used  in  color  mixing,  therefore  any  action  it  has 
had  upon  the  cochineal  must  have  taken  place  during  the 
steeping,  and  remained  permanent ;  in  fact,  the  investigations 
of  chemists  seem  to  prove  that  the  ammonia,  or  some  of  its 
elements,  have  entered  into  intimate  combination  with  the 
coloring  matter  of  the  cochineal,  and  then  modified  its  properties. 
The  following  receipts  for  printing,  in  which  cochineal,  is 
the  only  or  predominating  coloring  matter,  are  selected  as 
characteristic  specimens  from  a  vast  number  in  the  author's 
possession : — 

Deep  Scarlet  on  Silk  or  Wool. 

S\  gallons  cochineal  liquor,  containing 

1  i  Ib.  cochineal  per  gallon, 

36  oz.  starch  ;  boil,  and  add 

J  pint  mixed  berry  and  fustic  liquor  at  15°,       t 

1  Ib.  binoxalate  of  potash, 

3  oz.  crystals  of  tin, 

12  oz.  bichloride  of  tin  at  100°. 

The  berry  and  fustic  liquor  in  this  receipt,  giving  a  portion 
of  yellow,  make  the  shade  more  lively,  turning  it  towards  a 
flame  color ;  the  binoxalate  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the 
superoxalate  of  potash  is  useful  as  a  foil  upon  which  the  excess 
of  acid  in  the  tin  solution  may  spend  itself,  liberating  oxalic 
acid,  the  presence  of  which  is  favorable  in  cochineal  colors. 

Crimson  or  Mallows  red.     Silk  and  Cha  Us. 

1  Ib.  ammoniacal  cochineal,  dry, 

2  quarts  water,  boiled  and  strained, 
1  Ib.  gum,  in  powder, 

1  oz.  alum, 

•    1  oz.  acetate  of  lead, 
£  oz.  Tartaric  acid, 

2  oz.  oxymiariate  of  tin. 

This  color  is  for  block;  if  required  for  machine  the  thicken- 
ing must  be  altered.  I  have  not  tried  this  receipt,  but  I  think 
the  amount  of  alum  is  decidedly  too  small. 


166  COCHINEAL   COLORS. 

Blotch  Red  for  Delaine. 

6  gallons  cochineal  liquor,  at  6°, 

1  gallon  berry  liquor,  at  10°, 

10  Ibs.  starch ;  boil  and  add 

2J  Ibs.  oxalic  acid, 

2£  Ibs.  crystals  of  tin. 

A  strong  red  for  objects  may  be  made  exactly  as  above,  but 
the  cochineal  liquor  must  be  stronger,  and  may  go  as  high  as 
12°  with  advantage,  especially  upon  the  poorer  qualities  of 
delaine. 

Another  Red  for  Delaines. 

In  this  receipt  the  cochineal  liquor  is  prepared  in  a  peculiar 
manner,  caustic  potash  being  used  with  a  view  to  extract  the 
coloring  matter.  It  has  yielded  good  colors  in  my  hands,  but 
I  do  not  think  there  is  much  advantage  in  using  potash  for 
extracting  the  coloring  matter. 

30  Ibs.  cochineal, 
•  25  gallons  water, 

1  gallon  caustic  potash,  at  9°, 

leave  in  contact  twelve  hours ;  boil,  strain,  and  treat  the  residue 
twice  over  with  water  and  potash,  then  boil  the  whole  down  to 
fifteen  gallons.  The  liquor  stands  at  about  8°,  and  is  some- 
what pulpy  or  gelatinous. 

1  gallon  of  above  liquor, 

\\  Ib.  starch, 

6  oz.  crystals  of  tin;  when  cold,  add, 

6  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

J  pint,  of  orange  color.    (See  ORANGE.) 

The  above  receipts  are  sufficiently  illustrative  of  the  scarlet 
red  shades  from  cochineal.  To  obtain  the  crimson  and  pink 
shades  the  ammoniacal  cochineal  is  employed,  and  it  will  be 
noticed  that,  while  tin  is  the  mordant  for  the  scarlet  reds  alu- 
mina is  the  mordant  for  the  crimson  and  pink  shades.  The 
fact  that  tin  mordants  gave  a  shade  more  inclining  to  the  orange, 
and  alum  mordants  one  inclining  to  the  purple,  has  been  long 
known,  but  the  modification  of  the  hue  by  the  action  of  ammo- 
nia is  of  comparatively  recent  discovery.  Although  alum  and 
the  ammoniacal  cochineal  usually  go  together,  yet  some  receipts 
will  be  found  in  which  tin  salts  are  used  in  conjunction  with 
this  preparation  of  cochineal;  the  result  is  then  a  dark  red, 
which  holds  a  position  intermediate  between  the  scarlet  and 
the  crimson.  For  this  shade  of  red,  seldom  used  in  the  designs 
of  this  country,  no  yellow  part  is  admissible,  it  is  consequently 


COCHINEAL   COLOES.  167 

a  somewhat  dull  though  a  rich  and  solid  color.  The  following 
receipt  illustrates  one  of  these  colors: — 

Amaranth  Red  for  Delaine. 

7J  Ibs.  of  dry  arnmoniacal  cochineal, 

2  gallons  hot  water, 

1  pint  acetic  acid, 

£  Ib.  alum, 

9  Ibs.  gum ;  dissolve,  and  add 

1  pint  white  muriatipjicid, . . - 

2  oz.  bichloride  of  tin,  at  100°. 

There  is  a  free  amount  of  acid  employed  in  this  color,  partly 
for  the  purpose  of  neutralizing  any  ammonia  left  in  the  cochi- 
neal, partly  to  dissolve  the  alumina  used  in  preparing  the 
cochineal,  and  partly  to  facilitate  the  fixing  of  the  color  on  the 
wool.  The  quantity  of  acid  which  can  be  advantageously  used, 
depends  upon  the  alkalinity  of  the  ammoniacal  cochineal.  If 
the  color  be  not  distinctly  acid  the  wool  does  not  take  the 
color ;  if  it  be  excessively  acid  the  cotton  does  not  take  color ; 
and,  in  either  case,  "threadiness"  ensues.  If  the  utmost 
amount  of  acid  be  employed  that  can  be  safely  used,  the  effect 
is  to  produce  a  simple  red ;  but,  as  the  object  is  usually  to 
obtain  a  crimson  on  the  purplish  side,  the  color  is  worked  as 
neutral  as  possible,  and  generally  with  a  faint  excess  of  ammonia 

Crimson  for  Delaine. 
10  Ibs.  cochineal, 
20  Ibs.  strong  ammonia ;  steeped  for  24  hours,  then  boiled 

and  strained, 
1  Ib.  cream  of  tartar, 

the  whole  kept  hot  until  the  smell  of  ammonia  is  only  faint; 
thickened  with  powdered  gum  Senegal,  and  while  warm  a  half 
pound  of  alum  per  gallon  of  color  is  dissolved  in.  Just  before 
the  color  is  going  to  be  worked,  it  is  considered  advisable  to 
add  a  small  quantity  of  ammonia  to  it,  until  it  acquires  the 
purplish  shade  which  indicates  a  slight  excess.  If,  however, 
any  considerable  excess  of  ammonia  is  present,  tartaric  acid 
or  cream  of  tartar  must  be  added. 

Pink  colors  are  obtained  by  reducing  crimson  or  amaranth 
with  gum  water ;  or  by  direct  preparation  from  a  weaker  solu- 
tion of  ammoniacal  cochineal. 

There  are  peculiar  difficulties  in  obtaining  the  best  crimsons 
and  pinks  on  wool  and  delaine,  which  are  only  to  be  mastered 
by  a  very  close  attention  to  the  colors.  It  is  considered  by 
some  printers  that  the  contact  of  copper  is  prejudicial  to  this 
class  of  colors,  and  they  are  particular  to  avoid  copper  vessels, 


168  COLOKS. 

and  have  the  color  worked  out  of  wooden  boxes.  It  is  true 
ammonia  acts  upon  copper,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  copper  is  inju- 
rious to  the  color,  and  certainly  the  finished  color  should  not 
contain  any  such  excess  of  ammonia  as  would  be  likely  to  act 
rapidly  upon  metallic  copper. 

African  Cochineal. — A  substance  so  called  is  imported  in 
small  quantities  from  Algeria  ;  it  yields  red  colors  with  alumina 
mordants,  but  possesses  scarcely  any  other  of  the  properties  of 
the  cochineal  insect.  It  is  not  employed  in  Europe. 

Colors, — Under  this  head  I  bring  together  several  items  of 
a  general  character,  bearing  upon  all  colors  as  such. 

Nature  of  Color. — At  first  sight  we  conclude  that  colors  are 
properties  of  bodies  of  the  same  nature  as  weight,  size,  hard- 
ness, etc. ;  but  a  consideration  of  even  ordinary  phenomena 
would  lead  to  doubt  upon  this  point.  We  find  colors  of  natu- 
ral objects  varying  at  different  times,  and  even  showing  different 
shades  according  as  we  look  at  them  from  one  or  another  point 
of  view.  In  soap  bubbles,  and  thin  films  of  tar  upon  water, 
we  perceive  the  most  beautiful  colors,  although  certain  that 
there  is  no  coloring  matter  in  them.  In  common  spectacles 
and  telescopes  we  find  that  the  glasses  have  a  tendency  to  give 
a  colored  fringe,  like  a  rainbow,  to  objects  seen  through  them  ; 
fine  spray  of  water,  as  in  a  waterfall,  gives  a  rainbow  exactly 
like  the  great  natural  rainbow,  with  all  its  gorgeous  colors; 
and  in  numerous  other  cases  we  find  that  color  must  be  traced 
directly  to  some  particular  action  of  light. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  caused  a  ray  of  sunlight  to  pass  through  a 
three-corned  glass  prism  in  such  a  way  that  the  ray  was  twice 
bent  from  its  direct  path  before  it  emerged  into  the  air  again. 
Instead  of  corning  out  as  it  entered  the  glass,  this  great  philoso- 
pher found  the  light  entirely  changed;  the  one  united  ray  of 
natural  light  was  broken  up  into  several  rays  of  colored  light, 
which  diverged  from  the  prism  like  a  vertical  fan,  in  the 
following  order : — 


Higher  or  more  refrangible  rays. 

Violet. 

Indigo. 

Blue. 

Green. 

Yellow. 

Orange. 

Eed. 
Lower  and  less  refrangible  rays. 


COLORS.  169 

From  this  experiment,  and  others,  Newton  came  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  pure  light  of  heaven  was  not  a  simple  body  but 
actually  a  compound  of  the  seven  colors  given  above,  and  that 
ordinary  eyes  were  not  conscious  of  this  fact,  because  the  colors 
were  so  balanced  in  the  mixture  that  their  individuality  was 
lost  in  producing  the  general  effect.  Many  experiments  might 
be  cited  to  prove  the  reasonableness  of  this  opinion,  but  they 
do  not  properly  come  within  the  scope  of  this  work,  and  must 
be  sought  for  in  the  elementary  treatises  on  natural  philosophy. 
In  the  meantime  the  reader  may  accept  this  as  a  fact,  and  then 
the  theory  of  colors  will  be  comprehensible. 

A  body  is  said  to  be  white  when  it  receives  the  white  rays 
of  light  and  reflects  them  with  moderate  strength,  and  unaltered 
as  to  quality,  to  the  eye  of  the  observer.  Thus,  a  sheet  of  white 
paper  or  white  calico  possesses  moderate  reflecting  power,  and 
sends  off  the  light  which  falls  from  it  without  decomposing  it, 
and  produces  the  effect  of  whiteness,  or  distinct  vision,  with 
absence  of  color. 

A  body  is  said  to  be  black  when  it  absorbs  and  quenches  all 
the  rays  of  white  light  falling  upon  it.  There  is  no  substance, 
at  least  we  do  not  know  any  substance,  which  has  this  perfect 
blackness;  for  the  consequence  of  a  perfect  absorption  of  light 
would  be  the  invisibility  of  the  object,  and  its  form  could  only 
be  perceived  by  its  intercepting  the  reflected  rays  from  conti- 
guous bodies.  In  a  dim  light  there  are,  however,  many  sub- 
stances so  black  as  to  be  quite  invisible  against  a  dark  ground. 

Black  and  white,  not  being  produced  by  the  decomposition 
or  splitting  up  of  light,  are,  therefore,  commonly  said  not  to  be 
colors ;  however,  for  the  printer  and  dyer,  they  are  the  most 
important  colors,  and  have  as  much  right  to  the  name  as  red 
or  blue. 

Colors  proper  may  be  conceived  to  be  actually  due  to  light, 
upon  the  following  suppositions:  First,  that  it  is  possible  to 
separate  a  portion  of  the  seven  colored  rays  from  the  rest; 
secondly,  that  it  is  possible  to  so  prepare  a  surface  that  one 
portion  of  the  rays  shall  be  quenched  or  destroyed,  and  the 
others  left  to  reflect  or  shine  out ;  and  thirdly,  that  the  unde- 
stroyed  rays  will  shine  or  reflect  with  their  own  color  or 
colors. 

Suppose  a  surface  of  wood,  calico,  or  silk,  so  prepared  that 
all  the  colored  rays,  except  the  red,  are  absorbed  or  quenched 
by  it,  it  will  then  appear  to  the  eye  just  as  if  no  light  but  red 
light  illuminated  it,  that  is,  it  will  be  red;  again,  suppose  the 
surface  to  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  absorb  all  the  colored  rays 
except  blue,  then  the  color  of  the  surface  will  be  blue.  The 
surface  may  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  will  absorb  five  of  the 
12 


170  COLORS. 

colored  rays  and  reflect  two,  then  the  color  of  the  body  will  be 
that  produced  by  the  mixture  of  the  rays  so  reflected ;  in  like 
manner  four  rays  may  be  reflected  and  three  absorbed,  or  even 
six  rays  reflected  and  only  one  absorbed,  thus  producing  all 
the  mixed  and  compound  shades. 

If  this  theory  be  correct,  all  the  operations  of  dyeing  and 
printing  are  merely  directed  to  deposit  such  substances  on  the 
fibre  as  shall  possess  the  properties  of  decomposing  the  light 
falling  on  the  fibre,  or,  rather,  of  intercepting  it,  and  causing 
one  portion  to  be  quenched  and  another  to  be  reflected. 

The  natural  coloring  matters,  such  as  indigo,  cochineal,  anot- 
ta,  etc.,  are  themselves  capable  of  so  decomposing  light,  and 
when  deposited  upon  cloth,  even  in  very  thin  layers,  produce 
the  effect  of  coloring  the  cloth,  so  called;  in  fact,  intercepting, 
more  or  less,  the  proper  reflection  of  the  cloth,  and  substituting 
their  own.  This  theoretical  view,  which  seems  something 
superfluous  with  the  ordinary  vegetable  dyeing  matters  (which 
are  themselves  erroneously  looked  upon  as  not  only  colored 
but  coloring  substances),  may  be  more  acceptable  as  explaining 
the  production  of  strong  and  well-defined  shades  from  sub- 
stances in  themselves  nearly,  or  altogether  colorless.  Such 
cases  are  Prussian  blue  from  iron  and  yellow  prussiate ;  chrome 
orange  from  chrome  yellow  by  means  of  lime  water;  the  scar- 
let iodide  of  mercury  from  bichloride  of  mercury  and  iodide  of 
potassium;  and  numerous  .other  cases  familiar  to  chemists  and 
colorists.  It  is  true,  that  a  change  of  color,  or  production  of 
color,  is  accompanied  by  a  change  of  chemical  composition  in 
the  majority  of  cases  knjwn;  but,  there  are  well-known 
instances  of  change  of  color  without  change  of  composition, 
and  of  the  same  chemical  body  having  several  different  colors. 

Upon  metals,  bone,  glass,  and  other  surfaces,  the  mere  ruling 
or  impressing  of  very  fine  lines  close  together  gives  the  surface 
the  property  of  reflecting  colored  light;  and  this  is  actually  a 
regular  and  well-understood  method  of  obtaining  colored 
effects,  as  in  Barton's  buttons,  Nobert's  bands,  and  De  La  Hue's 
prismatic  films. 

Names  of  Colors. — One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  which  a 
writer  upon  colors  experiences  resides  in  the  fact,  that  there  is 
no  generally  accepted  and  well-defined  language  in  which  he 
can  express  or  indicate  the  shades  of  color  he  may  be  treating 
of.  A  practised  eye  can  distinguish  say  ten  thousand  shades 
of  color;  but  it  is  a  question  whether  there  are  fifty  names  of 
colors  which  would  convey  the  same  idea  of  shade  to  any  ten 
colorists  in  the  world;  the  consequent  hindrance  to  the  com- 
munication of  knowledge  can  be  easily  conceived.  The  natural 
and  sensible  plan  of  comparing  a  color  to  some  common  sub- 


COLORS.  171 

stance,  flower,  plant,  animal,  or  mineral,  of  similar  shade,  has 
been  of  great  service,  and,  with  a  few  exceptions,  constitutes 
our  nomenclature  up  to  this  date.  Of  the  seven  prismatic 
colors  of  Newton,  the  violet,  indigo,  and  orange  are  named  from 
the  vegetable  world ;  the  other  four  names  require  some  ety- 
mological research  to  find  their  originals,  if  even  they  can  be 
found;  for,  being  simple  colors,  their  names  must  be  of  great 
antiquity.  Of  the  other  more  common  colors,  pink,  lilac,  peach, 
mallow,  chestnut,  cherry,  etc.,  are  from  fruits  and  flowers;  flesh, 
fawn,  salmon,  luff,  chamois,  etc.,  are  from  animals;  stone,  amber, 
emerald,  aventurwe,  etc.,  are  from  minerals.  These,  the  least 
exceptionable  names  of  colors,  are  far  from  being  satisfactory  ; 
they  acquire  a  conventional  meaning  in  certain  countries  and 
districts  which  is  not  the  same  in  others.  Who,  for  example, 
can  dogmatically  define  the  color  of  a  cherry  ?  Who  is  to  know 
thaty?es/i  color  does  not  mean  the  color  of  muscle  but  the  color 
of  skin,  and  what  is  the  color  of  skin  throughout  the  world  ? 
Salmon  color  does  not  mean  the  color  of  the  fish  as  caught,  but 
of  its  flesh,  and  generally  in  the  cooked  state.  Again,  what  is 
stone  color?  But,  beside  these,  there  are  a  number  of  names 
of  colors  so  unfit,  or  so  absurd,  as  to  show  but  little  taste 
or  little  invention  on  the  part  of  their  originators  and 
adopters.  Capucin,  or  Capuchin,  and  Carmelite,  are  from  the 
dresses  worn  by  the  religious  orders  so  called;  but  in  Protes- 
tant countries  this  indicates  very  little  since  the  orders  are  not 
in  existence.  Puce  color  has  been  boldly  adopted  by  some 
English  writers  as  flea  cohr,  and  there  cannot  be  much  doubt 
that  this  unpleasant  insect  is  the  cause  and  origin  of  the  name. 
But  for  a  specimen  of  the  resources  to  which  colorists  have 
been  put  for  names,  take  that  of  fsabelle,  which  is  a  kind  of 
buff  orange.  Clair  Eugenie  Isabelle  was  daughter  of  Philip 
II.  of  Spain,  and  wife  to  the  Archduke  Albert.  She  was  pre- 
sent when  her  husband  was  besieging  Ostend,  and  made  a  vow, 
most  piously  intended,  not  to  change  her  linen  until  the  town 
was  taken.  The  siege  was  protracted  for  upwards  of  three 
years.  The  consequences  to  the  Archduchess's  linen  may  be 
easily  imagined ;  but  the  ladies  of  her  court  applied  to  art  to 
effect  for  them  what  natural  causes  had  done  for  their  mistress; 
and  the  color  so  produced  was  thenceforward  known  as  Isa- 
belle. 

If  we  take  any  single  color,  such  as  blue,  we  become  imme- 
diately cognizant  of  our  defective  nomenclature;  for  we  find 
in  French  and  English  books  a  vast  number  of  names  which 
can  have  no  meaning  without  the  eye  has  actually  seen  the 
color.  For  example,  there  is  Chinese  blue,  Prussian  blue, 
French  blue,  Haytian  blue,  China  blue,  and  Saxony  blue ;  again 


172  COLORS. 

there  is  king's  blue,  queen's  blue,  prince's  blue,  and  royal  blue; 
towards  the  sky  we  have  celestial  blue,  cerulean  blue,  sky 
blue,  azure  blue ;  and  in  the  opposite  direction,  blue  cTenfer, 
which  name  is  not  yet  translated  into  English.  There  is  also 
torquoise  blue,  ultramarine  blue,  and  opal  blue,  from  the  mine- 
ral kingdom ;  we  find  also  bluebottle  blue,  pigeon  blue,  dam- 
son blue,  chemic  blue,  cassimer  blue,  and  a  number  of  others, 
omitting  all  those  which  are  characterized  by  the  name  of  the 
dyestuff  from  which  they  are  derived. 

In  the  midst  of  this  confusion  of  names  any  system  which 
promises  to  bring  some  degree  of  order  or  regularity  in  the 
naming  of  colors  deserves  respectful  attention.  Such  a  system, 
moreover,  coming  stamped  with  the  name  of  so  eminent  an 
authority  as  M.  E.  Chevreul,  and  the  result  of  many  years  of 
patient  investigation  on  his  part,  needs  no  apology  for  the  space 
to  devote  to  a  very  brief  but  sufficient  abstract  of  his  ponderous 
memoir  in  the  33d  volume  of  the  "Memoiresde  1' Academic." 

ChevreuVs  System  of  Naming  Colors. — M.  Chevreul  has  only 
six  fundamental  names  of  colors,  which  are  the  three  elemen- 
tary colors,  Bed,  Yellow,  and  Blue ;  and  the  three  secondary 
colors,  Orange,  Green,  and  Violet.  He  arranges  them  in  a 
circle,  like  the  spokes  of  a  carriage  wheel.  Commencing  with 
red,  and  going  to  the  right,  the  next  spoke  is  orange,  then  yel- 
low ;  after  yellow  comes  green,  which  passes  into  blue,  and 
then  violet,  which  is  upon  the  left  hand  of  the  red.  There  is 
thus  produced  a  wheel  of  six  spokes,  at  equal  distances  from 
one  another,  in  the  following  order: — 

Eed,  Green, 

Orange,  Blue, 

Yellow,  -Violet. 

It  may  be  observed  that  in  such  a  wheel  or  circle,  the  secondary 
colors  are  placed  between  the  primaries  which  compose  them; 
and  that  the  colors  which  are  lineable  on  each  side  of  the  cen- 
tre are  complementaries.  Another  spoke  is  placed  between 
each  of  the  six  already  in  position,  and  a  circle  of  twelve  colors 
produced,  which  are  as  follows : — 

Chromatic  Circle  of  Twelve  Colors. 

Red,  Green, 

Red -orange,  Blue-green, 

Orange,  Blue, 

Yellow-orange,  Blue  violet, 

Yellow,  Violet, 

Yellow-green,  Red-violet. 


COLORS.  173 

These  colors  gradually  blend  one  into  another ;  but  even  an 
ordinary  eye  can  perceive  that  between  the  red  and  the*  red- 
orange  there  is  room  for  four  or  five  shades  of  color;  and  so 
also  between  each  of  the  other  couples.  These  are  then  placed 
in,  and  the  circle  or  wheel  may  now  be  considered  as  filled  up 
without  interstice;  and  the  colors  present  a  gradual  passing  or 
shading  into  one  another;  the  red  becoming  yellower  until  it 
is  an  orange,  and  this  still  yellower  until  it  is  a  pure  yellow. 
This  yellow  nfeets  the  blue  until  the  middle  point  of  green  is 
reached,  when  it  passes  into  pure  blue,  which  in  its  turn  passes 
through  violet  until  it  meets  the  red.  A  circle  of  seventy- 
two  colors  was  thus  constructed  by  M.  Chevreul,  assisted  by 
persons  skilled  in  discerning  between  slight  differences  of 
shade.  This  constitutes  his  complete  chromatic  circle,  and  the 
colors  are  named  as  follows: — 

Complete  Chromatic  Circle  of  Seventy-two  Colors. 

Red,  six  shades,  catted — Red,  1  red,  2  red,  3  red,  4  red,  5  red. 

Red-orange,  six  shades,  called — Red  orange,  1  red-orange,  2 
red-orange,  3  red-orange,  4  red-orange,  5  red-orange. 

Orange,  six  shades,  called — Orange,  1  orange,  2  orange,  3 
orange,  4  orange,  5  orange. 

Yellow-orange,  six  shades,  called — Yellow-orange,  1  yellow- 
orange,  2  yellow-orange,  3  yellow-orange,  4  yellow-orange,  5 
yellow-orange. 

Yellow,  six  shades,  called — Yellow,  1  yellow,  2  yellow,  3  yel- 
low, 4  yellow,  5  yellow. 

Yellow-green,  six  shades,  called — Yellow-green,  1  yellow- 
green,  2  yellow-green,  3  yellow-green,  4  yellow-green,  5  yellow- 
green. 

Green,  six  shades,  called — Green,  1  green,  2  green,  3  green,  4 
green,  5  green. 

Blue-green,  six  shades,  called — Blue  green,  1  blue-green,  2 
blue-green,  3  blue-green,  4  blue-green,  5  blue  green. 

Blue,  six  shades,  called — Blue,  1  blue,  2  blue,  3  blue,  4  blue, 
5  blue. 

Blue-violet,  six  shades,  called — Blue-violet,  1  blue-violet,  2 
blue-violet,  3  blue-violet,  4  blue-violet,  5  blue- violet. 

Violet,  six  shades,  called — Violet,  1  violet,  2  violet,  3  violet,  4 
violet,  5  violet. 

Red-violet,  six  shades,  called — Red-violet,  1  red-violet,  2  red- 
violet,  3  red-violet,  4  red-violet,  5  red-violet. 

This  chromatic  circle  is  not  imaginary,  but  actually  exists, 
composed  of  dyed  wools,  while  a  good  many  copies,  executed 
in  chromo-lithography,  are  published  more  or  less  correct. 

Light  and  Deep  Shades. — So  far  as  the  seventy-two  shades  or 


174  COLORS. 

hues  of  color  go  the  circle  is  complete,  but  it  is  necessary  to 
indicate  the  tone  or  depth  of  a  color,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
lightness  or  darkness  of  it.  To  define  this  M.  Chevreul  con- 
structed a  circle,  in  which  each  of  the  seventy-two  shades  was 
dyed  of  twenty  different  degrees  of  depth,  from  the  lightest 
which  could  be  discerned  from  pure  white  to  the  most  intense 
depth,  approaching  to  brown  black.  These  he  calls  tones  ;  and 
the  lowest  or  lighest  tones  are  near  the  centre  of  the  circle,  and 
the  higher  or  darker  tones  near  the  outside  or 'circumference. 
This  circle,  then,  has  seventy-two  colors,  each  of  twenty  tones, 
or  tints,  as  I  prefer  to  call  them,  making  a  total  of  1440  shades. 
To  express  which  tint  of  a  color  is  meant  the  number  is  writ- 
ten after,  as,  for  example,  3  blue-violet  13  tint.  As  the  num- 
ber of  shades  and  tints  above  are  by  no  means  so  numerous  as 
the  colors  of  all  natural  or  artificial  substances,  it  will  fre- 
quently happen  that  the  color  of  a  substance  does  not  coincide 
exactly  with  any  of  the  1440  shades,  but  falls  between  two  of 
them,  and  not  equally  distant  from  each ;  this  relation  is  ex- 
pressed by  fractions. 

Darkened  or  Broken  Shades, — The  1440  shades,  defined  above, 
are  so  many  modifications  of  six  colors,  mixed  two  and  two, 
of  different  depths.  When  these  colors  are  mixed  with  gray 
or  black  they  are  modified,  being  darkened  or 'broken.  Be- 
tween the  lightest  gray  and  the  deepest  black  Chevreul  counts 
twenty  equal  tints,  as  of  each  of  the  shades  in  the  circle.  He 
conceives  that  each  of  the  1440  colors  may  yield  nine  distinct 
shades  by  mixing  with  black,  and  these  are  called  the  broken 
shades.  The  first  broken  shade  of  any  of  the  72  colors  con- 
tains TV  of  black  to  y9^  color,  and  the  last  T90  of  black  to  j\ 
color;  the  first  yields  colors  only  a  little  darker  than  the  nor- 
mals, the  latter  yields  shades  hardly  distinguishable  from  black. 
Multiplying  the  1440  by  9,  we  have  12,960  broken  shades,  to 
which  adding  the  1440  pure  shades  we  have  a  total  of  14,400 
colors  all  named  and  defined,  besides  twenty  shades  of  gray. 
The  blackening  of  a  color  is  represented,  in  M.  Chevreul's 
nomenclature,  by  a  fraction  following  the  name  and  preceding 
the  tint,  as,  for  example,  slate  color  is  1  blue  T90,  10  tint,  which 
reads,  number  one  blue,  darkened  with  nine  tenths  black,  the 
mixture  being  of  the  tenth  tint. 

It  does  not  appear  that  M.  Chevreul  has  constructed,  or  that 
there  exists  anywhere  a  complete  series  of  these  14,400  shades. 
In  the  plates  to  his  memoir  there  are  circles  printed  in  color, 
which  represent  the  72  pure  shades  of  a  medium  tint,  and 
these  broken  down  by  mixture  with  black  in  nine  different 
circles,  making  in  all  720  shades;  the  twenty  different  tints  of 
each  shade  are  not  represented  in  the  plates;  probably  the  pre- 


COLORS.  175 

sent  state  of  chromo-lithography  does  not  permit  of  it  being 
done  with  sufficient  exactness.  The  learned  author  of  this  sys- 
tem has  projected  the  idea  of  a  chromatic  hemisphere,  to  be 
made  of  pieces  of  porcelain  tinted  by  firing  to  serve  as  an  un- 
alterable standard  of  color;  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the  realiza- 
tion of  this  idea  is  very  far  distant,  and  as  all  dyed  colors 
•  change  by  age  the  circles  of  M.  Chevreul,  constructed  with  so 
much  labor  and  skill,  will  perish,  and  his  labors  remain  a 
splendid  but  nearly  useless  monument  of  ingenuity. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  applicability  of  this  system  to  actual 
colors,  I  give  a  list  of  several  colors  and  colored  bodies  which 
are  pretty  well  defined  in  common  language  with  the  names  of 
the  colors  in  Chevreul's  system — 

Amber  in  mass=2  orange  12  tone  or  tint. 

Amber  in  a  thin  slice=2  yellow-orange  11  tone. 

Amaranth  =  red- violet  12  tone. 

Amethyst=5  blue- violet  from  3  to  16  tone. 

Apricot= orange  6  tone. 

Aventurine=l  orange  14  tone. 

Blood,  ox=l  red  13  and  14  tones. 

Blue,  indigo  on  wool  =  3  blue  14  tone. 

Blue,  pigeon  =  3  violet  10  tone. 

Blue,  royal  =  3  blue  12  and  13  tones. 

B utter = yellow-orange  2  to  3  tones. 

Brick  color =3  red  orange  T50  12  tone. 

Bronze=3  yellow  20  tone. 

Brown =any  one  of  the  72  colors  when  at  18, 19,  and  20  tones 

are  browns. 

Coffee  roasted  =  3  orange  18  and  19  {ones. 
Cinnamon  =  3  orange  14  tone,  and  2  orange  T6^  9  to  12  tones. 
Capucin=3  red-orange,  10,  11,  and  12  tones. 
Carmelite  =  3  orange  15  tone. 
Carrot  =  orange  7  tone. 
Cherry  =  red  9  arid  10  tones. 
Chamois  =  2  orange  2  to  6  tones. 
Chestnut  (the  fruit)=2  orange  16,  17,  and  18  tones. 
Chocolate  in  cake=5  orange  18  tone. 
Cigar  color  =2  orange  ^  11  tone. 
Citron =4  yellow  orange  6  tone. 
Crimson  =  3  red-violet  10  tone. 
Emerald  =  2  green  11  tone. 
Gold  lace=4  yellow-orange  9  tone. 
Gray,  silver=3  orange  y9^. 
Gray,  blue=5  blue  T90  10  tone. 
Gray,  brown  =  normal  gray  12  to  15  tones. 
Gray,  flesh=l  red-orange  t\. 


176  COLORS. 

Gray,  iron  =  3  blue  &  10  tone. 

Gray,  lavender  =2  blue- violet  fa  6  tone. 

Gray,  pearl=2  blue-violet  T70  2  and  3  tones. 

Gray,  tan  =  5  yellow-orange  T90  10  tone. 

Green,  cabbage=3  yellow-green  6  tone. 

Green,  turf=l  yellow-green  T40  10  tone. 

Green,  myrtle=3  yellow-green  12  tone. 

Green,  apple=4  yellow-green  8  tone. 

Green,  grass=5  yellow-green  9  tone. 

Isabelle  =  l  yellow-orange. 

Lavender  flowers=3  blue- violet  7,  8,  and  9  tones. 

Leather=l  orange  T4<j  to  Tfi0  7  tone. 

Lilac  flowers=l  blue- violet  1  and  2  tones. 

Lilac  on  stuffs=l  violet  7  tone. 

Maize=l  yellow-orange  7  tone,  and  3  yellow  orange  6  tone. 

Malachite=3  green  6  to  8  tones. 

Mauve=3  violet  8  tone. 

Myrtle=3  yellow-green  11  and  12  tones. 

Nankeen =1  orange  T50  3  tone. 

Nut  color = yellow-orange  16  tone. 

Olive=3  yellow  T65  10  and  11  tones. 

Pink=Rose. 

Puce=4  blue-violet  13  tone. 

Red  lead = yellow-orange  20  tone. 

Rose=5  violet,  red- violet,  and  1  red- violet  3  to  7  tones. 

Ruby=  red  11  tone.  . 

Sappbire=5  blue  11  tone. 

Scarlet,  common  =  1  red  12  to  14  tones. 

Scarlet,  flame  colored  =  3  red  10  tone. 

Slate=l  blue  T90  10  tone. 

Straw  =  2  and  3  yellow-orange  3  to  5  tones. 

Tobacco=3  orange  T60  15  tone. 

Vermilion  =  3  red  15  tone. 

"Wood  color=l  yellow  orange  15  tone. 

Yellow,  canary =1  yellow  6  tone. 

M.  Chevreul  has  compared  the  colors  of  many  thousands  of 
natural  objects  with  his  scale,  and  defined  them  in  his  memoir. 
If  this  system  has  a  radical  defect  which  will  prevent  its  be- 
coming generally  used,  I  am  convinced  it  resides  in  the  fact 
that  the  author  has  only  combined  the  six  colors  in  two  and 
two  to  produce  his  gamme  or  scale  of  72  colors ;  hence  the 
necessity  of  complicating  the  system  by  the  broken  or  rabattue 
colors  obtained  by  mixing  black  with  the  shades.  M.  Chevreul 
must  know  that  in  practical  dyeing  and  printing,  as  well  as  bv 
the  indications  of  theory,  blue  serves  to  darken  colors ;  and  I 
believe  there  was  no  need  to  introduce  the  black  element  as  a 


COLORS.  177 

separate  one,  but  that  green,  blue,  and  violet  would  have  done 
all  that  was  required.  But  in  adopting  a  single  circle  it  was 
impossible  to  make  the  colors  combine  three  and  three,  which, 
if  it  could  have  been  done,  would  have  doubtless,  produced 
every  imaginable  shade. 

Influence  of  Colors  upon  one  another. — It  is  very  well  known 
that  certain  colors  agree  with  one  another,  producing  a  pleasant 
effect  in  combination,  and  that  there  are  also  colors  which  in 
the  common  phrase  do  not  go  well  together.  When  a  person 
has  a  good  eye  for  colors  (and  this  is  quite  as  rare  as  a  good 
ear  for  music),  he  will  naturally  make  harmonious  combina- 
tions in  his  dress  or  furniture,  which  combinations  will  be  re- 
cognized as  good  and  agreeable  by  all  cultivated  or  naturally 
good  eyes.  These  colors  can  only  be  varied  in  quality  or  in 
depth  to  a  small  ejtent  without  departing  from  the  limits  of 
excellence ;  so  that  it  would  appear  that  this  agreeable  or  dis- 
agreeable impression  of  certain  associated  shades  upon  the  eye 
is  in  accordance  with  some  law  of  nature. 

The  research  of  many  scientific  observers  has  succeeded  in 
discovering  and  defining  this  law  with  a  considerable  degree  of 
exactness,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  study  of  these 
researches  will  be  of  benefit  to  all  who  are  connected  with  the 
arrangement  of  colored  objects;  they  are  also  of  high  interest 
to  the  color  mixer,  who,  though  he  has  not  to  judge  of  the  har- 
mony of  colors,  is  expected  to  produce  colors  which  shall  be 
harmonious  in  the  design,  and  which,  being  once  produced, 
are  not  generally  alterable.  For  example,  suppose  we  have  a 
delaine  pattern  with  a  blotch  ground,  and  a  narrow  trail  or  stripe 
of  another  color  running  up  the  piece,  and  that  there  are  fifty 
pieces  to  be  printed  all  with  a  chocolate  blotch,  but  the  trail  or 
stripe  is  to  be  changed  every  ten  pieces — say  ten  pieces  with 
scarlet,  ten  with  orange,  ten  with  blue,  ten  with  green,  and  ten 
with  lilac  or  purple.  If  exactly  the  same  chocolate  color  be 
used  for  the  whole  fifty  pieces,  every  experienced  color  rnixer 
knows  that  when  finished  it  will  appear,  upon  inspection  of 
the  pieces,  as  if  they  were  five  different  chocolate  blotches ; 
and,  in  consequence,  such  modifications  are  made  in  the  color 
mixing  as  experience  has  pointed  out  to  be  necessary.  I  think 
it  likely  that  attention  to  a  few  points  below  will  be  of  service 
in  understanding  the  reason  for  this  change,  and  give  some- 
thing like  a  scientific  accuracy  to  the  modes  of  effecting  it. 

Accidental  Colors. — If  a  red  wafer  be  loosely  placed  on  a 
white  spot  of  the  same  size  in  the  centre  of  a  sheet  of  black 
paper  so  as  to  cover  it,  and  then  intently  looked  at  for  a  few 
moments  with  one  eye,  the  other  being  closed,  and  then  the 
wafer  suddenly  removed,  the  eye,  gazing  still  on  the  same  spot, 


178  COLORS. 

will  perceive  not  a  white  but  a  decided  greenish  circle.  This 
impression  will  last  for  a  few  moments.  The  experiment  may 
be  varied  by  taking  a  smaller  red  wafer  and  placing  it  on  the 
white  spot  so  as  to  leave  a  circle  of  white  all  around  the  wafer, 
and  then  again  looking  closely  with  one  eye  at  the  spot;  in  the 
course  of  a  few  moments  the  white  circle  will  appear  green. 
The  color  so  perceived  is  called  an  accidental  color,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  real  color. 

By  using  wafers  of  different  colors  a  variety  of  accidental 
colors  are  obtained,  always  the  same  for  the  same  real  or  ex- 
citing color.  The  experiments  of  Sir  D.  Brewster,  confirmed 
by  other  observers,  give  the  following  as  the  chief  cases  of 
color  so  produced  : — 

Color  of  Wafer.  Accidental  Color. 

Bed  Bluish-green. 

Orange  Blue. 

Yellow  Indigo. 

Green  Red-violet. 

Blue  Red-orange. 

Indigo  Yellow-orange. 

V'olet  Yellow  gre«n. 

Black  White. 

White  Black. 

There  are  a  great  many  ways  in  which,  these  colors  can  be 
experimentally  produced  besides  the  one  given  above  ;  one  of 
the  best  and  simplest  is  the  following:  Take  two  white  and 
thin  cards  and,  placing  them  together,  punch  out  squares  so  as 
to  leave  a  kind  of  lattice  work;  then  take  colored  tissue  paper 
and  put  it  between  the  cards  and  hold  up  to  a  strong  light,  the 
real  color  will  be  seen  in  the  squares,  while  the  bars  of  the 
lattice  will  appear  of  the  accidental  color; 

Sir  D.  Brewster  explains  this  phenomenon  as  follows  (his 
language  being  purposely  modified) :  The  eye  being  strongly 
excited  by  gazing  on  a  colored  body,  as  a  red  wafer,  becomes 
partially  paralyzed  and  insensible  to  the  rays  of  light  carrying 
that  tint,  and  when  the  color  is  suddenly  removed,  the  white 
spot  reflects  white  light  into  the  eye ;  but  the  red  constituents 
of  the  white  light  fail  to  produce  their  usual  effect  on  the 
retina,  fall  dead  so  to  speak,  and  the  other  rays  being  active 
produce  the  colored  appearance.  From  this  we  deduce  the  im- 
portant conclusion  that  the  accidental  color  created  by  a  real  color 
is  that  color  which  would  be  produced  by  compounding  together  all 
the  elementary  colors  excepting  the  real  color.  Or,  taking  for 
granted  the  statement  made  page  164,  that  the  whole  of  the 
elementary  colors  when  combined  produce  white,  the  law  may 


COLORS.  179 

be  expressed  as  follows:  The  accidental  color  of  a  real  color  is 
that  which  being  added  to  the  real  color  would  produce  white. 
From  this  fact  these  colors  are  frequently  called  complementary 
colors,  since  they  each  make  up  the  complement  of  the  other 
color. 

Now,  to  apply  these  facts  in  explanation  of  effects  observed 
in  printing,  it  is  sufficient  to  know  that  in  all  cases  real  colors 
always  produce  their  accidental  colors,  and  throw  the  hue  of 
them  more  or  less  over  the  surrounding  colors.  Thus  a  bold 
scarlet  stripe  in  a  chocolate  blotch  throws  on  each  side  a  bluish 
green  accidental  color ;  and  if  the  balance  of  colors  in  the  choco- 
late is  pretty  even,  it  will  give  a  greenish  shade  to  it.  If  the 
stripe  be  orange,  the  accidental  color  is  blue,  which  throws  a 
bluish  hue  over  it;  and  so  on  with  other  colors.  Now,  in 
order  to  preserve  the  chocolate  at  the  same  shade  in  each  lot 
of  colorings,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  able  to  absorb  and 
neutralize  the  accidental  color.  Thus,  suppose  a  standard  choco- 
late uninfluenced  by  any  contiguous  color  as  a  sample  ;  to  work 
it  with  a  scarlet  stripe,  and  to  obtain  the  same  shade,  it  must 
be  made  a  little  redder;  this  red  will  absorb  the  green  acci- 
dental color  and  neutralize  it,  while  at  the  same  time  it  will 
enrich  it,  giving  depth  and  lustre.  To  work  with  an  orange 
trail,  the  chocolate  must  be  made  a  little  yellower  or  browner  ; 
to  work  with  blue,  it  must  be  a  little  more  purplish ;  to  work 
with  a  lilac,  it  must  be  made  a  little  bluer,  and  so  on. 

The  fact  that  some  colors  do  not  agree  together  so  well  as 
others  is  accounted  for  on  the  same  general  principles  of  acci- 
dental or  complementary  colors  being  created,  and  interfering 
with\he 'shades,  besides  which  a  great  deal  lies  in  the  depth  of 
tone  of  the  contiguous  colors.  Many  colors  which  have  a  bad 
effect  together,  when  of  equal  depth  of  shade,  agree  very  well 
when  a  difference  is  made  in  this  respect;  so  that  when  it  is 
stated,  for  example,  that  blue  and  violet  are  colors  that  go 
badly  together,  it  is  not  meant  to  intimate  that  they  will  not 
form  an  agreeable  contrast  under  any  circumstance,  but  that 
usually  they  do  not  agree.  The  art  of  the  designer  and  colorist 
consists  in  so  adapting  shades  as  to  produce  new  and  agreeable 
effects  ;  and  the  contrivances  for  accomplishing  this  end  are  so 
numerous  that  it  is  impossible  to  describe  them  in  detail.  The 
general  maxim  is  this  :  Colors  look  best  when  near  their  comple- 
mentary colors ;  or,  in  other  words,  complementary  colors  are 
those  which  agree  best  together,  as  (for  example)  red  with 
green,  blue  with  orange,  etc.  The  reason  for  this  appears  to 
ber  that  the  accidental  color  created  by  each  of  the  real  colors 
is  the  same  as  the  contiguous  color  upon  which  the  accidental 
falls,  thus  adding  to  its  depth.  But  this  very  limited  explaua- 


180  COLORS. 

lion  will  not  suffice  for  all  the  agreeable  contrasts  which  are 
obtainable  in  the  complex  shades :  it,  however,  throws  a  gen- 
eral light  on  the  principles  governing  the  effects  of  colors  in 
juxtaposition,  and  may  serve  as  a  starting  point  for  the  col- 
orist. 

The  limits  of  this  book  forbid  going  into  further  details 
upon  a  subject  which,  though  possessing  the  highest  interest 
for  designers  and  "getters-up"  of  styles,  touches  but  remotely 
the  really  practical  dyer  or  color  mixer. 

The  Stability  or  Fastness  of  Colors.— The  terra  "  fast  color"  has 
a  very  wide  and  somewhat  indefinite  signification.  Under  the 
old  regime  the  French  government  attempted  to  define  what 
was  a  fast  and  what  a  loose  color,  enacted  laws  bearing  upon 
the  matter,  and  prescribed  tests  to  distinguish  between  one  and 
the  other.  They  prescribed  a  boiling  in  alum  and  water,  then 
a  treatment  with  weak  vinegar  and  an  exposure  to  the  air, 
along  with  some  other  tests.  If  the  dyed  color  did  not  satis- 
factorily resist  these  tests  it  was  condemned.  Dyers  were 
compelled  to  confine  themselves  to  either  fast  or  loose  colors  ; 
the  Government  determined  for  the  trade  what  drugs  gave 
fast  and  what  gave  loose  colors,  and  prohibited,  under  a  pen- 
alty, the  dyer  of  the  "  bon  teinf  to  have  in  his  premises  the 
drugs  which  were  used  in  the  " petit  teint"  and  vice  versa.  This 
was  a  very  fallacious  system  of  testing  the  colors,  most  ineffect- 
ive in  its  results,  and  speedily  fell  into  disuse.  Soap  is  con- 
sidered now  as  «,  test  for  fastness  in  colors  ;  but  that  is  only  a 
degree  less  absurd  than  alum  and  vinegar,  though  it  gives  a 
somewhat  better  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  colors.  A  fast  color 
may  be  defined  as  one  which  will  resist  the  destructive  agencies  tof  the 
position  in  which  it  is  intended  to  be  placed.  What  is  a  loose  color 
on  a  print  for  a  dress,  may  be  fast  for  hangings  or  curtains; 
what  would  be  inadmissible  on  calico  which  has  to  be  washed 
frequently,  would  be  a  fast  and  good  color  on  silk  velvet, 
which  is  not  expected  to  be  washed  at  all ;  a  color  which  would 
be  loose  for  a  silken  banner,  exposed  to  sun,  and  air,  and  rain, 
would  do  excellently  as  an  article  of  furniture,  or  even  as  a 
pocket  handkerchief;  and  a  color  which  is  well  adapted  to  re- 
sist all  the  silent  influences  of  air,  damp,  light,  and  heat,  may 
totally  disappear  in  a  wash  tub.  If  a  color  is  to  be  used  upon 
an  article  of  dress,  its  fastness  should  be  tested  by  the  way  in 
which  it  will  resist  the  agents  to  which  it  will  be  inevitably  ex- 
posed. If  a  cheap  calico  dress  pattern,  it  will  have  to  resist 
much  friction,  and  the  detergent  action  of  soda  and  soap  ;  if  a 
superior  kind  of  calico  or  muslin,  it  will  not  be  always  ne- 
cessary for  it  to  resist  the  action  of  soap  in  a  perfect  manner, 
but  it  is  expected  that  it  will  not  fade  upon  exposure  to  good 


COLORS.  181 

bright  daylight,  that  it  will  not  spot  or  stain  with  pure  water, 
and  that  the  color  will  not  be  detached  by  simple  friction  either 
dry  or  in  water.  There  would  soon  be  an  end  to  calico  print- 
ing and  dyeing  if  colored  muslins  and  calicoes  were  to  be 
washed  as  sheets  and  blankets  are  washed,  or  expected  to  go 
through  the  same  treatment  uninjured.  It  would  doubtless  be 
desirable  that  colors  should  be  produced  of  that  degree  of  fast- 
ness ;  but  there  is  no  hope  of  such  a  result  at  present.  All 
printed  and  dyed  goods  which  are  intended  as  wearing  appa- 
rel should,  as  a  primary  point,  be  required  to  withstand  the 
action  of  air  and  water  ;  but  that  is  not  required  in  an  equal 
degree  for  all  kinds  of  dresses.  Promenade  robes  must  be  of 
more  stable  colors  than  is  necessary  for  evening  or  home  dress  ; 
many  colors  which  will  be  faded  in  two  or  three  days'  expo- 
sure to  air  will  be  good  for  weeks  in  the  diffused  light  of  a 
house,  or  by  gas  or  candlelight;  and  for  this  kind  of  wear  it 
is  possible  to  produce  rich  and  delicate  shades  which  would  be 
inapplicable  for  other  purposes.  There  is  no  abstract  fast  or 
loose  color ;  they  are  all  comparative,  and  all  have  their  proper 
place.  Turkey  red  and  indigo  blue  are  the  fastest  of  all  dyed 
colors — that  is,  when  exposed  along  with  other  colors  to  the 
action  of  water,  friction,  air,  and  light,  they  will  remain  unin- 
jured, or  but  little  injured,  when  the  other  colors  are  faded  or 
completely  discharged.  The  fastness  of  a  color  does  not  depend 
altogether  upon  the  coloring  principle,  for  it  is  found  that  the 
same  color  has  very  different  hold  upon  different  materials :  a 
cochineal  color  is  faster  upon  wool  than  upon  silk,  and  faster 
upon  silk  than  upon  cotton ;  and  this  is  generally  the  arrange- 
-  ment  of  the  relative  durability  of  the  same  vegetable  or  animal 
coloring  matters,  viz. :  more  stable  on  wool  than  on  silk,  more 
stable  on  silk  than  on  cotton.  There  are  exceptions  to  this 
rule  depending  upon  the  action  of  the  animal  matters  in  silk 
and  wool  upon  certain  colors  :  for  example,  Chevreul  found 
that  indigo  upon  cotton  was  capable  of  resisting  higher  tempera- 
tures than  upon  either  wool  or  silk,  and  the  same  with  safflower. 
But  it  requires  no  scientific  test  to  know  that  some  of  the 
coloring  matters  will  not  fix  upon  some  fabrics,  and  that  if 
fixed  upon  others,  they  are.  very  loose.  "The  archil  colors 
enjoy  a  fair  amount  of  stability  upon  woollen,  on  silk  less, 
upon  cotton  none  at  all.  Silks  dyed  shades  of  violet  blue  with 
orchil  and  cudbear  are  bleached  by  exposure  to  strong  sun- 
shine ;  but  the  color  is  not  always  destroyed — it  can  be  revived 
again,  or  it  revives  spontaneously,  if  kept  in  a  dark  place  for 
some  days.  The  silk,  under  the  influence  of  heat  and  light, 
seems  to  exert  some  chemical  action  upon  the  coloring  matter, 
similar  to  the  lime  and  copperas  action  upon  indigo  ;  and  pro- 


182  COPPER. 

bably  it  is  a  real  deoxidation  which  takes  place.  Upon  cotton, 
colors  seem  to  be  affected  in  an  opposite  direction,  and  appear 
to  be  destroyed  by  oxidation.  It  is  the  nature  of  silk  and 
woollen,  by  virtue  of  their  higher  organization,  to'exert  under 
the  influence  of  chemical  agents  an  attraction  for  oxygen  ;  this 
property,  which  is  common  to  all  organic  substances,  is  pos- 
sessed in  only  a  feeble  degree  by  cotton,  and  its  organic  nature 
does  not,  under  general  circumstances,  present  an  obstruction 
to  the  oxidation  which  is  always  going  on  in  nature.  Mineral 
colors,  for  the  most  part,  are  oxidized  bodies,  and  owe  their 
color  to  the  particular  balance  of  the  metal  and  oxygen  in  them  ; 
upon  cotton  fabrics  this  remains  undisturbed,  as  far  as  the 
cotton  is  concerned,  and  it  is  only  external  influences  which 
can  change  them ;  but,  on  animal  tissues,  the  fabric  itself  is  a 
quasi  chemical  agent,  which,  having  an  affinity  for  oxygen, 
generally  takes  it  from  any  oxidized  mineral  substance,  and 
thus  altering  the  relative  proportions  of  the  elements  destroys 
the  color.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  iron  buff,  which  is  an 
oxide  of  iron ;  the  manganese  brown,  which  is  a  peroxide  of 
manganese;  and  the  lead  puce,  also  a  peroxide,  cannot  be 
applied  on  silk  and  wool  with  any  good  effect.  It  is' the  same 
with  other  mineral  colors,  which  are  not  so  simple  in  their 
composition  as  the  chrome  yellow  and  orange.  Other  mineral 
colors  are  inapplicable  on  wool,  because  of  the  sulphur  it  con- 
tains acting  upon  them  and  injuring  them.  It  seems  probable 
that  these  properties  of  the  different  fibres  may  explain  various 
behaviors  of  the  different  coloring  matters,  both  as  affecting 
the  union  of  them  with  the  fibre  and  their  degree  of  permanency 
when  there. 

There  is  no  general  principle  to  guide  the  inquirer  as  to  how 
a  fast  color  is  to  be  produced.  We  know  too  little  of  the  na- 
ture of  the  union  between  the  mordant  and  the  coloring  matter, 
and  between  either,  or  both  of  these,  and  the  fibre,  to  enter  into 
anything  better  than  metaphysical  or  hypothetical  explanations 
upon  this  part  of  the  matter.  No  information  has  been  ob- 
tained in  that  direction,  except  what  practice  reveals,  viz.,  that 
some  compounds  are  less  stable  than  others,  but  without  any 
information  as  to  why.  There  is  a  reason  for  this  without 
doubt,  and,  when  it  shall  have  been  discovered,  it  is  not  un- 
likely it  may  lead  to  some  improvements  in  the  application  of 
colors  which  shall  make  all  fast  alike,  or  at  least  add  to  the 
stability  of  those  which  are  now  deficient  in  this  respect. 

Copper. — This  metal  is  the  best  of  all  the  common,  metals 
for  small  vessels  employed  in  holding  or  measuring  chemical 
substances ;  it  is  less  easily  acted  upon  by  acids  than  iron  ;  it 
is  harder  and  stronger  than  tin,  and  more  economical,  because 


COPPER.  183 

requiring  less  weight  and  enduring  longer.  Pure  clean  copper 
is  not  acted  upon  in  the  cold  by  muriatic  or  sulphuric  acids ; 
if  the  copper  is  tarnished,  either  of  these  act  upon  it  in  so  far 
as  to  dissolve  the  oxide  which  tarnishes  the  metal,  but  they  do 
not  touch  the  metal  itself.  If  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air 
and  acids  simultaneously,  the  copper  is  rapidly  corroded. 
Copper  pans  or  boilers  which  are  accustomed  to  hold  acid 
liquors  are  more  strongly  corroded  above  the  water  mark  than 
below  it,  and,  if  the  level  of  the  contained  liquor  is  pretty 
constant,  the  corrosion  is  most  active  at  or  slightly  above  the 
water  mark.  This  is  owing  to  a  natural  chemical  law,  that  a 
metal  must  be  oxidized  before  it  can  dissolve  in  an  acid;  some 
metals  take  oxygen  from  the  acids  themselves,  or  from  the 
water  in  them,  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  copper  and  the  two 
acids  mentioned.  It  must  obtain  the  oxygen  from  some  other 
source,  and  that  source  is  the  air.  Copper  is  not  hurtful  to 
most  colors,  as  iron  is ;  many  colors  are  improved  by  it,  and 
but  few  really  injured.  Notwithstanding  this,  it  is  not  wise  to 
leave  colors  in  copper  vessels  longer  than  necessary,  especially 
steam  and  spirit  colors,  which  contain  acid  salts ;  the  copper 
dissolved,  though  little,  alters  delicate  shades,  and  frequently 
puzzles  the  color  mixer.  Nitric  acid,  or  aquafortis,  acts  rapidly 
on  copper,  hot  or  cold,  itself  supplying  the  oxygen  necessary 
to  the  solution  of  the  metal.  Liquid  ammonia  in  contact  with 
the  air  acts  on  copper,  dissolving  it  and  becoming  blue ;  it 
should  not,  therefore,  be  kept,  or  even  measured  in  copper 
vessels.  Colors  which  are  alkaline  with  ammonia  should  not 
be  allowed  to  remain  in  copper  vessels,  nor  be  worked  in  the 
printing  machine  out  of  copper  boxes.  Liquids  which  contain 
sulphur  in  alkaline  solution  also  act  upon  copper,  turning  it 
quite  black,  and  corroding  it,  although  not  to  a  very  percepti- 
ble extent;  the  black  body  produced  is  a  sulphide  of  copper, 
and  if  kept  exposed  to  the  air  and  moisture,  it  eventually 
changes  into  sulphate  of  copper,  or  bluestone.  But,  in  dry 
situations,  the  sulphide  remains  unaltered  for  a  long  time  :  for 
example,  copper  rollers  blackened  in  the  machine  by  using 
pencil  blue  or  impure  alkaline  pink. 

Copper  combines  with  oxygen  in  two  proportions,  forming 
the  red  or  sub-oxide,  that  is,  an  oxide  with  less  than  an  equal 
atom  of  oxygen,  and  the  black  oxide,  which  contains  an  atom 
of  oxygen  for  an  atom  of  copper.  Neither  oxides  are  ordinary 
commercial  articles,  nor  used  in  dyeing  or  printing ;  but  the 
sub-oxide  yields  a  color  which  may  be  produced  by  printing 
acetate  of  copper,  raising  in  lime  or  soda,  and  then  boiling  in  a 
strong  caustic  ash,  mixed  with  sugar,  treacle,  or  calcined  farina, 
until  it  has  changed  into  a  yellowish  orange.  The  sub-oxide 


184  COPPER. 

in  this  state  can  act  as  a  mordant,  but  it  does  not  give  bright 
or  fast  colors  with  any  of  the  dyewoods  I  tried.  The  produc- 
tion of  the  sub  oxide  above  from  the  black  oxide  is  owing  to 
the  reducing  or  deoxidizing  power  of  the  alkali  and  organic 
matter.  The  black  oxide  is  used  to  make  the  salts  of  copper 
from.  The  salts  of  this  oxide  have  all  a  green  or  blue  color 
in  the  hydrated  state,  but  when  deprived  of  water  are  often 
colorless.  They  have  a  feeble  oxidizing  power,  which  acts 
under  favorable  circumstances  upon  many  organic  substances. 
It  would  appear  that  a  given  portion  of  copper  salt  is  able  to 
oxidize  an  infinite  amount  of  some  organic  substances  under 
favorable  conditions;  it  is  supposed  to  act  first  by  giving  up 
the  half  of  the  oxygen  in  its  oxide,  and  the  sub-oxide  formed 
absorbs  oxygen  from  the  air,  transferring  it  to  the  oxidizable 
substance  ad  infinitum.  It  is  as  oxidizing  agents  that  copper 
salts  are  used  in  most  cases  of  dyeing  and  printing,  as  in  cate- 
chu and  steam  colors. 

Sulphate  of  Copper,  Blue  Vitriol,  Blue  Stone. — This  is  a  com- 
pound of  vitriol,  the  black  oxide  of  copper,  and  water.  It  is 
used  to  make  the  acetate  and  nitrate  of  copper  from,  by  means 
of  the  acetate  and  nitrate  of  lead  ;  it  is  employed  in  a  few  cases 
of  color  mixing  and  dyeing,  but  altogether  only  a  small  quan- 
tity is  consumed  in  these  arts,  as  the  acetate  and  nitrate  of 
copper  are  mostly  purchased  from  the  manufacturers.  The 
greatest  quantity  is  used  by  the  indigo  dyers  as  a  res'ist,  in 
combination  with  other  matters. 

Chloride  of  Copper,  Muriate  of  Copper. — This  salt,  although 
much  used  on  the  continent  in  color  mixing,  is  almost  unknown 
in  this  country.  It  is  used  in  nearly  all  cases  where  English 
receipts  give  some  other  copper  salt,  as  the  sulphate  and  ni- 
trate in  combination  with  sal-ammoniac;  although  I  believe 
sal  ammoniac  is  necessary  even  with  the  muriate  of  copper,  but 
smaller  quantities  suffice.  It  is  made  by  dissolving  oxide  of 
copper  in  muriatic  acid,  and  concentrating  until  it  crystallizes; 
liquid  muriate  of  copper  may  be  made,  from  muriate  of  lime 
and  sulphate  of  copper. 

Nitrate  of  Copper. — This  is  mostly  sold  as  a  concentrated 
liquid ;  its  principal  use  is  in  calico  printing,  where  it  is  em- 
ployed as  an  oxidizing  agent,  as  in  the  case  of  catechu  browns, 
some  steam  colors  containing  logwood,  chiefly  browns  and 
chocolates,  and  in  several  spirit  colors.  Nitrate  of  copper 
enters  into  the  composition  of  a  resist  for  China  blue.  The 
value  of  nitrate  of  copper  is  usually  judged  of  from  the  strength 
indicated  by  the  hydrometer :  unless  purposely  falsified  by 
other  substances,  this  test  is  satisfactory;  if  adulterated,  only 
regular  analysis  can  give  its  value.  It  is  sometimes  sent  out 


COPPER.  185 

too  acid — not  properly  killed,  as  it  is  expressed.  It  is  always 
acid,  but  there  should  not  be  any  great  excess  present.  A 
practical  test  of  the  comparative  acidity  of  different  samples 
consists  in  trying  how  much  weak  caustic  must  be  put  in  a  gill 
of  nitrate  of  copper,  before  it  begins  to  give  a  precipitate  which 
does  not  dissolve  on  stirring :  the  more  that  is  required,  the 
more  acid  the  liquor,  and  vice  versa. 

Acetate  of  Copper,  Verdigris.  (See  ACETATE.) 
Ammoniuret  of  Copper. — When  liquid  ammonia  is  mixed 
with  a  solution  of  a  salt  of  copper  it  gives  at  first  a  pale  blue 
precipitate,  but  a  little  more  ammonia  causes  this  to  dissolve, 
producing  a  rich  purple  color.  This  solution,  which  may  be 
called  an  ammoniuret  of  copper,  has  been  employed  to  give  a 
light  shade  of  green,  by  simply  padding  in  it,  drying,  and 
washing  off.  Ammoniuret  of  copper  has  the  peculiar  property 
of  dissolving  cotton,  reducing  it  first  into  a  pulp,  and  then 
clearly  dissolving  it.  This  fact,  but  recently  discovered,  may 
possibly  be  applied  to  some  useful  purpose  hereafter. 

Arsenite  of  Copper  or  Scheele's  Green. — Arsenious  acid  can, 
by  proper  management,  be  made  to  form  a  salt  with  oxide  of 
copper,  which  has  a  pleasing  green  color ;  it  is  extensively  used 
for  printing  paper-hangings,  and  as  an  oil  color.  It  can  be 
produced  upon  cloth,  but  not  with  the  same  brilliancy  as  the  dry 
powder.  The  method  of  dyeing  this  color  is  to  pad  in  a  salt  of 
copper,  dry,  and  fix  the  copper  by  passing  in  a  caustic  bath, 
then  pass  into  a  beck  containing  the  white  arsenic  dissolved, 
and  keep  in  until  the  desired  shade  is  obtained.  Another 
method  consists  in  padding  in  arseniate  of  soda,  drying,  then 
padding  in  nitrate  of  copper,  washing  off,  and  finishing  with  a 
short  passage  in  weak  acetic  or  nitric  acid.  This  color  is  very 
little  worked  now  on  calico  or  other  fabrics. 

Fatty  Compounds  of  Copper. — Green  colors  have  been  used 
made  from  the  fatty  compound  of  copper,  which  is  produced 
when  blue  vitriol  is  mixed  with  a  hot  and  strong  solution  of 
soap.  A  soap  of  copper  is  produced  which  is  not  soluble  in 
water,  but  which  can  be  dissolved  in  turpentine,  and  so  printed 
or  padded;  hung  up  in  a  hot  stove  the  turpentine  volatilizes, 
and  leaves  the  green  copper  compound  upon  the  cloth.  The 
colors  thus  produced  are  not  remarkable  for  either  brilliancy 
or  fastness,  and  are  now  hardly  ever  made.  Some  samples  in 
my  possession  have  gone  much  yellower  by  age,  though  they 
have  stood  better  than  most  metallic  colors  in  the  same  condi- 
tions. 

Copper  is  particularly  injurious  in  madder  dyeing  in  several 
states,  and  in  very  small  quantities.  One  per  cent,  of  the 
hydrated  oxide,  or  carbonate  of  copper,  is  sufficient  to  destroy 


186  COTTON. 

the  tinctorial  power  of  madder  altogether,  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances.    The  soluble  salts  act  quite  as  injuriously. 

Copperas. — This  is  a  generic  name  in  common  use  for  the 
metallic  sulphates.  When  used  without  a  qualifying  adjective, 
it  means  the  sulphate  of  iron,  but  the  term  green  copperas  is 
frequently  employed  to  prevent  misunderstanding. 
Bliie  Copperas  is  sulphate  of  copper.  (See  COPPER.) 
White  Copperas  is  sulphate  of  zinc.  (See  ZINC.) 
Cork-Tree  Bark. — According  to  an  expired  patent,  the 
bark  of  the  cork  tree  may  be  used  as  a  dyewood  for  dyeing 
nankeen  shades  on  cotton,  wool,  and  other  articles.  There  is 
nothing  special  in  the  method  of  its  application,  excepting  that 
the  color  is  directed  to  be  finished  off'  in  soap  and  warm  water 
or  hartshorn  and  warm  water.  The  patent  is  dated  Feb.  18, 1823. 
The  material  is  not  now  found  in  the  list  of  our  dyeing  drugs. 
Cotton. — This  valuable  fibrous  material  consists  of  small 
filaments  about  1J  inch  long  for  the  long-staple  cotton,  and 
about  £g  of  an  inch  for  short-staple  (East  Indian) cotton.  The 
diameter  of  the  filaments  of  the  finer  cotton  is  very  small,  not 
exceeding  2^JOT5  of  an  inch  ;  the  coarser  kinds  are  thicker, 
Surats  varying  from  g£5  to  TIHJT)  °f  an  inch.  Under  the  micro- 
scope, cotton  filaments  look  like  flattened  cylinders,  or  hollow 
tubes  which  have  collapsed  by  drying,  so  that  the  sides  adhere 
together.  There  is  some  reason  to  think — though  it  is  a  dis- 
puted question — that  in  the  operations  of  dyeing  and  printing, 
the  coloring  matter  finds  its  way  between  the  walls  or  sides  of 
the  tube,  filling  up  the  vessels  by  which  the  cotton  drew  nou- 
rishment during  its  growth.  Some  qualities  of  cotton  do  not 
take  coloring  matters  as  well  as  others;  for  instance,  it  will 
sometimes  be  observed  in  looking  overprinted  goods  that  here 
and  there  a  single  thread,  or  two  or  three  threads  together, 
have  not  taken  color,  though  from  their  position  they  must 
have  had  every  chance  of  doing  so.  This  cotton,  upon  exami- 
nation, appears  different  from  the  ordinary  qualities :  it  has 
been  called  dead  cotton  from  a  belief  that  it  is  cotton  which  has 
not  arrived  at  maturity  in  the  pod,  but  through  some  cause  or 
other  has  died  while  still  in  an  undeveloped  condition.  The 
inner  tube  is  defective,  or  partly  filled  with  some  substance, 
and  so  seems  to  prevent  the  admission  of  the  dye. 

As  the  civil  war  in  America  seems  likely  to  cut  off  our  usual 
supplies  of  cotton  for  an  indefinite  period,  it  is  a  matter  of 
interest  for  the  printer  to  know  whether  cotton  from  other 
quarters  of  the  globe  will  absorb  the  dyes  equally  well  with 
American  cotton.  A  large  quantity  of  cotton  cloths  made 
exclusively  from  East  Indian  cotton  have  been  printed  and 
dyed  with  tolerably  satisfactory  results;  but  the  comparative 


COW-DUNG — CRIMSON   COLOR.  187 

merits  of  the  various  supplies  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
strictly  tested  yet.  Amongst  the  numerous  interesting  objects 
in  printing  and  dyeing  contained  in  the  International  Exhibi- 
tion, now  open  (1862),  there  is  a  case  of  prints,  exhibited  by 
the  Cotton  Supply  Association,  to  show  that  Surat  cotton  is 
well  adapted  for  printing  on,  but  there  is  no  American  cotton 
to  compare  with.  In  the  Swiss  court  there  is  exhibited  a 
small  but  interesting  series  of  trials  in  Turkey  red  dyeing,  in 
which  the  American,  East  Indian,  and  Egyptian  cottons  are 
contrasted ;  from  these  experiments  it  appears  that  American 
cotton  takes  decidedly  the  best  color,  East  Indian  cotton  is  but. 
little  inferior,  while  the  Egyptian  appears  considerably  below 
either  in  its  affinity  for  coloring  matters.  This  is  only  a  single 
experiment,  and  too  much  importance  must  not  be  attached  to 
it.  For  the  behavior  of  cotton  to  chemical  agents,  see  FIBROUS 
MATTERS. 

Cow-Dung. — Excrementitious  matters  have  from  time  im- 
memorial been  employed  in  various  operations  in  dyeing  and 
printing.  Their  precise  action  is  not  generally  understood  ;  but 
it  must  be  admitted  that  the  operations  in  which  they  were 
employed  were  essential  to  the  successful  carrying  out  of  the 
end  aimed  at.  The  progress  of  chemistry  has  enabled  us  to 
find  substitutes  for  most  of  these  substances,  but  not  to  dispense 
with  the  operations.  Cow-dung  is  now  but  little  used  compared 
with  former  times;  the  introduction  of  substitutes  acting  quite 
as  well,  which  are  easily  stored,  always  obtainable,  and  scarcely 
dearer,  have  tended  to  make  the  operation  of  dunging  properly 
so  called  nearly  obsolete.  The  explanations  of  the  uses  of  cow- 
dung  have  been  given  in  the  article  on  CLEANSING. 

Cream  of  Tartar. — This  is  the  common  name  given  to  the 
acid  combination  of  tartaric  acid  and  potash,  known  in  scientific 
works  as  bitartrate  of  potash.  (See  TARTARIC  ACID.) 

Crimson  Color. — This  is  a  red  color  with  a  tendency 
towards  purple  or  blue,  just  as  scarlet  has  the  contrary  ten- 
dency towards  orange  or  yellow.  The  chief  and  most  valuable 
crimson  colors  are  obtained  from  cochineal,  and  have  been 
treated  under  that  head  ;  it  only  remains  here  to  add  some  of 
the  crimson  shades  obtained  from  woods. 

A  common  crimson  may  be  dyed  upon  cotton  by  steeping 
in  sumac  for  some  hours,  and  then  working  in  tin  spirits  at  2° 
Twaddle,  in  the  manner  common  to  so  many  shades;  then 
washing  out  and  working  in  a  decoction  of  three  parts  of  peach 
or  Lima  wood  and  one  part  of  logwood,  at  a  heat  of  about  120°, 
and  then  raising  with  tin  spirits  (oxymuriate  of  tin).  Here 
the  pure  red,  or  rather  scarlet,  which  would  be  produced  by 
the  red  wood  alone,  is  modified  by  the  purple  of  the  logwood, 


188  CROCINE— CYANOGEN". 

and  made  into  crimson.  By  varying  the  proportions  of  the 
woods  the  shades  may  be  modified  at  will. 

Quantities. — 100  Ibs.  cotton,  30  Ibs.  sumac,  steep  ten  hours; 
tin  solution  at  2°,  45  minutes;  30  Ibs.  red  woods,  10  Ibs.  log- 
wood, 30  minutes;  tin  spirits  to  raise,  15  minutes. 

When  the  coloring  matter  of  safflower  is  deposited  in  consid- 
erable quantity  it  produces  a  crimson  shade.  (See  SAFFLOWER.) 

There  are  no  wood  reds  for  calico  printing  which  can  pro- 
perly be  called  crimson.  The  whole  of  this  class  of  reds  are 
given  under  RED. 

A  crimson  on  delaine,  or  mixed  cotton  and  wool,  is  obtained 
by  passing  the  goods  for  two  hours  in  the  cold  in  a  bath  of 
oxymuriate  of  tin,  at  6°  Tw.,  and  leaving  them  a  reasonable 
time  to  allow  the  tin  to  fix.  They  are  then  dyed  in  one  of  the 
red  woods,  chiefly  peachwood,  at  a  temperature  of  150°,  for 
45  minutes.  If  the  wool  is  dyeing  faster  than  the  cotton,  the 
temperature  must  be  lowered ;  if  the  cotton  dyes  faster  than 
the  wool,  the  temperature  must  be  raised. 

The  crimson  shades  obtainable  on  silk  by  means  of  the 
woods,  have  but  little  beauty,  and  so  fugitive  as  to  be  rarely 
dyed. 

Crocine. — Name  given  by  Rochleder  to  the  coloring  matter 
from  gandenia  grandiflora,  being  identical  with  the  coloring 
matter  existing  in  the  crocus.  By  the  action  of  strong  acids, 
crocetine  is  formed,  which  dyes  a  dark  and  bright  yellow  upon 
silk  with  salts  of  tin.  Said  to  be  used  by  the  Chinese  for  dye- 
ing the  yellow  mandarin  robes. 

Crystals  of  Soda. — This  is  the  common  name  for  crys- 
tallized carbonate  of  soda,  as  crystals  of  tin  is  the  common 
name  for  crystallized  protochloride  of  tin.  Pink  crystals  are 
the  double  chloride  of  tin  and  ammonium,  so  called  because 
used  in  preparing  pink  colors;  they  are  hardly  at  all  used  in 
England. 

Cudbear.— This  tinctorial  substance  is  a  modified  extract 
of  colorable  lichens,  similar  in  its  behavior  to  archil.  It  is 
sold  in  a  state  of  fine  powder,  of  a  reddish  color,  and  peculiar 
odor,  easily  remembered.  Its  use  is  confined  to  a  few  cases  of 
silk  dyeing,  where  it  is  employed  to  yield  shades  of  ruby  and 
maroon ;  upon  wool  it  gives  deep  red  shades.  The  colors 
produced  by  it  are  very  fugitive. 

Curcumine. — The  name  of  the  pure  coloring  matter  of 
turmeric,  from  the  designation  of  the  plant  curcuma  longa,  from 
which  it  is  obtained. 

Cyanogen. — This  is  a  chemical  compound  oTP  carbon  and 
nitrogen,  which  enters  into  combinations  with  metals,  forming 
salts  called  cyanides.  Neither  cyanogen  nor  the  simple  cyanides 


DAHLIA   COLOR.  189 

are  yet  employed  in  the  tinctorial  arts,  but  the  double  cyanides, 
under  the  names  of  red  and  yellow  prussiates,  are  extensively 
used. 


D. 

Dahlia  Color. — The  shade  of  color  which  in  common  lan- 
guage is  called  dahlia  is  a  reddish  lilac  rather  low  toned  :  it  is 
produced  by  combining  a  blue  or  purple  color  with  red  when 
a  compound  color  is  used  ;  upon  woollen  and  silk  it  can  be  ob- 
tained directly  by  means  of  an  archil  or  cudbear  either  alone 
or  blued  by  a  small  quantity  of  sulphate  of  indigo ;  upon 
cotton  goods  indifferent  shades  of  dahlia  are  obtained  by  macer- 
ating in  sumac  liquor,  working  in  tin  solution,  and  dyeing  in 
logwood  mixed  with  some  red  wood.  In^  printing,  the  shades 
are  obtained  by  simply  mixing  red  and  purple  colors  previously 
prepared,  as  in  the  following  examples  upon  cotton  and  de- 
laine : — 

Dark  Dahlia  for  Calico. 

6  quarts  pink  standard, 

1  quart  pale  purple  standard, 

5  Ibs.  of  gum  substitute ;  boil  well. 

Light  Dublin  for  Calico. 

6  quarts  pink  standard, 

2  quarts  light  purple  standard, 
6  quarts  gum  water. 

The  pink  and  purple  standards  referred  to  are  made  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Pink  Standard. 

1  gallon  cochineal  liquor  at  6° ;  heat  to 

170°F.,  and  add 
6  oz.  alum, 

3  oz.  cream  of  tartar, 

\  oz.  oxalic  acid ;  dissolve  the  salts. 

Pale,  Purple  Standard. 
1  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  6° ;  heat  to 
180°  F.,  and  add 

4  Ibs.  gum  Senegal, 

8  oz.  red  prussiate  of  potash, 
12  oz.  alum, 

1  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

2  oz.  oxalate  of  potash. 


190  DAHLIA   COLOR. 

The  dahlia  color  for  delaines  does  not  differ  greatly  from  the 
above,  but  still  sufficiently  so  to  make  the  receipts  interesting. 

Dark  Dahlia  for  Delaine. 

3  quarts  dark  lilac, 

3  quarts  pink  standard, 

2  Ibs.  gum  substitute. 

The  colors  referred  to  in  this  receipt  are  made  as  follows : — 

Pink  Standard  for  Dahlia. 

5  Ibs.  cochineal, 

10  quarts  water ;  boil  30  minutes  and  strain  ; 
the  clear  liquor  is  the  standard. 

Dark  Lilac. 

6  Ibs.  ground  logwood, 

1  gallon  red  liquor  at  18°, 

1  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

1  oz.-  binoxalate  of  potash. 

Steep  all  night;    strain  off,  and  make  up    to   3  quarts  with 
water;  thicken  with  gum  substitute,  at  2  or  3  Ibs.  per  gallon. 

Medium  Dahlia  for  Delaine. 

1  gallon  dark  purple, 

1  gallon  crimson  standard, 

3  Ibs.  gum  Senegal. 

The  colors  which  compose  this  mixture  are  prepared  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Crimson  Standard  for  Dahlia. 

10  Ibs.  cochineal, 

1^  Ib.  cream  of  tartar, 

4£  gallons  water, 

7  quarts  strong  ammonia. 

Keep  hot  for  40  minutes,  and  strain ;  use  the  clear  liquor. 

Dark  Purple  for  Dahlia. 

1  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  18°, 
1  gallon  red  liquor  at  18°, 

8  oz.  red  prussiate  of  potash, 

4  oz.  soda  crystals, 
12  oz.  oxalic  acid*, 

6  Ibs.  gum  Senegal ;  mix  well. 

The  use  of  soda  crystals  here  is  only  an  indirect  method  of 
adding  the  binoxalate  of  soda  to  the  color ;  experience  shows 


DELIQUESCENT.  191 

that  the  binoxalate  in  small  quantity  is  useful  in  logwood  and 
alumina  colors.  Instead  of  this  dark  purple  the  dark  lilac 
given  above  would  answer,  or  some  of  the  other  purples  given 
under  that  head. 

Delaine  :  Muslin  de  Laine,  Mousseline  de  Laine. — Although 
these  words  in  French  distinctly  indicate  a  fabric  made  of  wool, 
they  are  employed  in  English  to  indicate  a  material  of  which 
the  weft  only  is  wool,  the  warp  being  cotton.  In  French,  this 
fabric  is  called  cliaine  cotton,  that  is  "cotton  warp,"  and  some- 
times mi-laine,  that  is  "  half  wool."  It  has  been  extensively 
used  as  a  fabric  for  printing  upon,  and  also  for  dyeing.  Since 
the  two  materials,  cotton  and  wool,  present  a  very  different 
affinity  for  coloring  matters,  there  is  some  little  difficulty  in 
obtaining  the  two  threads  of  an  exactly  similar  shade  ;  this 
difficulty,  however,  has  been  overcome  by  a  multitude  of  in- 
genious devices,  the  chief  of  which  depend  upon  the  fact  that 
cotton  is  best  mordanted  and  best  dyed  at  a  moderately  low 
temperature,  and  in  neutral  liquids;  and  wool  is  best  dyed  at 
a  temperature  close  upon  the  boiling  point,  and  in  acidulated 
liquids.  In  delaine  printing  the  affinities  of  the  different  fibres 
have  been  tolerably  well  equalized  by  depositing  in  their  pores 
a  considerable  quantity  of  oxide  of  tin,  and  compensation  is 
made  in  mixing  colors  for  the  different  properties  of  the  wool 
and  cotton ;  one  ingredient  is  added  because  it  goes  to  the 
wool,  another  because  it  goes  to  the  cotton;  as  in  colors 
where  blue  enters  as  an  ingredient,  extract  of  indigo  fixes 
upon  the  wool  but  not  at  all  upon  the  cotton,  therefore  the 
elements  of  Prussian  blue  are  added  which  give  the  blue  part 
to  the  cotton.  When  delaine  colors  are  unskilfully  mixed,  the 
tint  of  the  cotton  and  wool  is  very  different,  producing  the  effect 
called  "  threadiness."  The  colors  suitable  for  delaines  are  gen- 
erally given  distinctly  in  this  book  ;  but  when  not  given  it  may 
be  understood  that  the  colors  given  for  wool  or  cotton  are 
equally  applicable  to  delaine. 

Delph,  or  Delft  color;  Crockeryware  Blue;  Bleu  de  Faience. 
— The  shade  of  blue  which  is  common  upon  the  ordinary  kind 
of  pottery  ware,  more  generally  known  in  England  as  China 
blue.  (See  INDIGO.) 

Deliquescent.  — Having  the  property  of  attracting  mois- 
ture from  the  air  and  becoming  damp  or  running  to  a  liquid. 
The  most  familiar  example  of  a  deliquescent  body  in  a  print  or 
dye  works  is  American  potash.  Deliquescent  bodies  of  a  neu- 
tral nature  are  very  numerous,  and  sometimes  employed  in 
color  mixing  in  order  to  make  the  color  keep  soft  or  attract 
moisture  when  it  is  on  the  fabric.  The  most  common  deli- 
quescent salts  are  muriate  of  lime,  nitrate  of  lime,  chloride  of 
zinc,  nitrate  of  zinc,  acetate  of  potash,  and  common  salt. 


192  DEXTKINE — DISCHARGE. 

Dextrine, — The  name  given  to  a  species  of  gum  substitute 
made  by  the  action  of  diastase  or  an  acid  upon  starch  or  fa- 
rina. (See  GUM.) 

Diastase. — A  peculiar  substance  contained  in  malted  grain 
which  has  the  property  of  converting  starch  into  gum ;  it  is 
used  for  this  purpose  in  some  printing  establishments.  (See 
GUM  SUBSTITUTES.) 

Dip  Blue. — A  style  of  calico  printing  obtained  by  dipping 
pieces  into  a  solution  of  indigo  properly  prepared.  (See  IN- 
DIGO.) 

Divi-Divi. — This  is  an  astringent  substance  possessing  some 
of  the  properties  of  sumac  ;  attempts  were  made  to  extend  its 
use  in  dyeing,  but  not  with  much  success  ;  it  is  used  by  the 
tanners,  but  scarcely,  if  at  all,  by  the  dyers  or  printers. 

Discharge. — The  name  is  given  to  a  composition  which 
has  the  power  of  bleaching  or  discharging  the  color  already- 
communicated  to  a  fabric,  as  for  example,  it  may  be  desired 
to  produce  a  design  consisting  of  white  figures  upon  a  colored 
ground.  In  many  cases  the  best  way  of  attaining  this  object 
is  to  dye  the  whole  fabric  of  an  uniform  color,  and  then  print 
the  design  of  the  white  spots  with  a  discharging  substance 
which,  removing  the  color  at  the  parts  where  it  was  applied, 
lays  bare  the  white  of  the  fabric  and  makes  the  design.  The 
composition  of  the  discharge,  and  the  processes  which  follow 
its  application,  must  evidently  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the 
color  which  has  to  be  discharged.  I  give  a  number  of  ex- 
amples with  explanations  of  the  reactions  which  ensue. 

Discharge  upon  Indigo  Blue. — The  process  generally  in  use 
was  invented  by  Mr.  Thompson,  of  Glithero.  It  consists  in 
padding  the  indigo  pieces  in  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash, 
drying,  and  then  printing  on  a  highly  acid  paste,  which  liber- 
ates chromic  acid  from  the  potash.  This  is  an  acid  of  great 
energy,  and  highly  destructive  of  coloring  matters.  As  soon 
as  liberated  it  acts  upon  the  indigo  blue,  and  destroys  it  by 
oxidizing  it.  The  bichromate  of  potash  without  acid  does  not 
destroy  indigo  colors,  and  consequently,  the  parts  not  touched 
by  the  acid  composition  retain  their  color.  But  it  is  found 
that  the  bichromate  is  capable  of  injuring  the  blue  if  the  piece 
is  exposed  to  a  strong  light,  as  sunlight;  it  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  provide  some  place  for  hanging  the  pieces,  where 
the  light  is  not  too  direct  or  too  brilliant.  After  the  contact 
of  the  acid  and  cloth  is  judged  to  have  been  sufficiently  pro- 
longed to  destroy  all  the  color,  the  pieces  are  washed  off'  in 
warm  chalk  and  water,  the  chalk  being  necessary  to  neutralize 
the  still  acid  character  of  the  discharge.  The  following  receipts 


DISCHARGE.  193 

will  sufficiently  illustrate  the  methods  of  preparing  the  colors 
or  resists. 

Pad  the  pieces  to  be  discharged  in  a  solution  of  bichromate, 
made  by  dissolving  half  a  pound  of  the  salt  in  each  gallon  of 
water,  the  solution  standing  between  5°  and  6°  Tw. ;  dry 
quickly. 

White  Discharge  on  Indigo  Blue. 

1  gallon  boiling  water, 

2  Ibs.  oxalic  acid, 

10  Ibs.  sulphate  of  lead  pulp, 
1^  Ib.  oil  of  vitriol, 
8  Ibs.  calcined  farina. 

The  oxalic  acid  in  this  proportion  will  crystallize  out  if  the 
color  be  allowed  to  get  too  cold  in  the  working.  The  prac- 
tical difficulty  in  this  style  is  to  obtain  an  acid  sufficiently  ener- 
getic to  accomplish  the  object  without  endangering  the  cloth  ; 
oxalic  would  be  the  best  acid,  but  it  is  only  little  soluble  in 
cold  water,  and  it  has,  therefore,  to  be  combined  with  other 
acids.  The  sulphate  of  lead  is  added  to  give  more  body  to  the 
color,  and  to  allow  a  greater  quantity  to  be  deposited  by  the 
machine;  for  the  same  purpose  the  rollers  for  printing  this 
style  must  be  deeply  engraved. 

A  process  lately  in  use  in  Manchester  was  as  follows:  Two 
parts  of  bichromate  and  one  part  of  pearlash  were  dissolved  in 
water  to  mark  about  6° ;  the  cloth  padded  in  this  solution, 
dried,  and  printed  with  a  color  made  with  one  gallon  of  starch 
thickening  and  2  Ibs.  oxalic  acid,  worked  warm,  hung  up  all 
night,  and  passed  through  warm  and  very  weak  caustic  soda, 
and  then  finished  in  weak  sours.  This  would  not  give  good 
whites  on  the  darkest  styles,  being  deficient  in  power. 

Another  Discharge  for  Indigo  Blue. 

1  gallon  of  water, 

2  Ibs.  oxalic  acid, 
1  Ib.  tartaric  acid, 

3  Ibs.  gum, 

6  Ibs.  pipeclay, 
8  oz.  muriatic  acid. 

This  prescription  differs  from  the  first  by  the  addition  of  tar- 
taric acid,  and  the  substitution  of  pipeclay  for  sulphate  of  lead, 
and  muriatic  for  sulphuric  acid ;  it  is  more  suitable  for  block- 
ing than  for  machine.  By  using  weaker  acid  solutions  the 
discharge  would  be  imperfect,  only  reducing  the  color ;  this  is 
sometimes  aimed  at,  as  in  the  following  receipt : — 


194  DISCHARGE. 

Half  Discharge  for  Indigo  Blue. 

1  gallon  lime  juice  at  30°, 
10  Ibs.  bisnlphate  of  potash, 
10  Ibs.  calcined  farina. 

Mr.  Mercer  discovered  that  a  mixture  of  red  prussiate  of 
potash  and  caustic  potash  would  discharge  indigo  blue  in  a 
very  perfect  manner;  but  on  account  of  difficulties  in  t'he 
application  and  the  greater  expense  of  this  process  over  the 
chrome  discharge  it  has  not  been  much  applied.  If  the  mate- 
rials be  mixed  and  printed  on  a  blue,  the  color  is  at  once  dis- 
charged and  only  requires  washing  off;  but  the  mixture  has  a 
very  energetic  action  upon  all  thickening  matters,  and  is  very 
irregular  in  its  results. 

The  discharge  upon  indigo  blue  can  be  made  to  act  as  mor- 
dants or  colors  to  produce  a  colored  design  instead  of  a  white 
one;  for  example,  if  acetate  of  alumina  be  mixed  with  the 
discharge,  and  the  alumina  fixed  in  the  washing  off,  it  may  be 
dyed  up  in  madder,  garancine,  etc.,  to  produce  a  colored  instead 
of  a  white  discharge. 

Discharge  upon  Madder  Colors. — The  chief  case  in  which  these 
discharges  are  employed  is  upon  Turkey  red,  but  they  are  also 
applicable,  if  required,  upon  lilac  and  other  madder  colors.  I 
omit  the  discharges  to  be  printed  on  mordants  before  dyeing, 
since  that  style  is  hardly  ever  practised,  not  giving  so  good 
results  as  resisting,  and  being  more  difficult  in  its  application. 
The  bichromate  process  of  discharging  blue  is  applicable  to 
madder  colors,  but,  not  being  nearly  so  good  as  the  chlorine 
process,  is  never  used. 

The  process  generally  known  as  Monteith's,  consists  in  the 
direct  application  of  solution  of  chlorine  to  the  dyed  fabric. 
The  Turkey  red  cloth,  in  folds  properly  smoothed  and  arranged, 
is  placed  between  two  thick  cast  lead  plates,  which  are  both 
perforated  with  the  design  to  be  produced,  the  perforations 
exactly  corresponding  ;  the  cloth  is  then  pressed  between  these 
plates  with  considerable  force,  and  the  plates  secured.  This  is 
a  mechanical  contrivance  which  effectually  prevents  the  wetting 
of  the  parts  of  the  cloth  tightly  nipped  between  the  unperfo- 
rated  parts,  while  any  liquid  poured  on  the  upper  plate  will 
gradually  filter  through  the  cloth  from  the  perforation  on  one 
plate  to  the  corresponding  one  on  the  other.  The  passage  of 
the  discharging  liquor,  chloride  of  lime  with  an  excess  of  free 
acid,  is  assisted  by  currents  of  air.  When  the  color  is  dis- 
charged clear  water  is  passed  through,  and  the  pieces  then 
washed  and  finished.  As  might  be  expected  from  the  nature 
of  the  process,  the  edges  of  the  design  are  not  sharp  and  clear ; 


DISCHAEGE.  195 

notwithstanding  any  practical  amount  of  pressure  the  capillary 
attraction  will  assert  itself  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  and  the 
designs  have,  consequently,  ragged  edges.  The  imitation  ban- 
danna handkerchiefs  are  produced  by  this  system,  which  admits 
of  the  discharging  of  large  masses  of  white. 

The  discovery  of  the  other  process  is  claimed  for  both  M.  D. 
Koechlin  and  Mr.  Thompson,  and  is  in  frequent  use.  It  con- 
sists of  printing  a  highly  acid  color  upon  the  cloth  to  be  dis- 
charged, and  then  plunging  it  into  a  mixture  of  bleaching 
powder  and  water.  The  acid  acts  upon  the  bleaching  powder 
causing  a  disengagement  of  chlorine,  which  destroys  the  color 
upon  the  spot  where  the  acid  is  printed.  The  difficulty  in  this 
process  consists  in  confining  the  discharging  to  the  points 
printed  on,  for  it  is  not  possible  to  hit  on  the  quantity  of  chlo- 
rine just  necessary  to  discharge  the  color,  and  any  excess  gene- 
rated spends  itself  upon  the  color  in  the  neighborhood,  unless 
some  precautions  are  taken.  By  having  a  considerable  excess 
of  lime  in  the  bleaching  powder,  and  by  not  leaving  the  pieces 
in  any  longer  than  is  absolutely  required,  and  seeing  that  they 
are  in  a  proper  state  of  dry  ness  when  entered,  very  regular 
results  can  be  obtained.  Besides  obtaining  a  white  object, 
there  are  discharges  which,  at  the  same  time  that  they  destroy 
the  red  color,  leave  another  in  its  place,  or  the  basis  for  pro- 
ducing another,  as  explained  in  the  following  receipts: — 

White  Discharge  on  Turkey  Red. 

1  gallon  of  water, 

10  Ibs.  tartaric  acid, 

7£  Ibs.  pipeclay  or  China  clay, 

1  pint  gum  water, 

1J  Ib.  bichloride  of  tin. 

The  pipeclay  is  the  chief  thickening  matter  in  this  receipt,  and 
it  will  be  found  difficult  to  work  by  machine.  It  is  highly 
important  for  these  discharge  colors  that  the  thickening  should 
be  of  a  porous  and  easily  penetrable  nature  ;  if,  on  the  contrary, 
it  is  dense  and  compact,  it  resists,  for  a  considerable  period,  the 
entrance  of  the  bleaching  liquor,  and  subjects  the  body  of  the 
cloth  to  injury  from  a  too  prolonged  immersion  in  the  decolor- 
izing vat. 

Another  White  Discharge  on  Turkey  Red. 
1  gallon  hot  water, 

9  Ibs.  tartaric  acid, 

10  Ibs.  pipeclay. 

8  quarts  gum  Senegal  water. 


196  DISCHARGE. 

These  colors  can  only  be  well  applied  by  block.  The  following 
discharge  for  working  by  machine  may  do  for  light  work  :  — 

White  Discharge  on  Turkey  Red. 

1  gallon  water, 

6  Ibs.  tartaric  acid, 
1£  Ib.  starch. 

The  following  are  compositions  for  discharging  the  red  and 
producing  some  other  color  on  the  discharged  spot : — 

Blue  Discharge  for  Turkey  Red. 

2  gallons  muriate  of  tin, 

1  gallon  Prussian  blue  pulp, 

1  gallon  water, 

5  Ibs.  tartaric  acid ;  dissolve 

2  gallons  thick  tragacanth  gum  water. 

Another. 

9  Ibs.  tartaric  acid, 

1  Ib.  oxalic  acid, 

4  Ibs.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 
4  oz.  green  copperas, 

6  quarts  water, 

2  Ibs.  starch, 

4  oz.  gum  tragacanth. 

The  excess  of  acid  in  both  these  receipts  causes  the  discharging 
of  the  red  color,  while  the  blue  part,  not  being  acted  upon  by 
the  chlorine,  remains.  Green  discharges  are  composed  the  same 
as  the  blue,  with  addition  of  a  salt  of  lead.  After  going  through 
the  dipping  in  the  decolorizing  vat,  and  washing,  the  pieces  are 
worked  in  chrome,  which  converts  the  lead  into  the  yellow 
chromate,  which,  combined  with  the  blue,  forms  the  green. 
The  yellow  discharge  consists  of  the  acid  necessary  to  produce 
the  white  with  nitrate  of  lead,  to  deposit  the  lead  basis,  which 
is  afterwards  converted  into  yellow  by  chroming. 

Yellow  Discharge  for  Turkey  Red. 

1  gallon  water, 

15  Ibs.  tartaric  acid, 

14  Ibs.  pipeclay, 

1  gallon  water,  in  which  dissolve 

7  Ibs.  nitrate  of  lead,  and  add 
1  gallon  thick  gum  water. 


DISCHARGE.  197 

Another  Yellow  Discharge. 

1  gallon  lime  juice  18°, 

4  Ibs.  nitrate  of  lead, 

2J  Ibs.  tartaric  acid, 

3  Ibs.  gum  substitute. 

This  last  receipt  is  workable  by  machine  as  is  the  following 
also: — 

Yellow  Discharge  for  Turkey  Red. 

1  gallon  water, 
1 J  Ib.  starch ;  boil,  and  add 
2|  Ibs.  nitrate  of  lead, 
7J  Ibs.  tartaric  acid. 

The  green  discharge  is  obtained  by  mixing  suitable  quantities 
of  the  blue  and  yellow  discharges. 

The  blacks  which  are  called  discharge  blacks  are  in  reality 
only  topical  blacks  without  any  discharging  quality,  for  the 
red  does  not  interfere  with  the  shade  of  the  black  except  to 
make  it  a  little  more  intense.  In  order  to  complete  the  series, 
however,  I  give  here  receipts  for  the  blacks  which  are  used  in 
conjunction  with  the  above  discharges,  and  commonly  called 
discharge  blacks. 

Discharge  Slack  for  Turkey  Red. 

1  gallon  logwood  liquor  at  4°, 

2  Ibs.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 

1  quart  thick  gum  tragacanth, 

2  Ibs.  flour;  boil  and  add 

2  quarts  iron  liquor  at  30°,  and  when  cool 
J  pint  nitrate  of  iron  at  80°. 

The  receipt  for  soda  black  or  spermaceti  black,  on  page  88,  is 
suitable  for  this  style  of  work.  The  yellow  prussiate  is  added 
to  give  a  blue  shade  to  the  black,  as  well  as  to  correct  any 
tendency  to  brownness  which  the  red  might  have  on  the  log- 
wood color.  The  following  black  for  the  same  purpose  is 
composed  partly  of  galls  and  partly  of  logwood,  and  though 
somewhat  more  expensive,  is  also  more  durable: — 

Blue-Hack  Discharge  for  Turkey  Red. 

3  gallons  logwood  liquor  at  8°, 
7  gallons  gall  liquor  at  9°, 

20  Ibs.  starch  ;  boil,  and  while  hot  add 

2 \  Ibs.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash,  and  when  cool 

3  quarts  muriate  of  iron  at  60°, 

3  quarts  nitrate  of  iron  at  80°. 


198  DISCHARGE. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  substitute  arsenic  acid  and  sulphate  of 
zinc  for  the  more  expensive  tartaric  acid  in  the  above  receipts  ; 
but  the  substitution  has  not  been  general. 

Discharge  upon  Manganese  Bronze. — The  proper  discharge  for 
this  color  is  muriate  or  crystals  of  tin,  either  with  or  without 
addition  of  acid :  for  the  darkest  shades  the  discharge  must  be 
rather  strong,  containing  from  six  to  eight  pounds  of  crystals 
per  gallon,  and  may  be  mixed  with  either  muriatic  acid  or  oil 
of  vitriol.  After  printing,  the  pieces  may  be  hung  up  for  a 
few  hours  and  then  washed  off  in  chalk  and  water. 

Discharge  upon  Iron  Buff. — The  same  discharge  as  for  man- 
ganese brown,  the  strength  to  be  proportioned  to  the  darkness 
of  the  color ;  if  only  a  light  shade  of  buflj  muriate  of  tin  is  not 
necessary,  a  mixture  of  oxalic,  tartaric,  and  muriatic  acids  will 
suffice. 

The  difficulties  attending  the  successful  discharging  of  these 
two  colors  reside  in  having  the  discharge  strong  enough,  and 
not  too  strong ;  if  deficient  in  strength,  the  whites  are  of  course 
bad;  if  too  strong,  the  discharge  will  run  and  give  a  bad 
impression.  The  iron  buff  does  not  give  way  very  readily,  and 
the  pieces  must  be  hung  up  in  a  cool  place  for  some  hours;  if 
the  room  is  too  dry  the  action  of  the  discharge  is  suspended,  if 
too  moist  the  color  deliquesces  and  marks  off. 

Discharge  upon  Prussian  Blue. — This  discharge  is  simply 
caustic  potash  thickened  with  gum  substitute  ;  the  potash  must 
be  about  20°  Tw.  After  printing,  the  pieces  are  washed  in 
clear  water,  and  though  the  blue  is  removed  there  is  a  buff 
left  of  oxide  of  iron  which  is  cleared  by  a  passage  in  warm 
sours. 

Discharged  whites  are  usually  inferior  to  resisted  whites, 
excepting  in  the  case  of  indigo  blue  where  the  contrary  is  the 
case;  consequently,  most  whites  are  now  obtained  by  resisting, 
unless  the  ground  color  is  one  which  can  be  better  obtained  by 
dyeing  than  by  printing. 

Discharging  or  Bleaching  Printed  Pieces. — This  is  frequently 
done  upon  a  print  works  with  spoiled  pieces,  etc.,  before  dyeing. 
Iron  and  alumina  mordants  are  easily  discharged  by  a  passage 
in  warm  sulphuric  acid  at  about  5°  Tw.  Reds  which  have  tin 
in  are  extremely  difficult  to  discharge,  especially  if  three  or 
four  days  old ;  they  are  best  soured  and  then  bowked  as  in 
bleaching.  Catechu  brown  requires  a  very  strong  solution  of 
bleaching  powder  after  souring  and  sometimes  a  prolonged 
steeping  in  spirits  of  salts.  Chrome  colors  are  discharged  by 
passing  in  warm  muriatic  sours,  washing,  and  then  steeping  in 
dilute  caustic  soda.  Indigo  blues  are  discharged  by  bowking 
under  pressure  with  soap  and  soda,  then  souring  and  chemick- 


DRAB   COLOR.  199 

ing.  Iron  buffs  and  manganese  browns  are  discharged  by  warm 
muriatic  sours.  Dyed  madder  colors  can  be  discharged  by  a 
good  warm  souring  and  then  bowking.  In  all  cases  the  goods 
must  receive  a  slight  chemicking  or  bleaching  steep,  to  take 
off  a  yellowness  which  they  unavoidably  acquire  in  the  treat- 
ment. 

Drab  Color. — Drab  is  a  kind  of  gray ;  it  is  generally  said 
to  be  the  color  of  fullers'  earth.  I  give  some  receipts  for  pro- 
ducing shades  known  as  drabs.  Further  information  may  be 
found  under  GRAY. 

Drab  Colors  on  Cotton : — 

Catechu  Drab  for  Madder  or  Garancine. 
3  gallons  water, 
10  Ibs.  muriate  of  ammonia, 
10  Ibs.  catechu  ;  boil,  dissolve,  and  strain  ; 

1  gallon  acetic  acid,  * 

J  gallon  acetate  of  copper,  p.  45. 

The  above  would  only  yield  a  brown;  but  by  the  addition  of 
muriate  of  iron  it  is  turned  to  a  drab,  the  shade  of  which  varies 
according  to  the  proportion  of  catechu  and  iron  salt.  The 
following  proportion  gives  a  light  drab: — 

2  gallons  gum  water, 

5  quarts  of  above  standard, 

1  quart  muriate  of  iron,  at  10°  Tw. 

The  muriate  of  iron  being  increased  the  drab  becomes  darker ; 
there  may  be  six  or  eight  well-defined  shades  between  the 
above  and  the  darkest  shade,  besides  two  or  three  yet  lighter. 
The  color  is  treated  exactly  as  a  madder  or  garancine  color, 
and  is  worked  with  red,  chocolate,  etc. 

Dark  Drab  for  Calico.     Steam. 

1  gallon  berry  liquor  at  12°, 

7  lbs..gum  substitute;  boil  and  cool ; 

1J  Ib.  alum, 

1  Ib.  green  copperas,   , 

1  quart  logwood  liquor  at  2°, 

1  quart  cochineal  liquor  at  3°. 

In  this  receipt  all  the  elementary  colors  are  present,  with  the 
iron  salt  for  a  darkening  agent;  the  coalescence  of  the  whole 
destroys  the  particular  shade  of  each,  making  a  gray  brown. 
This  color  being  reduced  by  gum  water  yields  the  lighter 
shades  of  drab. 


200  DRAB   COLOR. 

Another  Drab  for  Calico.     Steam. 

3  quarts  hot  water, 

l£  pint  lilac  standard, 

f  pint  bark  liquor  at  30°, 

1  oz.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash,  dissolved  in 

1  pint  hot  water ;  thickened  with  gum. 

Lilac  Standard  for  abovfi. 
2  gallons  logwood  liquor  at  12°, 

2  gallons  red  liquor  at  18°, 
1  Ib.  oxalic  acid, 

1J  Ib.  muriate  of  ammonia, 

10  oz.  acetate  of  copper  crystals. 

In  this  receipt,  which  is  of  French  origin,  the  blue  part  is 
partly  owing  to  Prussian  blue,  and  partly  to  the  violet  of  the 
logwood,  the  bark  liquor  giving  the  yellow  part,  the  red  part 
of  course  exists  in  the  violet. 

Dark  Drab  for  Delaine. 

3  quarts  purple  standard  made  from 

4  Ibs.  ground  logwood, 

1  gallon  red  liquor,  steeped  all  night, 

2  quarts  blue  standard, 

3  pints  berry  liquor  at  6°, 

5  Ibs.  gum  substitute. 

The  blue  standard,  named  above,  is  composed  as  follows : — 

7  Ibs.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 
2  Ibs.  alum, 
12  oz.  oxalic  acid, 
2  gallons  hot  water, 
2  pint  muriate  of  tin. 
To  be  well  stirred  before  mixing. 

Another  Dark  Drab  for  Delaine. 

1  gallon  gall  liquor  at  12°, 
1  quart  berry  liquor  at  10°, 
1  pint  cochineal  liquor  at  6°, 
1  pint  iron  liquor  at  24°, 
5  quarts  thick  gum  water. 

Drab  Colors  upon  Cotton  by  Dyeing. — Drab  dyed  upon  cotton 
is  obtained  in  a  variety  of  ways,  some  of  which  are  here 
given. 

Iron  and  Catechu  Drab.— Pad  in  buff  liquor  and  raise,  then 


DRYING.  20  L  ' 

dye  in  beck  taking  four  pieces  and  using  one  quart  of  solution 
of  catechu,  made  by  dissolving  1£  Ib.  catechu  in  one  quart  of 
acetic  acid  and  one  quart  of  water.  Keep  the  pieces  well  open 
or  they  will  be  irregular. 

Another  Drab. — Steep  in  sumac,  add  some  copperas,  and  work 
for  fifteen  minutes;  wash  out,  and  then  work  in  a  mixture  of 
fustic,  logwood,  and  peachwood,  and  raise  with  alum.  The 
shade  can  be  varied  at  will  by  varying  the  proportions  of  the 
woods. 

Catechu  Drab. — Work  the  cotton  goods  in  weak  catechu 
liquor  for  some  time,  then  add  a  little  copperas  and  work  until 
the  desired  shade  is  obtained.  By  afterwards  working  in  the 
woods  and  raising  with  alum,  an  endless  number  of  shades  may 
be  obtained. 

Drab  Colors  upon  Wool  by  Dyeing. — By  boiling  the  wool  in 
bichromate  of  potash  and  then  adding  a  small  quantity  of  log- 
wood, an  agreeable  soft  shade  of  gray  drab  can  be  obtained 
It  is  modified  to  a  slate-colored  drab  by  addition  of  sulphate  of 
indigo. 

Another  drab,  nearly  similar  in  shade,  is  obtained  by  taking 
the  following,  for  about  12  Ibs.  of  wool :  Mordant  first  in  2  Ibs. 
alum  and  1  Ib.  tartar,  then  add  2  Ibs.  fustic,  6  oz.  extract  of 
indigo,  and  8  oz.  archil  liquor,  or  in  proportions  thereabouts, 
and  work  at  the  boil  for  an  hour. 

Another  drab  is  as  follows,  for  10  Ibs.  of  wool :  2  oz.  ground 
madder,  1  oz.  peachwood,  6  oz.  fustic  ;  work  in  hot  for  half  an 
hour,  then  lift  and  add  3  oz.  copperas  dissolved  in  water;  work 
for  another  half  hour. 

It  is  evident  that  by  varying  the  proportions  of  woods  any 
number  of  shades  of  drab  can  be  readily  produced  by  an  expe- 
rienced hand. 

Drab  Colors  upon  Silk  by  Dyeing. — The  basis  of  drab  upon  silk 
is  sumac  and  fustic  fixed  by  copperas;  by  using  other  coloring 
matters  in  conjunction  the  shade  may  be  varied  to  any  degree. 
For  10  Ibs.  of  silk  the  following  proportions  may  be  taken : 
1  Ib.  sumac,  1  Ib.  fustic,  |  Ib.  copperas,  afterwards  1  pint  archil. 
If  sulphate  of  indigo  be  used  the  drab  will  become  greenish, 
especially  if  a  greater  quantity  of  fustic  be  employed. 

Drying. — Great  care  is  necessary  in  drying  colored  fabrics 
so  that  they  may  retain  their  highest  bloom.  The  considera- 
tion of  the  machines  used  for  drying  does  not  enter  into  the 
plan  of  this  part  of  the  book  ;  but  a  few  general  observations 
present  themselves  worthy  of  attention.  In  drying  mordants 
before  dyeing,  a  distinction  should  be  made  as  to  whether 
thickened  or  not ;  thickened  mordants  will  bear  harder  drying 
than  mordants  not  thickened  ;  if  the  mordant  be  but  slightly 
14 


202  DRYING. 

thickened,  as  for  padding,  it  stands  in  a  medium  position.  As 
a  general  rule,  mordanted  goods  should  be  dried  soft,  in  a  stove 
or  by  passing  before,  and  not  in  contact  with,  moderately 
heated  iron  plates.  It  is  found  that  if  mordanted  goods,  or 
steam  colors,  be  dried  hard  or  be  allowed  to  come  in  direct 
contact  with  heated  metallic  surfaces,  until  all  the  moisture  is 
expelled,  the  resulting  colors  are  imperfect  and  irregular.  If 
the  steam  color  be  a  dark  one  and  strongly  thickened  with  flour 
or  starch,  it  will  stand  a  much  harder  drying  than  if  a  light 
color  and  lightly  thickened.  The  very  few  colors  or  mordants 
which  do  not  contain  a  volatilizable  element  are  those  least 
affected  by  the  drying.  For  example,  acetate  of  alumina  mor- 
dant if  hard  dried  gives  bad  colors  in  dyeing  ;  the  aluminate  of 
potash  employed  for  exactly  the  same  colors  is  little  influenced 
by  any  kind  of  drying;  the  former  contains  acetic  acid  which 
is  volatile  and  becomes  expelled  suddenly  and  too  quickly  by 
hard  drying,  the  latter  contains  no  volatile  element  and  suffers 
no  decomposition  by  the  heat  of  drying.  The  same  in  the  case 
of  lead  mordants  for  yellow  and  orange.  The  reasons  of  this 
are  very  evident  to  the  chemist,  and  the  facts  are  quite  familiar 
to  the  practical  man.  In  drying  finished  colors  much  care  is 
also  necessary  :  in  the  case  of  fugitive  shades  the  hot  vapor  may 
act  chemically,  injuring  the  color  very  considerably,  especially 
in  drying  over  steam  cylinders  when  the  machine  is  stopped 
with  the  goods  on.  Even  in  drying  fast  colors,  such  as  Turkey 
red  and  indigo  blue,  the  tone  and  brightness  may  be  very  much 
changed  by  too  hasty  and  careless  drying.  The  effect  is  partly 
chemical,  and  also  probably  partly  mechanical ;  it  is  likely  that 
when  the  water  contained  in  the  threads  is  suddenly  converted 
into  steam  by  running  on  a  hot  cylinder,  a  bursting  or  blow- 
ing-up of  the  fibres  takes  place,  by  which  the  uncolored  or  but 
slightly  colored  filaments  of  the  interior  are  brought  to  the 
surface,  and  so  mix  with  and  injure  the  true  surface  color. 

It  is  well  understood  that  all  colors  look  best  and  brightest 
when  moist,  some  dyed  goods  (navy  blues)  are  actually  sent 
wet  into  the  market;  Turkey  reds  are  also  loaded  with  oil 
partly  to  increase  their  lustre  and  partly  to  increase  their 
weight.  All  colored  goods  should  have  an  opportunity  of  ab- 
sorbing their  proper  hygrometric  moisture,  which  may  amount 
to  7|  or  10  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  dry  cloth ;  for  this 
purpose  goods  are  hung  up  in  cool  places  after  drying,  or  taken 
damp  from  the  drying  machine  and  hung  up  to  part  with  super- 
fluous moisture,  or  else  damped  by  mechanical  contrivances  in 
connection  with  the  finishing  machine.  Although  this  damped 
state  is  favorable  to  the  hue  of  the  colors,  it  is  by  no  means 
favorable  to  their  preservation  if  at  all  loose  or  fugitive  ;  there- 


DYEING.  203 

fore,  fancy  styles,  spirit  colors,  and  dyed  goods  for  shipping 
should  be  dry,  and  especially  if  to  be  packed  in  air  tight  tin 
packages. 

Dung. — There  is  hardly  any  animal  whose  dung  has  not 
been  used  in  some  way  or  other  in  dyeing.  Cow  dung,  sheep 
dung,  and  dog  dung  are  at  present  used  in  various  ways ;  ser- 
pents' dung  was  the  first  and  best  source  of  the  murexide 
colors,  but  gave  way  to  fowl  dung  (guano)  which  was  more 
plentiful  and  accessible.  No  satisfactory  explanation  has  ever 
been  given  with  regard  to  most  of  the  uses  of  excrement;  and 
there  seems  no  doubt  that  a  little  enlightened  inquiry  would 
show  that  they  might  be  substituted  by  cheaper  and  less  objec- 
tionable chemical  preparations. 

Dung  Substitutes. — This  name  refers  to  substances  intro- 
duced as  substitutes  for  cow  dung,  the  chief  of  them  and  their 
appliances  will  be  found  under  CLEANSING. 

Dunging. — The  operation  of  subjecting  mordanted  goods 
to  the  action  of  a  mixture  of  cow  dung  and  hot  water.  (See 
CLEANSING  ) 

Dyeing. — The  verb  "to  dye"  appears  to  mean  strictly  the 
tinging  or  coloring  of  absorbant  substances  by  impregnating 
them  with  solutions  of  coloring  mutters.  It  is  thus  opposed  to 
painting,  which  consists  in  laying  a  color  upon  the  surface 
colored  ;  and  is  distinct  from  inlaying,  embroidery,  etc.,  which 
consist  in  working  colored  substances  mechanically  into  another 
substance;  and  from  staining  of  glass  and  porcelain,  which  is 
the  effect  of  dry  heat  upon  the  coloring  particles.  Nearly  all 
vegetable  and  animal  substances  are  porous  and  absorbent,  and 
can  be  dyed  ;  also  some  minerals,  as  marble  and  stone.  Metals 
are  not  perceptibly  porous,  nor  glass,  and  such  substances  can- 
not be  dyed. 

The  practical  operations  of  dyeing  are^given  in  detail  in 
these  pages,  and  the  general  principles  upon  which  the  opera- 
tions depend  are  specified  for  each  color  or  dyewood.  The  art 
of  dyeing,  though  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  the  world,  has 
not  been  successfully  studied  by  scientific  men,  and  its  princi- 
ples are  not  reduced  to  anything  like  scientific  accuracy. 

The  nature  of  the  combination  which  takes  place  between 
coloring  matters,  mordants,  and  fibrous  substances,  has  been 
the  subject  of  considerable  difference  of  opinion  among  writers 
upon  this  subject.  In  the  last  century,  Hellot  and  Le  Pileur 
d'Alpigny  enunciated  an  opinion  which  may  be  called  the  me- 
chanical theory  ;  they  were  opposed  by  Bergman  and  Macquer, 
who  sustained  a  chemical  theory.  The  ideas  of  the  first  two 
authors,  as  translated  into  current  chemical  language,  are  of 
such  a  nature  as  to  command  every  respect.  They  do  not 


20-1  DYEING. 

admit  of  any  chemical  affinity  on  the  part  of  the  fibre,  but  rest 
their  arguments  upon  an  assumed  porousness  of  all  fibres,  and, 
further,  that  the  pores  of  one  fibre  are  of  a  different  size  to  the 
pores  of  another  of  a  different  origin,  and  that  the  number  of 
pores  is  greater  in  some  cases  than  others.  Wool  was  held  to 
have  pores  of  greatest  diameter,  and  in  a  given  space  the 
greatest  number  of  them,  and  silk  those  of  least  diameter. 
These  pores,  which  they  supposed  to  pierce  the  fibres  laterally, 
were  the  recipients  of  the  colored  particles  ;  they  were  expand- 
ed by  heat,  and  various  chemical  agents,  in  a  such  a  way  as 
to  admit  the  particles  of  coloring  matter,  and  then,  being  closed 
by  cooling  or  other  chemical  agents,  were  enabled  to  retain 
them  securely.  They  of  course  allowed  the  influence  of  mor- 
dants as  changing  the  shades  of  color,  and  as  forming  insoluble 
lakes  with  the  coloring  matter.  To  explain  why  dyes  would 
not  enter  into  combination  with  all  fibres  equally,  the  theory 
of  different  sized  pores  was  invented,  and  then  different  sizes 
attributed  to  the  particles  of  coloring  matters. 

These  assumptions  serve  to  explain  most  phenomena  in 
dyeing,  and  after  the  following  manner:  Wool  has  the  greatest 
number  of  pores  and  of  the  largest  size,  therefore  it  stands  at 
the  head  of  all  fibrous  substance  in  its  affinity  for  colors;  silk 
has  pores  much  smaller,  and  is  more  difficult  to  dye,  and  never 
attracts  so  much  coloring  matter  as  to  yield  the  dark  shades 
obtainable  on  wool ;  cotton  holds  an  intermediate  place.  But 
there  are  coloring  matters  which  do  not  dye  wool  so  well  as 
they  dye  silk  and  cotton  fibre.  This  is  explained  by  saying 
that  those  coloring  matters  do  truly  enter  into  the  pores  of  the 
wool,  but  they  are  of  too  fine  a  nature  to  be  retained  there,  they 
swim  out  again  upon  washing;  they  are  deficient  also  in  some 
astringent  principle,  which  in  other  colors  contracts  or  s-huts 
up  the  pores;  when  they  are  applied  to  silk  or  cotton  they 
meet  pores  of  a  narrowness  suitable  for  them,  and  are  retained. 
The  difference  between  fast  and  loose  colors  is  in  connection 
with  the  above  phenomena;  a  fast  color  is  one  in  which  the 
size  of  the  colored  particles  is  adapted  to  the  size  of  the  pores 
of  the  material  on  which  it  is  applied,  and  in  which  the  coloring 
particles  either  contain  in  themselves,  or  in  the  mordant,  some 
astringent,  or  binding  substance,  which  shall  cause  the  con- 
traction of  the  pores ;  a  loose  color  arises  from  an  unfitness 
between  the  size  of  the  pores  and  the  coloring  particles,  and  an 
absence  of  the  astringent  principle ;  the  particles  are  either  too 
small,  and  pass  too  readily  in  and  out  of  the  pores,  or  they  are 
too  large,  and  only  partly  enter  them,  and  the  astringent  prin- 
ciple is  either  absent  or  too  weak  to  close  up  the  pores  in  a 
firm  and  enduring  manner.  Hellot  insisted  a  good  deal  upon 


DYEING.  205 

the  astringent  principle,  and  considered  that  the  essential  dif- 
ference between  dyewoods  lay  in  their  astringent  power,  saving 
that  if  this  principle  could  be  communicated  to  those  which 
were  deficient  in  it  all  colors  would  be  alike  fast  colors. 

The  theory  of  Hellot  rests  entirely  upon  the  supposition  of 
the  actual  existence  of  pores  in  fibrous  substances.  It  has  been 
objected  that  this  is  gratuitous  assumption,  for  the  most  perfect 
microscopes  of  the  present  day  show  no  lateral  pores,  but  only 
a  central  tubular  structure  in  either  vegetable  or  animal  fibres. 
But,  apart  from  microscopic  evidence,  or  rather  the  want  of  it, 
there  is  every  reason  to  deduce  from  analogy  that  the  walls  of 
the  fibres  are  permeable  to  fluids,  and,  therefore,  contain  some 
kind  of  passages  or  pores.  No  real  ground  of  objection  can 
be  taken  on  the  score  of  want  of  microscopic  confirmation  ;  the 
microscope  is  a  progressive  instrument,  and  can  only  be  of 
value  so  far  as  it  approaches  to  perfection  in  its  powers,  and  it 
is  far  short  of  that.  From  mathematical  and  physical  grounds, 
if  not  from  our  knowledge  of  organized  structures  in  general, 
there  is  reason  to  predicate  the  porosity  of  fibrous  matters. 
The  further  development  of  the  theory,  which  asserts  the  size 
and  number  of  these  pores  to  be  different  in  different  fibres,  is 
in  like  manner  supported  by  analogical  reasoning.  The  naked 
eye  discovers  in  the  fibre  of  wood,  sections  of  vegetables  and 
fruits;  and  in  some  minerals  a  regular  difference  of  structure 
— a  coarseness  or  a  fineness,  which  is  always  the  same  for  the 
same  substance.  In  amylaceous  matters  the  microscope  shows 
a  regular  difference  in  the  relative  sizes  of  the  largest  granules 
of  any  two  qualities  of  different  origin  ;  the  globules  of  potato- 
starch  are  invariably  larger  than  those  of  wheaten  starch,  and 
these  are  larger  than  the  globules  of  other  kinds  of  starch.  It 
is  not,  therefore,  exceeding  the  bounds  of  fair  analogy  to  sup- 
pose that  the  pores  of  fibres  of  a  different  origin  may  be  dif- 
ferent in  size.  The  further  assumpcion  that  the  pores  of  wool 
are  greater  in  size  than  those  of  silk  or  any  other  fibrous  mat- 
ter, does  not  rest  upon  such  general  principles;  it  is  deduced 
from  the  behavior  of  fibrous  substances  towards  coloring  mat- 
ters, which  behavior  miglit  be  explained  in  other  ways. 

Tbe  chemical  theory,  supported  by  Berthollet  and  chemists 
generally,  considers  the  fibre  as  having  an  attraction  of  a  chemi- 
cal nature  for  the  coloring  manner,  or  for  the  mordant;  that  a 
real  intimate  union  of  atom  to  atom  takes  place ;  it  throws  aside 
the  question  of  porosity  as  not  necessary  to  the  explanation ; 
and  looks  upon  the  dyeing  as  a  union  upon  the  surface  of  the 
fibre  between  it  and  the  coloring  principle  with  or  without  a 
mordant.  The  various  conditions  of  the  fixing  of  a  coloring 
matter,  the  different  mordants  and  treatments  necessary,  are 


206  DYKING. 

looked  upon  as  arising  from  the  different  chemical  properties 
of  the  respective  fibrous  and  coloring  matters.  This  theory  has 
been  the  one  accepted  by  the  majority  of  writers  upon  dyeing; 
but,  as  these  writers  are  for  the  most  part  chemists,  it  is  not, 
perhaps,  surprising  that  they  should  have  adopted  a  chemical 
explanation,  and  made. a  free  use  of  such  terms  as  affinity, 
attraction,  and  combination — terms  which  are,  for  the  most 
part,  very  loosely  used,  and  include  too  much  to  mean  anything 
precise. 

Mr.  Crum  published  a  paper  a  few  years  ago  upon  this  ques- 
tion, and  supported,  with  great  ability,  the  non-chemical  theory 
as  far  as  the  fibre  was  concerned,  admitting  of  course  a  chem- 
ical action  between  the  chemical  materials  used  ;  but,  looking 
upon  the  fibre  as  a  neutral  ground  upon  which  the  coloring 
matter  was  formed,  but  retained  there  by  purely  physical 
means.  -He  rejects  the  idea  of  any  deposition  of  any  perma- 
nent coloring  matter  upon  the  surface  of  the  fibre.  To  be  able 
to  resist  washing,  the  color  must  be,  he  says,  actually  inclosed 
by  the  fibre  as  by  a  bag  or  fine  network,  the  coloring  par- 
ticles must  be  in  the  cells  or  pores  of  the  tissue.  In  madder 
dyed  goods  there  is  a  chemical  compound  of  an  oxide  with  the 
coloring  matter,  but  there  is  no  chemical  union  of  either  of 
them  with  the  cotton  fibre.  There  can  be  no  chemical  com- 
bination, he  considers,  with  the  fibre,  for,  "if  we  only  consider 
that  chemical  attraction  necessarily  involves  combination,  atom 
to  atom,  and  consequently  disorganization  of  all  vegetable 
structure;  that  cotton  wool  may  be  dyed  without  injury  to  its 
'fibre,  and  that  that  fibre  remains  entire,  when,  by  chemical 
means,  its  color  has  again  been  removed,  we  shall  find  that 
the  union  of  cotton  with  its  coloring  matter  must  be  accounted 
for  otherwise  than  by  chemical  affinity."  He  admits  a  power 
of  attraction  on  the  part  of  cotton  fibre,  and  a  capability  of  its 
withdrawing  chemical  or  coloring  substances  from  solutions  of 
them.  But  in  this  force  he  only  recognizes  that  same  action, 
whatever  it  may  be,  which  enables  charcoal  to  absorb  gases, 
and  remove  coloring  matters  and  some  salts  and  metallic  oxides 
from  solutions.  The  blue  vat,  the  plombate  of  lime  for  chrome 
oranges,  the  nitrate  of  iron  and  muriate  of  tin — passages  so 
familiar  to  dyers — are  examples  adduced  ;  but  they  are  not 
examples  of  chemical  attraction,  but  of  catalytic  force. 

Mr.  Crurn's  theory  has  been  controverted  by  Mr.  Persoz  at 
some  length  in  the  second  volume  of  his  work  upon  calico 
printing;  but  in  my  opinion  he  does  not  meet  Mr.  Crum's 
arguments  upon  the  exact  ground  of  the  experiments  and  de- 
ductions of  the  latter  ;  and  most  of  his  illustrations  from  calico 
printing  and  dyeing  are  directed  against  ideas  which  do  not 


DYEING.  207 

appear  to  be  contained  in  Mr.  drum's  paper,  and  which  are 
not  fairly  deducible  from  what  it  does  contain.  Mr.  Persoz 
considers  that  cotton  fibre,  and  other  fibres,  have  an  actual 
influence  of  a  chemical  nature  upon  salts  ;  he  states  that  cubical 
alum  left  in  contact  with  cotton  fibre  loses  alumina  and  becomes 
converted  into  ordinary  alum,  and  that  acetate  of  alumina  is 
much  more  completely  <iecomposed  upon  cotton  cloth  than 
when  it  is  exposed  spread  over  a  similar  surface  of  glass,  mica, 
or  platinum,  which  are  chemically  inactive.  He  rejects  the 
idea  of  coloring  matters  being  held  by  cells,  pores,  or  bags, 
chiefly  on  the  ground  that  colors  when  deposited  on  cloth  are 
as  easily  acted  upon  as  in  any  other  condition;  that  if  there 
were  such  cavities  they  would  be  filled  up  in  many  cases  by 
the  materials  used  preparatory  to  the  application  of  the  actual 
color,  as  by  the  oil  and  astringents  in  Turkey  red,  by  the  oxide 
of  tin  in  steam  colors,  and  by  the  oxide  of  manganese  in  indigo 
dyeing.  He  states  that  upon  a  careful  examination  of  dyed 
or  printed  colors,  it  may  be  seen  that  the  color  is  upon  the 
surface  and  in  relief;  if  it  were  otherwise,  he  demands,  how 
could  thickened  discharges  perform  their  office,  and  how  would 
the  slightest  washings  suffice  to  remove  colors  so  made  soluble? 
He  considers  that  there  is  a  chemical  combination  between  the 
coloring  matter  and  the  cloth,  even  in  such  a  case  as  indigo 
dyeing,  and  evidently  considers  the  fact  of  the  fibre  being  un- 
changed or  uninjured  as  forming  no  argument  against  the  sup- 
position of  chemical  and  atomic  combination.  He  proceeds  at 
great  length  to  prove  that  the  adhesion  of  colors  to  fibres  is 
simply  due  to  attraction  ;  but  it  is  not  very  clear  what  Mr. 
Persoz  means  by  attraction  in  this  particular  case.  Upon  in- 
telligible definitions  of  those  two  words  "catalysis"  and  "attrac- 
tion" used  respectively  by  Crurn  and  Persoz,  the  whole  discus- 
sion rests. 

The  difference  between  the  ideas  of  Persoz  and  Crum  are 
very  distinct  upon  the  matter  of  pores;  one  thinks  them  all- 
essential,  the  other  either  considers  them  not  to  exist,  or,  if 
existing,  to  be  of  no  essential  use.  Hellot  uses  the  expression 
that  colors  are  held  by  the  pores  of  the  fibre  as  a  diamond  is 
by  its  setting.  In  Persoz's  theory  the  diamond  is  held  without 
any  setting,  it  adheres  where  it  is  applied,  as  two  true  surfaces 
to  each  other,  or  two  edges  of  freshly  cut  caoutchouc ;  for  he 
does  not  assume  that  it  is  by  virtue  of  those  forces  commonly 
known  as  chemical,  but,  by  some  congruity  of  physical  form, 
that  the  mordant  or  coloring  matter,  attaches  itself  to  the  ex- 
ternal wall  of  the  fibre.  .  Both  Crum  and  Persoz  admit  the 
existence  of  a  positive  attraction  on  the  part  of  fibre  for  color- 


208  DYEING. 

ing  matters  and  mordants;  but  neither  of  them  considers  this 
attraction  to  be  that  of  simple  chemical  combination,  such,  as 
takes  place  between  an  oxide  and  an  acid. 

Upon  a  full  consideration  of  all  the  circumstances  of  absorp- 
tion of  color  by  fibre  known  to  me,  I  conclude  that  the  idea 
of  the  fibre  taking  a  chemical  part  is  the  one  which  agrees  the 
best  with  all  the  phenomena.  The  great  difficulty  appears  to 
be  in  that  objection  of  Mr.  drum's,  that  if  there  was  chemical 
combination  there  should  be  disorganization  of  the  fibrous 
structure  when  this  compound  is  destroyed  by  the  removal  of 
one  of  its  components,  the  oxide  or  the  coloring  matter ; 
whereas,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  not  found  that  the  fibre  is  altered 
or  injured,  in  a  conspicuous  manner,  by  several  such  successive 
combinations  and  decompositions.  I  venture  to  think  this 
objection  is  not  of  so  great  a  weight  as  to  decide  the  question. 
Admitting  that  chemical  combination  alters  the  physical  char- 
acters of  a  body,  I  think  it  may  be  supported  that  there  are 
several  cases  known  to  chemists  in  which  the  alteration  is  of 
such  a  nature  as  not  to  be  observable  without  special  precau- 
tions. I  may  cite  gun-cotton  for  instance,  which  in  the  hands 
of  most  persons  would  pass  for  simple  cotton  ;  and,  if  chemical 
combination  be  anything  but  a  word  to  play  with,  it  surely 
exists  here.  In  the  case  of  the  fatty  bodies,  after  saponification 
and  decomposition  by  acids,  we  are  certain  that  the  fatty  acids 
are  not  the  same  as  the  original  fat,  but  our  senses  would 
scarcely  have  given  us  the  information — it  required  the  genius 
of  Scheele  and  dhevreul  to  show  what  the  difference  was.  In 
organic  chemistry  we  have  numerous  instances  of  feebly  acid 
bodies  forming  combinations  not  greatly  differing  in  physical 
aspect  from  the  acid  itself.  Mr.  drum  seems  to  assume  that 
the  whole  matter  of  the  fibre  must  enter  into  combination  with 
the  coloring  matter  or  mordant,  just  as  Persoz  assumes  that 
the  imagined  pores  are  entirely  filled  in  every  case  of  dyeing  ; 
but  this  never  is  the  case  in  calico  printing  or  dyeing,  only  a 
small  portion  of  the  cotton  or  other  fibre  is  supposed  to  be  in 
actual  combination,  and  if  all  this  part  was  to  be  detached  in 
dust  upon  the  removal  of  the  mordant  or  coloring  matter 
with  which  it  is  combined,  the  fabric  would  probably  be  only 
weakened,  not  destroyed.  Fibre  is  insoluble  in  all  the  men- 
strua used  in  dyeing;  such  chemical  affinities  as  it  possesses 
are  very  weak,  and  it  is  next  to  impossible  that  an  atom  to 
atom  combination  of  the  whole  fibre  ever  should  be  accom- 
plished. When  sulphuric  acid  acts  upon  carbonate  of  bayrta, 
or  lime,  in  mass,  the  action  is  soon  suspended,  though  sulphuric 
acid  is  one  of  the  strongest  and  most  soluble  of  acids;  how 


DYEING.  209 

much  sooner  should  the  chemical  action  come  to  an  end  be- 
tween bodies  one  of  which  is  always  insoluble,  and  of  a  texture 
peculiarly  opposed  to  the  continuation  of  chemical  action,  and 
other  bodies,  which  are  at  the  best  indifferent  to  it  in  their  ordi- 
nary combinations? 

Mr.  Crum  merely  says  that  dyed  cotton  fibre  remains  entire 
when  its  supposed  chemical  combination  is  destroyed;  that  is 
so  without  doubt,  but  I  am  strongly  convinced  that  its  integ- 
rity is  injured  ;  in  numerous  instances  of  discharging  dyed 
goods  I  believe  to  have  found  a  diminished  strength  in  the 
cloth — it  was  thinner  and  softer  to  the  feel,  seeming  to  have 
lost  body — and  this  was  not  owing  to  the  discharging  process 
as  I  have  tested  by  sending  white  cloth  through  the  same  pro- 
cess. It  is  well  known  that  it  is  dangerous  to  discharge  heavy 
printed  goods  twice  over,  the  greatest  care  will  hardly  succeed 
in  turning  them  out  fit  to  be  printed  a  third  time  as  sound 
goods.  But  if  all  the  phenomena  of  dyeing  can  be  included 
or  explained  under  a  single  theory,  must  it  not  be  the  theory 
of  Hellot  and  d'Alpigny,  with  their  various  sized  pores,  their 
plasters  and  cements,  and  their  astringent  substances  tying  up 
the  pores?  This  theory  seems  grossly  mechanical,  but  if 
granted  it  will  include  all  cases  that  I  know,  and  certainly  no 
other  theory  will.  Picric  acid  dyes  wool  and  silk,  but  not 
cotton,  sulphate  of  indigo  the  same ;  they  are  probably  both 
contained  in  the  undecomposed  state  in  those  fibres — the  picric 
acid  can  be  tasted,  and  the  indigo  compound  easily  extracted. 
Do  they  combine  chemically?  That  seems  very  unlikely  ;  and 
if  so,  why  not  with  cotton  ?  If  it  is  a  catalytic  attraction  of 
surface,  why  does  not  cotton  exert  it  here  as  elsewhere  ?  If  a 
different  chemical  composition  of  these  fibres  is  adduced  as  the 
explanation,  the  pure  chemical  theory  is  at  once  granted;  if  a 
distinct  physical  structure  is  suggested  as  the  explanation, 
Hellot's  theory  is  adopted.  The  coloring  matter  of  safflower  is 
thrown  into  the  insoluble  state  in  order  to  dye  with,  and  the 
operation  is  performed  cold.  What  kind  of  chemical  combina- 
tion can  take  place  under  these  circumstances,  and  how  are  the 
colored  particles  to  get  into  Mr.  Crum's  sacks  and  be  secured 
there  ?  Hellot's  pores  are  alw.ays  gaping  for  them  like  an  open 
trap,  but  he  admits  not  always  shutting  up  when  the  object 
enters.  Freshly  precipitated  chromate  and  sulphate  of  lead, 
when  thickened  and  printed,  contract  at  once  an  intimate  con- 
nection with  the  fibre  and  are  not  to  be  removed  from  it  by  a 
simple  washing;  yet  these  are  insoluble  salts  and  not  known 
to  undergo  any  decomposition  or  form  any  compound  with  the 
fibre.  Turmeric  and  anotta  are  also  difficulties  hard  to  recon- 


210  •  DYEING. 

cile  to  any  theory,  but  suggesting  an  active  affinity  on  the  part 
of  the  fibre. 

Besides  the  theorists  already  named,  Messrs.  Durnas  and 
Chevreul  have  also  emitted  theories  upon  dyeing,  which  may 
be  called  physico  chemical  theories — endeavoring  to  show  that 
the  affinities  exerted  between  tissues  and  mordants,  though  not 
precisely  the  same  as  those  between  the  chemical  elements,  are 
not  greatly  different  from  them.  In  fact,  we  must  confess,  that 
not  only  is  there  no  theory  of  dyeing  which  has  a  respectable 
claim  to  consideration,  but  there  is  also  an  entire  absence  of  exact 
data  upon  which  to  build  a  rational  theory.  Before  using  chemi- 
cal terms  for  dyeing  phenomena,  we  should  be  assured  that  we 
are  describing  chemical  operations ;  but  no  one  can  point  to 
anything  like  a  satisfactory  quantitative  experiment  upon  this 
subject.  There  is  an  absence  of  definite  forms  and  crystalliza- 
tion about  the  combinations  of  fibres,  mordants,  and  coloring 
principles,  which,  discourages  analysis,  so  that  we  have  no  in- 
formation as  to  whether  there  is  any  atomic  combination 
between  the  mordanting  oxides  and  cotton,  wool,  or  silk;  or, 
on  the  other  hand,  whether  the  pure  coloring  matters,  most 
of  which  have  been  carefully  analyzed,  combine  with  these 
mordants  in  equivalents  or  not;  that  is,  whether  there  is  any 
real  chemical  combination,  or  whether  the  union  is  simply 
mechanical — a  species  of  absorption  or  adherence  by  cohesion. 
Convinced  that  all  attempts  at  general  theorizing,  without  some 
exact  data,  would  only  result  in  unsatisfactory  hypothesis,  I 
commenced  a  series  of  experiments  to  determine  the  quantity 
of  mordant  coloring  matter  and  fibre  which  went  to  build  up 
dyed  materials..  After  numerous  and  unsatisfactory  experi- 
ments, I  was  compelled  to  abandon  for  the  present  at  least,  the 
hope  of  obtaining  exact  quantitative  data;  the  difficulties  are 
very  considerable,  and  it  would  require  the  devotion  of  unin- 
terrupted attention  for  a  considerable  period  of  time  to  obtain 
the  results  I  aimed  at. 

Dyers'  Spirits. — Solutions  of  tin  in  muriatic  acid  and  nitric 
acid,  or  in  nitric  acid  and  some  muriate  or  chloride,  as  sal  am- 
moniac or  common  salt ;  or,  sometimes,  but  rarely,  in  muriatic 
acid  and  sulphuric  acid.  (See  TIN.)  The  name,  rather  curious 
in  appearance,  is  derived  from  the  solvents  used;  muriatic  acid 
is  yet  commonly  known  as  spirits  of  salts,  and  nitric  acid  some- 
times as  spirits  of  nitre.  These  spirits  were  said  to  be  killed 
by  dissolving  tin  in  them;  and  as  they  were  used  by  the  dyers, 
and  made  either  by  or  for  them  exclusively,  they  were  called 
dyers'  spirits,  a  name  they  still  retain. 

Dyers'  Weed, — Probably  more  than  one  substance  used 


EQUIVALENT  WEIGHTS.  211 

in  dyeing  receives  this  name,  but  it  is  generally  applied  to 
WELD,  the  source  of  a  yellow  coloring  matter,  which  see. 


E. 

Ebony  Wood,  Green  Ebony  Wood. — A  wood,  known  in 
England  as  green  ebony  wood,  is  used  by  the  dyers  as  a  yel- 
low coloring  matter,  principally  in  dyeing  greens  and  other 
compound  shades. 

Efflorescence. — The  spontaneous  drying  of  crystals  when 
exposed  to  the  air  and  falling  into  white  powder.  Crystals  of 
soda  in  dry  air,  give  a  good  example  of  an  efflorescent  salt. 

Emeraldine. — This  name  was  given  to  a  green  color  ob- 
tained by  the  direct  application  of  a  salt  of  aniline  to  calico 
prepared  by  steeping  in  chlorate  of  potash;  it  was  the  subject 
of  a  patent  granted  to  Calvert  and  others,  but  has  not  been 
successfully  applied  as  yet  upon  the  large  scale. 

Epsom  Salts. — The  common  name  for  sulphate  of  magne- 
sia. (See  MAGNESIA  SULPHATE.) 

Equivalent  Weights,  Atomic  Weights. — One  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  chemical  science  is  that  chemical  sub- 
stances combine  with  one  another  in  certain  weights  fixed  by 
nature;  for  example,  oxalic  acid  combines  with  crystals  of  soda 
to  form  a  compound  in  which  the  distinctive  properties  of  both 
bodies  are  lost  or  emerged  in  the  production  of  the  compound 
called  oxalate  of  soda.  The  proportion  of  oxalic  acid  to  soda 
is  fixed  and  unalterable;  in  like  manner  other  acids — as  sul- 
phuric, muriatic,  nitric,  tartaric,  and  citric — form  compounds 
with  soda,  and  there  is  a  fixed  proportion  of  each  acid  to  soda 
in  the  compound,  but  different  for  each  one  of  these  com- 
pounds; supposing  the  soda  to  remain  constant,  and  taking  its 
equivalent  as  31,  we  should  find  sulphuric  acid  -±0,  muriatic 
acid  36J,  nitric  acid  54,  oxalic  acid  crystals  63,  and  so  on. 
Now,  these  weights  of  the  different  acids  are  their  equivalent 
weights,  that  is,  they  have  an  equal  power  when  used  in  these 
weights.  Of  sulphuric  acid,  in  the  dry  state,  40  Ibs.  are  equal 
to  accomplishing  what  63  Ibs.  of  oxalic  acid  crystals  can  do; 
and  of  muriatic  acid,  in  the  dry  state,  36J  Ibs.  are  capable  of 
performing  what  54  Ibs.  of  nitric  acid,  equally  dry,  would 
be  required  to  do.  Further  than  this  brief  explanation  of  what 
is  meant  by  equivalent  weights  I  deem  it  necessary  to  proceed; 
for,  although  the  applications  of  a  complete  knowledge  of  these 
weights  upon  a  print  works  would  often  lead  to  economy  and 
regularity,  it  is  a  point  in  which  more  harm  than  good  will  be 
done  unless  the  applier  is  perfectly  master  of  both  the  theory 


212  FAWN   COLOR. 

and  practice  of  what  he  is  about.  The  equivalents  given  in 
chemical  treatises  are  for  perfectly  pure  substances,  which  are 
never  found  in  trade,  and  are  consequently,  not  applicable  to 
them  without  a  compensation  made  for  the  impurity  present. 
This  compensation  can  only  be  made  after  careful  analysis, 
which  presupposes  chemical  skill  of  a  high  order,  and  access 
to  the  standard  works  of  chemistry. 

Erica;  or  Heath. — British  heath  is  capable  of  dyeing  a  yel- 
low color  upon  woollen,  the  same  as  dyers'  broom  ;  but  it  is 
very  poor  in  coloring  matter,  and  never  used  when  the  richer 
tinctorial  substances,  as  fustic,  bark,  etc.,  can  be  obtained. 

Euxanthic  Acid,  Purrdc  Acid. — A  yellow-colored  acid 
which,  in  combination  with  alumina  and  magnesia,  constitutes 
the  pigment  called  Indian  yellow.  It  is  capable  of  dyeing  yel- 
low colors,  but  has  not  yet  been  applied  for  that  purpose. 

Extract  of  Indigo.— A  common  name  for  sulphate  of 
indigo.  (See  INDIGO.) 


F. 

Farina,  Potato  Flour. — This  term  is  usually  applied  in  trade 
to  the  starch  obtained  from  potatoes,  often  called  potato  starch. 
It  has  most  of  the  properties  of  flour  starch  in  a  chemical  point 
of  view  ;  but  on  account  of  a  want  of  tenacity  in  the  paste, 
which  it  gives  when  boiled  with  water,  it  cannot  be  well  used 
as  a  thickening  material.  It  is  used  in  combination  with  other 
substances  for  finishing  or  stiffening  printed  goods.  Its  ten- 
dency is  to  give  a  hard  finish.  When  roasted,  it  produces  the 
well-know  thickening  matter  or  gum  substitute  called  calcined 
farina.  (See  GUM  SUBSTITUTES.) 

Fawn  Color, — The  color  of  the  fawn ;  a  yellowish  brown, 
rather  light  colored.  The  color  upon  dyed  cotton  goods,  dis- 
tinctively known  as  fawn,  is  dyed  with  catechu  by  very  simple 
operations.  The  cotton  goods  are  worked  for  twenty  minutes 
or  so  in  a  hot  solution  of  catechu  containing  a  little  nitrate  or 
sulphate  of  copper,  and  then  worked  in  water  containing  a 
small  quantity  of  bichromate  of  potash,  which  fixes  and  raises 
the  colors.  For  some  light  shades  of  fawn,  bichromate  is  dis- 
pensed with;  and  in  some  cases,  to  obtain  modified  shades,  it 
is  replaced  by  acetate  of  lead  or  sulphate  of  iron.  A  final 
rinse  in  soap  is  sometimes  used  to  soften  the  color.  Fawn 
colors  can  also  be  obtained  in  the  same  way  as  browns,  from 
anotta  and  the  dyewoods,  keeping  an  excess  of  yellow. 

The  term  fawn  is  not  usually  applied  to  any  of  the  colors 
used  in  calico  printing;  similar  shades  are  tan,  snuff,  nut,  etc. 


FIBROUS   SUBSTANCES.  213 

Fenugreek. — The  seeds  of  a  plant;  they  are  of  a  mucila- 
ginous and  bitter  nature,  and  were  formerly  supposed  to  have 
a  beneficial  influence  in  madder  dyeing.  Not  at  all  used  in 
dyeing  at  present. 

Fernambuc  Wood. — One  of  the  varieties  of  Brazil  wood, 
so  called  because  imported  from  Pernambuco  or  Fernambuca. 
According  to  continental  authorities  it  is  the  richest  variety  of 
the  red  woods.  (See  BRAZIL  WOOD.) 

Ferridcyanide  of  Potassium. — This  is  the  present  scien- 
tific name  tor  the  red  prusaiate  of  potash.  (See  PRUSSIATE.) 

Ferrocyanide  of  Potassium.— Scientific  name  for  yel- 
low prussiate  of  potash.  (See  PRUSSIATE.) 

Fibrous  Substances. — The  only  fibrous  matters  necessary 
to  be  noticed  in  connection  with  our  subject  are  cotton,  silk, 
and  wool;  the  few  other  substances  that  come  under  the  dyer's 
hands,  are  either  so  rare,  or  so  similar  to  one  of  these  three,  as 
not  to  call  for  a  distinct  article.  It  is  convenient  here  to  bring 
together  the  most  conspicuous  or  important  relations  of  the 
fibrous  matters  with  the  chemical  agents  they  are  constantly- 
brought  into  contact  with  in  printing  and  dyeing.  In  the  arti- 
cle upon  DYEING  we  have  seen  that  there  is  a  great  difference 
of  opinion  among  chemists  as  to  whether  the  fibrous  matters 
act  chemically  at  all  upon  the  mordants  or  colors  used  to  dye 
them ;  but  that  there  is  an  action  of  some  kind  no  one  can 
deny,  because  the  evidences  are  plain.  Without,  then,  enter- 
ing into  the  disputed  question  as  to  what  the  actions  should  be 
called,  we  will  proceed  to  describe  what  the  visibly  are. 

Chemists  recognize  under  the  name  of  Lignine  a  matter 
which  is  looked  upon  as  the  basis  of  all  fibrous  substance  of  a 
vegetable  nature.  It  can  be  obtained  from  wood  by  treating 
it  successively  with  ether,  alcohol,  water,  acids,  and  alkalies, 
in  order  to  remove  all  soluble  substances.  It  finally  remains 
as  a  white  substance  of  regular  composition,  which  is  the  pure 
fibre  of  wood,  and  stands  as  the  type  and  representative  of  all 
other  vegetable  fibres.  It  is  composed  of  carbon,  oxygen,  and 
hydrogen,  in  proportions  which  give  little  clue  to  its  internal 
composition;  and  its  behavior  with  chemical  bodies  is  so  feebly 
marked  by  the  expression  of  affinity  in  any  direction,  that  it 
can  only  be  put  down  as  an  indifferent  substance,  forming 
very  few  combinations  with  other  chemical  bodies.  Lignine  is 
of  no  importance  except  in  a  scientific  or  theoretical  point  of 
view,  as  showing  that  in  all  vegetable  matter  there  is  a  sub- 
stance of  a  fibrous  nature,  and  that  it  has  everywhere  nearly 
the  same  chemical  composition  and  properties.  Flax  and  cotton, 
along  with  a  great  number  of  other  substances  of  less  repute  ex- 
tracted from  vegetables,  are  of  the  same  chemical  composition 


214  FIBROUS  SUBSTANCES. 

as  lignine,  when,  like  it,  they  are  purified  from  the  resinous  and 
coloring  matters  which  naturally  adhere  to  them.  In  our  re- 
marks upon  fibrous  substances,  cotton  will  be  taken  as  repre- 
senting all  the  vegetable  fibres,  being  by  far  the  most  import- 
ant of  them,  and  all  the  others  possessing  nearly  the  same  pro- 
perties and  characteristics. 

The  animal  fibrous  substances,  of  which  the  principal  are 
wool  and  silk,  do  not  appear  to  have  any  common  origin  of 
the  nature  of  lignine.  They  are  very  complex  in  their  chemi- 
cal composition  ;  and  besides  the  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxy- 
gen contained  in  vegetable  substances,  they  have  also  nitrogen, 
and  some  of  them  sulphur,  apparently  as  an  integral  portion  of 
their  structure. 

Action  of  Acids  upon  Fibrous  Substances. — Weak  acids  have 
no  special  action  upon  cotton.  If  cotton  be  steeped  in  sul- 
phuric acid,  or  any  other  acid  weakened  by  water  until  it  does 
not  acto  injuriously  at  once,  it  may  remain  in  contact  with  it 
for  almost  any  length  of  time  without  being  injured.  If  the 
cottoti  cloth  which  has  been  steeped  in  a  dilute  mineral  acid, 
be  placed  in  any  situation  where  it  will  become  dry,  in  pro- 
portion as  the  water  leaves  it  the  acid  gets  more  concentrated, 
until  it  becomes  strong  enough  to  act  upon  the  cloth  and  rot 
it.  The  same  remarks  are  applicable  to  wool  and  silk.  Heated 
dilute  acids  act  differently  than  when  in  the  cold  state  ;  being, 
as  is  usually  the  case  with  hot  liquids,  more  powerful  than 
cold,  and  a  strength  is  soon  arrived  at  where  acids  do  act  de- 
structively upon  fibres.  But  it  is  not  the  same  for  each  of  the 
fibrous  substances  treated  of.  Cotton  is  the  soonest  affected, 
and  wool  the  last,  silk  holding  an  intermediate  state.  An  acid 
liquor  which  would  rot  cotton  in  a  short  time  will  not  injure 
wool,  nor  act  much  upon  silk ;  the  animal  fibres  not  being  so 
soon  broken  up  by  acids  as  the  vegetable.  This  property  is  taken 
advantage  of  in  separating  wool  from  cotton  in  worn  mixed 
fabrics.  The  whole  fabric  is  steeped  in  dilute  acid,  wrung  out, 
and  dried  in  a  hot-stove;  after  a  certain  length  of  time  it  is 
beaten  with  rods,  all  the  cotton  flies  off  as  dust,  being  corroded 
and  disorganized  by  the  acid,  while  the  woollen  threads  are 
not  considerably  injured  in  strength.  It  does  not  appear  that 
dilute  acids,  though  they  may  destroy  the  structure,  alter  the 
chemical  composition  of  vegetable  fibres ;  the  powder  to  which 
the  fibre  is  reduced  being  cotton  just  as  much  as  it  was  before. 
The  action  must  be  of  a  purely  physical  or  mechanical  nature. 
It  is  as  easy  to  suppose  a  single  fibre  of  cotton  as  consisting  of 
a  vast  number  of  small  particles,  held  together  by  some  kind 
.of  mechanical  adhesion,  as  by  fitting  into  one  another,  as  it 
were,  or  holding  together  by  power  of  contact.  The  acids  may 


FIBROUS   SUBSTANCES.  215 

interfere  in  some  unknown  manner  to  loosen  this  adhesion, 
when  the  particles  will  fall  asunder,  still  remaining  the  same 
in  chemical  nature,  but  wanting  the  bond  which  made  them 
into  a  fibre ;  as  a  machine  may  all  fall  to  pieces  by  the  loosen- 
ing of  a  screw,  and  become  a  heap  of  iron — still  iron,  but  no 
longer  a  machine. 

Of  the  principal  acids  in  use  among  bleachers  and  others 
the  muriatic  acid,  or  spirits  of  salts,  seems  to  be  the  most  ener- 
setic  for  its  strength  or  degree  of  acidity  in  disorganizing 
fibres.  In  cases  where  it  is  employed  special  care  should  be 
taken  that  pieces  are  not  exposed  to  chances  of  drying  in  places 
where  they  are  laid  before  washing  off. 

Action  of  Strong  Acids  upon  Fibre.— Cotton  can  be  dissolved 
in  strong  oil  of  vitriol,  if  added  in  small  portions  at  a  time, 
being  dried  previously;  it  forms  a  gummy  solution,  not  going 
black.  When  water  is  mixed  with  it,  the  cotton  falls  out  as  a 
white  powder,  which  appears  to  contain  some  of  the  sulphuric 
acid  in  combination  with  it.  If  heat  be  applied  to  the  gummy 
solution,  or  if  the  liquor  should  become  hot  by  mixing  too 
much  cotton  at  once,  it  will  go  black  and  give  off  fumes  of 
sulphurous  acid,  changing  the  cotton  into  a  black  charcoal.  If 
cotton  be  put  in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  vitriol  and  water, 
it  can  be  dissolved,  and  in  this  case  it  is  changed  into  grape 
sugar.  If  cotton  cloth  be  quickly  passed  through  a  cold  mix- 
ture of  oil  of  vitriol  and  water  at  about  140°  Twaddle,  it  is  not 
injured,  but  somewhat  strengthened.  This  was  one  of  the  pro- 
cesses for  Mercerizing  cloth. 

Muriatic  acid  destroys  the  fibre  of  cotton  without  blackening 
it.  There  are  cases  in  which  it  does  blacken  it,  but  that  is 
only  when  a  high  temperature  has  been  employed,  or  when 
the  acid  is  impure.  This  acid,  it  will  be  remembered,  is  only 
a  mixture  of  an  acid  gas  with  water,  and  it  cannot  be  made 
above  a  certain  strength  ;  that  is,  in  the  strongest  liquid  acid, 
there  is  only  one  part  of  acid,  by  weight,  to  two  parts  of  water. 
It  has  not,  therefore,  the  strong  action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon 
cotton  ;  and  a  drop  of  the  strongest  spirits  of  salts  may  be  ap- 
plied to  calico,  or  calico  may  be  steeped  in  spirits  of  salts  for 
some  time,  without  being  destroyed,  but  it  must  not  be  exposed 
to  the  air. 

The  action  of  nitric  acid  is  different  in  kind  to  that  of  the  other 
two  acids.  The  very  strongest  acid  standing  at  about  100°  Tw., 
converts  cotton  into  an  inflammable  substance  (gun  cotton) 
without  much  injuring  its  strength  as  a  fibre,  and  not  at  all 
affecting  its  appearance;  it  acts  in  the  same  manner  if  mixed 
with  about  an  equal  part  of  strong  vitriol.  Suph  a  liquid  act- 
ing upon  paper  converts  it  into  a  tough,  horny  substance,  re- 


216  FIBROUS  SUBSTANCES. 

sembling  parchment,  which,  in  some  respects  at  least,  is  very 
much  stronger  than  the  original  paper.  In  the  case  of  gun 
cotton,  the  cotton  is  no  longer  simply  the  vegetable  substance 
which  it  was  before  the  action  of  the  nitric  acid  :  when  analyzed, 
it  is  found  to  contain  nitric  acid,  or  the  elements  of  nitric  acid, 
in  some  peculiar  form  of  combination  with  the  vegetable  matter, 
the  weight  being  increased  30  or  40  per  cent,  by  the  steeping 
in  the  acid.  Mr.  Kuhlmann,  of  Lille,  in  the  course  of  some  ex- 
periments he  made,  found  that  cotton  treated  with  nitric  and 
sulphuric  acids  (pyroxilized  cotton)  did  not  show  as  much 
affinity  for  coloring  matters  as  ordinary  cotton  ;  but  that  cotton 
so  treated,  when  kept  for  some  time,  underwent  a  spontaneous 
decomposition,  evolving  nitrous  gases,  and  that,  when  then 
tried,  it  showed  a  considerably  increased  affinity  for  coloring 
matters.  But  it  is  a  question  only  interesting  in  a  scientific  or 
theoretical  point  of  view ;  the  dearness  of  the  acids,  and  the 
injury  to  the  cloth,  both  with  regard  to  strength  and  being 
made  more  combustible  by  the  treatment,  put  it  entirely  out 
of  the  possibility  of  practical  application.  When  nitric  acid 
acts  both  strong  and  hot  upon  vegetable  or  animal  fibre  it  con- 
verts it  into  oxalic  acid.  Strong  cold  nitric  acid  tinges  wool 
and  silk  of  a  durable  yellow  color.  Upon  silk  it  has  been  ap- 
plied practically  as  a  dye,  but  I  believe*  it  is  little  used  now  : 
the  silk  must  not  stop  more  than  .a  few  moments  in  contact 
with  the  acid  or  it  will  be  destroyed.  What  is  said  of  acids 
is  true  with  respect  to  acid  salts,  in  proportion  as  the  salts 
contain  free  acid,  or  as  they  may  give  it  off'  in  a  free  state 
under  the  processes  to  which  they  are  submitted  upon,  or  in  con- 
tact with  the  cloth.  Such  salt  as  bisulphate  of  potash,  sulphate 
of  copper,  muriate  of  tin,  nitrate  of  iron,  nitrate  of  alumina  and 
alum,  are,  under  certain  circumstances,  likely  to  rot  the  fabrics 
they  are  applied  to,  because  they  either  contain  free  acid,  or 
are  so  constituted  that  the  acid  becomes  easily  separated  from 
the  base,  and  acts  with  destructive  energy.  In  all  these  cases 
wool  resists  better  than  cotton ;  and  many  a  color,  safe  and 
good,  applied  upon  wool,  will  destroy  calico,  if  applied  to  it. 
Silk  holds  an  intermediate  position,  nearer  to  cotton  than  to 
wool. 

Chlorine  acts  upon  fibres  when  in  a  strong  state,  but  it  is  a 
question  whether  it  acts  as  such,,  or  by  forming  muriatic  acid 
with  the  hydrogen  of  a  portion  of  the  material  acted  upon ;  it 
colors  silk  and  woollen  yellow,  which  muriatic  acid  does  not, 
but  its  action  upon  cotton  fibre  is  very  similar  to  the  action  of 
muriatic  acid.  It  is  not  likely  that  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances it  will  ever  be  required  to  use  chlorine  in  that  state  of 
purity  where  its  action  becomes  destructive.  Chlorine  as  de- 


FIBROUS  SUBSTANCES.  217 

veloped  from  chloride  of  lime  and  sours,  acts  beneficially  upon 
wool  for  receiving  colors ;  but  whether  it  is  upon  the  pure 
fibre  of  the  wool,  or  only  upon  the  tin  prepare,  is  not  clear. 
The  action  of  chlorine  upon  cotton  turns  practically  upon  the 
action  of  bleaching  powder  upon  it.  This  is  known  to  be  de- 
structive in  some  cases,  as  where  it  is  exposed  to  the  air  in  con- 
tact with  it,  or  kept  hot  in  strong  chemic  solutions,  etc. ;  it  acts 
chemically,  and  according  to  the  observations  of  some  chem- 
ists, a  kind  of  combustion  goes  on,  the  fibre  is  oxidized,  and 
carbonic  acid  gas  given  off.  Under  all  ordinary  circumstances 
of  bleaching,  raising  colors,  clearing,  etc.,  the  chloride  of  lime 
has  no  action  at  all  upon  the  fibre,  but  only  upon  foreign  sub- 
stances in  or  upon  it,  or  if  it  has  an  action  it  is  too  obscure  to 
be  perceived. 

Action  of  the  Alkalies  upon  Fibrous  Substances. — The  alkaline 
substances  with  which  fibrous  matters  are  likely  to  be  placed 
in  contact  in  ordinary  circumstances  are  soda,  as  soda  ash  or 
carbonate,  and  also  in  the  caustic  state ;  potash  in  the  same 
conditions;  ammonia  or  carbonate  of  ammonia  as  in  putrid 
urine;  lime  as  in  bleaching,  both  in  the  state  of  clear  lime 
water  and  as  milk  of  lime  containing  solid  lime  diffused  through 
water;  also  some  kinds  of  soap,  which  are  very  alkaline. 

Action  of  Potash  and  Soda  upon  Cotton  Fibre. — Potash  and 
soda,  in  their  natural  state  of  carbonates,  before  being  made 
caustic  with  lime,  have  no  particular  action  under  ordinary 
circumstances  upon  cotton  fibre,  that  is,  whether  weak  or 
strong,  hot  or  cold.  American  potashes  often  contain  some 
portion  of  caustic  potash,  whose  action  is  more  energetic  than 
the  carbonate,  and  may  produce  more  marked  effects.  Soda 
and  potash,  in  the  caustic  state,  do  act  upon  cotton,  and  differ- 
ently as  they  are  hot  or  cold,  strong  or  weak.  Weak  cold 
caustic,  say  as  high  as  10°  Twaddle,  will  not  act  injuriously 
upon  cotton  steeped  in  it  for  a  considerable  length  of  time;  if 
the  cotton  be  repeatedly  exposed  to  the  air  while  it  is  wet  with 
the  caustic  it  is  liable  to  be  affected,  but  not  strikingly  so;  if 
the  same  strength  be  made  hot  it  will  injure  the  fibre  very 
much,  and  in  no  long  time  make  it  as  tender  as  wet  paper. 
What  the  chemical  change  is  which  takes  place  under  these 
circumstances,  if  indeed  any  such  change  takes  place,  is  not 
known.  Some  chemists  suppose  an  oxidation,  but  that  is  not 
satisfactorily  demonstrated  ;  and  some  cases  which  have  oc- 
curred under  my  observation  where  oxidation  could  not  take 
place  (because  there  were  deoxidizing  agents  in  the  caustic,  as 
grape  sugar),  make  me  doubt  if  the  oxidation  has  anything  to 
do  with  it.  Some  cotton  fibres  resist  longer  than  others,  the 
disintegrating  action  of  caustic  solutions  producing  results  of  a 
15 


218  ^  FIBROUS   SUBSTANCES. 

very  anomalous  nature  on  various  kinds  of  cloth  ;  sometimes 
pieces  are  rotted  in  alkaline  solutions  which  do  not  mark  more 
than  two  degrees  on  the  glass,  while  other  pieces  are  not 
affected  at  four  times  that  strength.  Cloth  which  has  been  sub- 
jected to  several  treatments — as  in  dyeing,  to  the  action  of 
acids,  soap,  lime,  chloride  of  lime,  etc. — seems  to  be  more  easily 
acted  upon  than  cloth  which  has  not  been  through  so  many 
operations.  Yery  strong  caustic  has  a  peculiar  effect  upon 
cotton  fibre  in  causing  it  to  contract  or  shrink  up :  if  a  few 
drops  of  caustic  soda,  at  50  degrees  Twaddle,  be  dropped  in 
the  centre  of  a  bit  of  calico  it  will  be  seen  that  it  causes  a 
puckering,  owing  to  the  fibres  touched  by  the  alkali  contract- 
ing in  length  and  pulling  the  others  up.  This  effect  remains 
upon  washing,  and  is  not  removed  if  the  calico  be  steeped  in 
sours.  This  action  was  known  long  ago,  but  no  notice  was 
taken  of  it  until  Mercer,  to  whom  calico  printing  and  dyeing 
owes  several  happy  discoveries,  announced  that  the  action  of 
strong  alkalies  was  to  make  cotton  fibres  stronger  than  they 
were  before,  and  to  endow  them  with  a  superior  attraction  for 
most  colors.  He  patented  the  process,  which  seemed  to  prom- 
ise great  results,  but  unfortunately  it  has  not  turned  out  so 
valuable  or  useful  as  was  expected.'  Upon  passing  the  pieces 
in  caustic  soda,  at  from  40°  to  50°  Twaddle,  they  appear  to 
become  transparent  and  gelatinous,  at  the  same  time  contract- 
ing both  in  width  and  length.  They  are  not  allowed  to  rest 
in  the  caustic  more  than  a  few  minutes,  and  then  washed  off  in 
water,  and  the  last  remains  of  the  alkali  removed  by  a  weak 
sour.  When  dry,  the  cloth  has  a  rather  different  aspect  with 
regard  to  color  than  before  treating,  it  does  not  reflect  so  much 
white  light,  but  has  a  translucent  appearance  ;  the  threads  ap- 
pear rounder,  firmer,  and  closer  together.  The  contraction  in 
breadth,  upon  good  printing  cloth,  would  be  about  one-fifteenth, 
and  the  same  in  length  which  accounts  for  the  closer  texture. 
Analysis  shows  that  some  soda  remains  combined  with  the 
cotton  however  well  washed,  and  thus  points  to  a  chemical 
combination  between  the  alkali  and  the  fibre.  The  souring 
takes  this  soda  out.  Cloth  thus  treated  shows  a  superior 
affinity  for  some  colors,  especially  the  indigo  blue ;  it  takes  as 
deep  a  shade  of  blue  in  one  dip  as  common  cloth  takes  in  six, 
and  generally  speaking,  colors  look  better  on  this  than  on  un- 
treated cloth.  The  strength  of  the  fibre  is  improved,  but  not 
more,  I  believe,  than  could  be  explained  by  the  contraction  of 
it.  The  expense  of  the  soda,  a  large  quantity  being  required, 
mainly  caused  the  abandonment  of  this  plan  of  treatment ;  and, 
besides  this,  the  advantages  were  not  of  that  distinct  nature 
which  would  justify  anything  beyond  a  very  small  expendi- 


FIBROUS  SUBSTANCES.  219 

ture  in  the  treatment.  The  contraction  of  the  fibre  was  also  an 
objection,  for  though  it  made  the  cloth  look  finer  and  closer, 
that  is  an  effect  which  can  be  more  surely  and  economically 
produced  by  the  loom. 

Action  of  Lime  vpon  Cotton. — Lime  has  no  injurious  action 
upon  cotton  in  any  moderate  quantity,  or  applied  under  any 
ordinary  circumstances.  Injuries  to  cotton  by  lime  will  be 
found  to  exist  generally  where  the  cloth  has  been  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  air  and  lime  at  the  same  time,  in  conjunction 
with  heat.  It  is  not  known  that  the  air  acts  chemically  in 
assisting  the  lime  to  injure  the  cloth  :  I  think  it  only  dries  up 
the  water,  and  brings  the  lime  more  closely  in  contact  with  the 
fibre.  Some  degree  of  heat  higher  than  the  natural  temperature 
seems  to  be  necessary  to  the  destructive  action  of  the  lime. 
As  a  general  instruction,  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  injurious  to 
expose  pieces  in  contact  with  lime  to  the  action  of  the  air.  It 
sometimes  happens  in  bleaching  calicoes  that  the  kier  is  run 
off  and  the  pieces  left  some  time  before  running  up  with  water 
on  being  taken  out.  This  is  a  condition  very  likely  to  injure 
the  cloth,  especially  those  parts  which  are  in  contact  with  the 
hot  sides  of  the  kier,  for  there  is  lime  on  the  pieces,  the  air 
penetrates  as  the  liquor  runs  off,  and  the  hot  iron  gives  the 
heat;  the  vacant  spaces  caused  by  the  folds  of  the  pieces  being 
for  the  most  part  filled  with  steam  from  the  hot  liquor  still 
remaining,  often  saves  them,  when  otherwise  they  would  be 
tender. 

Action  of  Potash  and  Soda  upon  Wool  and  Silk. — Potash  and 
soda,  whether  carbonated  or  caustic,  act  destructively  upon 
both  silk  and  woollen,  and  must  be  employed  in  contact  with 
them  only  in  very  weak  states,  and  with  much  care.  Tolerably 
strong  ash  dissolves  woollen  cloth  up  altogether;  and  when 
weak  it  is  apt  to  injure  the  texture  and  properties  of  silk  and 
woollen  long  before  it  arrives  at  the  disintegrating  point. 
Even  lime  is  injurious  in  this  way.  The  caustic  alkalies  make 
a  kind  of  soap  when  boiled  on  wool.  The  addition  of  acids 
throws  down  a  white  pulp,  and  a  disagreeable  sulphurous  smell 
comes  from  the  mixture,  owing  to  the  sulphur  naturally  ex- 
isting  in  wool  taking  the  form  of  gas.  Soap  of  a  slightly 
alkaline  nature,  and  solutions  of  crystals  of  soda,  rather  weak, 
are  the  strongest  alkaline  substances  which  should  be  permitted 
long  in  contact  with  wool.  Ammonia  in  its  strong  state  has 
an  injurious  action  upon  wool:  when  mixed  with  water  it  is 
not  injurious,  if  it  is  not  kept  too  long  in  contact  with  it. 
Fermented  or  putrid  urine,  which  is  used  in  bleaching  wool,  is 
alkaline,  owing  to  the  carbonate  of  ammonia  contained  in  it. 
This  does  not  appear  to  exercise  any  injurious  action  upon  the 


220  FIBROUS  SUBSTANCES. 

woollen  fibre,  while  at  the  same  time  it  acts  upon  the  grease  in 
it.  Ammonia  is  rather  hurtful  to  silk  in  the  strong  state ;.  but 
moderately  diluted,  it  may  be  used  for  any  purpose  for  which 
it  is  adapted  without  inflicting  injury  upon  it.  As  a  general 
rule  it  should  be  understood  that  woollen  is  injured  by  alkalies, 
and  not  by  acids ;  on  the  contrary,  cotton  fibre  is  not  affected 
by  weak  alkalies,  but  injured  by  acids  sooner  than  wool. 

Action  of  Salts  upon  Fibrous  Substances. — The  phenomena  of 
the  decomposition  of  metallic  salts  by  fibrous  matter,  or  in 
presence  of  fibrous  matters,  form  one  of  the  most  interesting 
and  difficult  branches  of  the  chemistry  of  dyeing  and  calico 
printing.  The  chief  cases  as  presented  in  practice  are  given 
here,  and  some  further  information  may  be  found  under  MOR- 
DANTS. 

A  Salt  may  be  Entirely  Absorbed  or  Retained  by  the  Fibre. — 
This  case  is  only  common  when  the  salt  is  insoluble  in  water. 
To  be  considered  as  absorbed  or  combined  with  the  fibre  it  is 
necessary  that  the  fibre  should  retain  the  salt,  or  a  portion  of 
it,  when  washed  in  water.  The  cases  in  which  a  whole  salt,  in 
all  its  parts,  is  retained  upon  the  fibre  are  few,  not  considering 
at  present  that  the  coloring  matters  form  salts.  The  chrome 
yellow  and  orange,  being  respectively  the  chromate  and  sub- 
chromate  of  lead,  are  salts;  Prussian  blue  is  the  ferrocyanide  of 
iron,  and  a  salt.  These  two  bodies  being  insoluble  salts,  and 
produced  from  two  soluble  salts,  are  formed  as  it  were  in  the 
fibre,  and  not  being  dissolvable  in  water,  are  retained  by  it. 
Other  insoluble  salts,  which  can  be  formed  in  the  same  way, 
have  not  the  same  hold  upon  the  fibre,  and  can  be  removed  by 
brisk  washing  and  agitation.  What  the  difference  of  adhesion 
may  be  owing  to  is  not  well  known.  Woollen  fibre  is  able  to 
retain  some  salts  in  it  which  are  soluble  in  water,  for  example, 
alum ;  if  wool  be  boiled  with  a  weak  alum  water,  it  takes  up 
some  of  it,  which  cannot  be  removed  by  washing,  and  is  said 
by  some  chemists  to  be  there  in  the  state  of  alum,  the  same  as 
common  alum.  Cotton  can  attract  to  itself  some  insoluble  or 
slightly  soluble  salts,  and  retain  them  with  considerable  tenacity, 
such  as  the  sulphate  of  lead,  newly  precipitated,  and  the  chro- 
mate of  lead  in  the  same  condition ;  when  once  these  have  been 
printed  on  calico,  and  left  for  a  short  time,  they  have  become 
fast,  and  cannot  be  washed  off.  But  altogether  the  cases  in 
which  complete  salts,  both  acid  and  base,  are  retained  by  the 
fibre  are  few,  and  form  only  an  unimportant  series. 

Several  Salts  are  Decomposed  under  the  Influence  of  Fibrous 
Substances,  alone. — This  case  frequently  happens  with  all  three 
kinds  of  fibre,  and  is  much  taken  advantage  of  for  mordanting 
them.  Calico,  passed  through  a  clear  solution  of  nitrate  of 


FIBROUS   SUBSTANCES.  221 

iron,  decomposes  it  by  taking  up  some  of  the  oxide  to  itself. 
It  holds  firmly  to  this,  no  washing  in  water  will  remove  it, 
and  it  may  everr  be  passed  in  dilute  acids  without  losing  its 
iron ;  silk  does  the  same.  If  calico  be  passed  through  hot 
aium  liquor,  it  does  not  take  up  any  of  it  that  cannot  be  re- 
moved by  simply  washing.  Wool,  as  just  stated,  does  take  up 
some  of  it,  but  not  much ;  for,  unless  assisted  by  some  other 
agent,  it  cannot  remove  either  the  alurn  from  the  water,  or  take 
the  aluminous  base  from  the  strong  sulphuric  acid  in  any  useful 
quantity.  Substances  are  therefore  added  which  will  fill  up  the 
acidity  of  the  salt  caused  by  the  abstraction  of  the  base;  when 
thus  assisted,  wool  can  withdraw  a  considerable  amount  of  the 
aluminous  base  from  the  alum,  but  in  what  precise  state  it  exists 
in  the  wool  is  not  known.  The  salts  of  tin  are  easily  decom- 
posed, and  portions  of  them  retained  in  the  fibre,  by  simply 
passing  the  fibrous  substance  through  solutions  of  them.  Many 
other  metallic  salts  are  acted  upon  in  the  same  way,  and  the 
fibrous  matters  are  able  to  take  the  metal  of  the  salt  easier  and 
in  greater  quantity,  as  the  combinations  between  the  acids  and 
oxides  are  feebler.  Many  nice  chemical  affinities  and  balancing 
of  attractions  are  shown  by  the  behavior  of  fibrous  substances 
with  solutions.  The  aim  to  be  kept  in  view  in  depositing  me- 
tallic oxides  in  this  manner  is  generally  to  render  the  metallic 
salt  itself  unstable,  to  substitute  weak  acids  for  strong  acids, 
and  to  induce,  as  far  as  possible,  the  formation  of  that  class  of 
oxides  which  have  the  smallest  force  of  attraction  for  the  acid. 
When  a  fibrous  substance  takes  up  metal  from  a  solution,  it 
may  be  looked  upon  as  an  acid  body  entering  into  competition 
with  the  acid  already  existing  in  the  salt,  for  a  portion  of  the 
metallic  oxide  combined  with  it.  If  its  attraction  was  very 
superior,  it  might  take  all  the  metal  from  the  acid,  but  this 
never  occurs ;  so  long  as  there  is  acid  present,  it  will  retain  a 
portion,  and  the  largest  portion,  of  metal.  If  the  excess  of  acid 
is  kept  naturalized  by  any  means,  it,  of  course,  is  continually 
putting  the  fibre  into  a  condition  to  remove  more  and  more  of 
the  oxide,  and  this  is  what  is  practically  done  when  tartar, 
chalk,  and  carbonate  of  soda  are  added  to  mordants,  and  also 
when  acetates  are  mixed  with  'them.  The  acid  of  the  acetates 
is  a  comparatively  weak  acid,  besides  being  easily  volatilized ; 
this  volatility  only  takes  place  when  it  is  dry  and  in  absence 
of  water,  or  when  only  very  little  water  is  present ;  it  is,  there- 
fore, not  much  used  in  mordanting  in  liquids,  but  it  is  of 
essential  use  in  cases  where  the  cloth  is  dried  with  the  mordant 
in  it,  as  in  calico  printing,  and  in  some  cases  of  dyeing. 

Some  Salts  are   Decomposed  by  the   Fibre,  with  assistance  of 
Chemical  Additions. — This,  as  partly  explained  in  the  last  sec- 


222  FIBROUS  SUBSTANCES. 

tion,  is  the  most  ordinary  method  by  which  salts  are  sought  to 
be  decomposed  for  practical  purposes  on  cotton,  wool,  and  silk. 
The  chemical  additions  are  usually  of  such  a  nature  as  to  weaken 
the  existing  affinities  between  the  acid  and  the  base,  and  then  the 
fibre  steps  in  and  helps  the  decomposition,  attracting  to  itself 
the  insoluble,  or  slightly  soluble,  substances  produced.  For 
example,  if  clear  alum  liquor,  as  strong  as  it  can  be  made, 
were  thickened  and  printed  upon  calico,  it  might  be  aged  any 
length  of  time,  but  would  all  wash  off  in  water,  leaving  no 
mordant  attached  to  the  cloth.  But  if  a  certain  amount  of 
acetate  of  potash  was  to  be  dissolved  in  the  same  alum  liquor, 
and  then  thickened,  printed,  and  aged,  it  would  be  found  that 
a  good  deal  of  mordant  was  attached  to  the  cloth,  and  that  it 
would  dye  good  colors.  The  chemical  effects  of  this  acetate 
may  be  stated  as  follows,  assuming  for  the  sake  of  facility  of 
illustration,  that  the  cotton  fibre  has  a  tendency  to  attract  the 
aluminous  base,  and  is  continually  soliciting  it  from  the  alum. 
Alum  is  a  sulphate  of  alumina,  and  every  particle  of  alumina 
being  combined  with  one  of  the  strongest  acids  known  to 
chemists,  the  solicitations  of  the  cloth  are  powerless  to  over- 
come the  resistance  of  the  sulphuric  acid,  just  as  the  solicita- 
tions of  gravity  on  a  weight  are  overcome  by  the  string  which 
suspends  it.  But  the  addition  of  the  acetate  of  potash  changes 
the  internal  structure  of  the  alum;  the  sulphuric  acid  goes  to 
the  potash  in  part  to  form  sulphate  of  potash.  It  cannot  do 
this  without  leaving  the  alumina  in  part,  and  as  soon  as  it  does 
so  the  cloth  acts  upon  it  and  seizes  it;  the  acetic  acid,  which 
has  been  driven  out  of  the  acetate  of  potash  by  the  more  pow- 
erful sulphuric  acid,  escapes  in  vapor,  having  nothing  to  detain 
it;  the  decomposition  proceeds  until  eventually  all  the  alumina 
is  fixed  by  the  cloth,  and  there  remains  only  sulphate  of  potash 
upon  it  in  a  loose  state,  all  the  acetic  having  gone  away  in 
vapor.  Other  acetates  act  in  the  same  manner,  and  other 
metallic  salts  the  same  as  alumina. 

Decomposition  of  Salts,  the  Fibre  being  present. — A  number  of 
important  decompositions  of  metallic  salts  take  place  in  a 
more  direct  and  less  complicated  manner  than  when  the  acetates 
are  used.  These  are  cases  where  the  salt  which  is  wished  to 
be  decomposed  is  at  once  placed  in  contact  with  substances 
which  have  a  stronger  affinity  for  its  acid  than  the  oxide  it 
contains  can  exert,  when,  of  course,  the  acid  leaves  the  one 
oxide  to  go  to  the  other,  and  the  oxide  which  is  left  without 
acid  remains  attached  to  the  fibre.  Lime  is  the  oxide  most 
frequently  employed,  because  it  is  cheap,  and  its  affinities  are 
very  powerful;  but  potash  and  soda  act  more  powerfully  still, 
and  their  greater  lesser  use  for  this  purpose,  as  compares  with 


FIBROUS  SUBSTANCES.  223 

lime,  depends  not  so  much  upon  chemical  as  upon  economical 
considerations.  Cases  in  point  here  are  the  chrome  green 
shades,  iron  buff,  manganese  brown,  and  the  puce  from  lead 
salts.  Suppose  the  chromium  salt  which  has  been  printed  on 
the  calico  is  the  sulphate:  when  it  is  passed  in  lime  there  is 
formed  sulphate  of  lime,  by  all  the  sulphuric  acid  going  to  the 
lime  in  preference  to  remaining  with  the  oxide  of  chromium ; 
in  consequence,  the  oxide  of  chromium  is  left  to  itself,  insoluble 
in  water,  and  adhering  to  the  tissue.  It  withstands  washing, 
which  the  sulphate  would  not.  I  know  it  is  a  common  error 
to  consider  that  lime  fastens  this  class  of  colors,  by  combining 
with  them  in  some  manner;  but  it  is  not  so.  The  lime  per- 
forms all  its  office  in  the  raising  beck,  and  when  the  piece  is 
washed,  there  is  none  left  on  it  at  all.  In  the  case  of  acetate  of 
manganese,  or  acetate  of  iron,  it  is  acetate  of  lime  which  forms 
in  the  raising,  because  it  is  the  acetic  acid  which  was  combined 
with  the  metallic  oxide. 

Heat  has  a  great  influence  in  changing  the  affinities  and  com- 
position of  salts,  especially  in  mixtures  of  them.  It  is  for  the 
purpose  of  effecting  such  a  change  that  steaming  is  employed 
upon  topical  colors,  and  hot  stoves,  or  baths,  on  dyed  colors. 
The  easy  destructability  of  all  animal  and  vegetable  fibre  by 
heat  prevents  the  development  upon  it  of  several  mineral  colors, 
which  can  only  be  accomplished  by  high  temperatures,  such  as 
red  lead,  vermilion,  ultramarine  blue,  etc. 

Wool  does  not  behave,  with  regard  to  metallic  bodies,  in  the 
same  way  as  cotton.  Generally  speaking,  metallic  colors  are 
not  good  upon  wool ;  this  seems  to  be  owing  to  its  chemical 
properties,  which^show  themselves  mostly  by  deoxidizing  sub- 
stances placed  on  it.  It  is  not  possible,  for  example,  to  get  any 
good  shade  of  buff  on  wool  from  the  oxide  of  iron,  neither  a  good 
brown  from  manganese,  for  either  the  nature  of  the  wool  never 
permits  a  full  oxidation  of  these  metallic  colors,  or  else  it 
speedily  deoxidizes  and  deteriorates  them.  The  same  remarks 
are  true  concerning  silk.  In  mordanting  wool,  either  with 
aluminous  or  tin  salts,  the  use  of  tartar  appears  necessary. 
Tartar  is  the  compound  of  potash  with  tartaric  acid ;  and  tar- 
taric  acid  belongs  to  the  same  class  of  acid  bodies  as  acetic 
acid,  and  with  regard  to  the  strong  mineral  acids  has  about  the 
same  relations,  excepting  that  it  is  a  fixed  acid.  When  tartar 
is  mixed  with  alum,  and  in  contact  with  woollen  fibre,  there 
seems  no  good  reason  to  doubt  that  it  acts  much  in  the  same 
manner  as  acetate  of  potash  would  do ;  that  is,  part  of  the  sul- 
phuric acid  of  the  alum  goes  to  the  potash  of  the  tartar,  leaving 
the  alumina  in  a  weaker  state  of  combination,  so  that  the  wool 
can  exert  its  attractive  force  for  this  body  with  less  resistance 


224  FIBROUS  SUBSTANCES. 

and  greater  effect ;  for  supposing  a  tartrate  of  alumia  to  be 
formed  by  the  exchange  of  acids  between  the  alum  and  the 
tartar,  the  tartaric  acid,  being  a  so  much  weaker  acid  than  the 
sulphuric,  could  not  restrain  the  alumina  from  entering  into 
combination  with  the  wool.  But  it  is  not  probable  that  a  tar- 
trate of  alumina  is  ever  actually  formed,  the  decomposition  is 
not  pushed  so  far ;  only  so  much  tartar  is  required  as  will  be 
equivalent  to  taking  away  a  small  portion  of  the  sulphuric 
acid  from  the  alum;  for  when  alum  is  robbed  of  a  little  of  its 
acid,  it  becomes  easily  acted  upon  by  substances  which  have  an 
affinity  for  the  alumina,  a  compound  being  produced  called 
cubical  alum,  or  basic  alum.  The  same  explanation  may  be 
accepted  in  the  case  of  tin  mordants;  the  acid  being  partly 
killed,  lets  its  tin  go  to  the  wool  with  so  much  the  greater  ease. 

In  mordanting  cotton  with  tin,  the  process  that  succeeds 
with  wool  would  give  only  very  indifferent  results,  principally 
because  its  affinity  is  less  powerful,  and  because  as  explained 
before,  it  does  not  stand  contact  with  acids  so  well  as  wool.  It 
has  to  be  done,  then,  in  another  manner,  and  the  alkaline  salt, 
composed  of  tin  and  soda,  and  called  stannate  of  soda,  is  em- 
ployed instead.  This  salt  differs  from  ordinary  tin  salts,  for  it 
has  the  tin  dissolved  by  alkali,  while  they  have  it  in  solution 
by  reason  of  strong  acids.  A  different  mode  of  fixing  is  then 
required,  depending  upon  the  difference  of  chemical  constitu- 
tion. The  cloth  is  impregnated  with  a  solution  of  the  stannate 
of  soda,  and  then  passed  through  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  The 
action  is  simple — the  soda  goes  to  the  acid,  and  the  tin,  being 
set  free,  combines  with  the  fibre  of  the  cloth.  The  cotton  fibre 
would  have  no  power  of  itself  to  withdraw  tin  from  the  stannate, 
especially  in  the  very  alkaline  condition  of  the  commercial 
article. 

The  great  majority  of  salts  known  to  chemists,  as  well  as 
those  which  are  employed  in  manufactures,  have  no  action  at 
all  upon  fibrous  substances;  this  is  the  case  with  nearly  every 
neutral  saline  compound.  It  is  only  in  the  cases  of  oxides  of 
aluminum,  iron,  and  tint,  that  fibres  appear  to  exert  a  decidedly 
attractive  influence;  it  is  difficult  to  leave  either  vegetable  or 
animal  fibre  in  contact  with  salts  of  these  metals  without  their 
taking  up  and  fixing  more  or  less  of  them.  The  most  powerful 
affinity  is  for  tin ;  it  is  absorbed  under  circumstances  where  the 
other  oxides  are  not,  and  it  retains  its  hold  upon  the  fibre  under 
influences  which  readily  remove  the  other  metals.  There  are 
cases  where  the  combination  of  the  tin  with  the  fibre  is  so  inti- 
mate that  nothing  short  of  the  complete  disorganization  of  it 
will  enable  the  tin  to  be  completely  separated  from  it.  Further 


FIBROUS  SUBSTANCES.  225 

observations  connected  with  these  matters  will  be  found  under 
the  bead  of  MORDANTS. 

Solubility  of  Fibrous  Matters. — The  case  of  disintegration  of 
fibre  is  common  "enough  under  the  influence  of  acids  and 
alkalies ;  but  a  case  of  real  solution  of  it  was  not  known  until 
quite  recently,  and  has  occurred  in  connection  with  a  chemical 
mixture  where  a  priori  this  action  would  never  have  been  sus- 
pected. The  oxide  of  copper  is  soluble  in  ammonia,  and  the 
solution  thus  produced  may  be  called  the  ammoniuret  of  cop- 
per. It  can  be  best  prepared  by  dissolving  sulphate  of  copper, 
at  the  rate  of  one  pound  per  gallon,  in  cold  water,  and  adding 
weak  caustic  soda  until  all  the  copper  is  thrown  down ;  the 
pale  blue  sediment  should  be  thrown  upon  a  filter,  washed,  and 
drained ;  it  will  be  soluble  in  strong  ammonia  liquor,  with  pro- 
duction of  a  magnificent  purplish-blue  color.  This  solution 
should  be  kept  in  a  bottle  or  covered  vessel,  because  it  is 
injured  by  the  air.  This  liquor  is  the  solvent  for  cotton  :  it  acts 
also  upon  silk,  but  not  so  strongly  ;  and  upon  wool,  but  still 
less  so.  There  are  other  solutions  of  metals  in  ammonia  better 
adapted  for  dissolving  silk  and  wool,  as  those  of  cobalt  and  nickel. 
If  a  piece  of  calico  be  placed  in  the  ammoniuret  of  copper  it  is 
soon  acted  upon,  becomes  gelatinous,  is  brought  into  a  pulpy 
state,  and  finally,  if  not  in  too  large  a  quantity,  is  dissolved.  If 
this  solution  is  mixed  with  acids  the  cotton  is  thrown  down  as  a 
white  powder,  and,  according  to  the  statements  of  the  chemist 
who  discovered  this  solvent,  it  remains  of  the  same  chemical 
composition  as  before,  but  all  traces  of  fibre  are  entirely  gone. 
Before  the  discovery  of  this  curious  fact,  cotton  was  considered 
as  insoluble  in  all  liquids.  What  practical  results  may  flow 
from  the  knowledge  of  this  solvent,  or  what  insight  it  may  give 
us  into  the  nature  and  chemical  bearings  of  the  cotton  itself, 
cannot  yet  be  said. 

Affinity  of  Fibrous  Substances  for  Vegetable  Substances  and 
Coloring  Matters. — All  the  fibrous  substances  receive  coloring 
matters  under  some  conditions,  which  vary  for  the  particular 
fibre  and  the  special  coloring  matter.  As  a  general  rule  it  may 
be  laid  down  that  the  animal  fibres  have  a  stronger  attraction 
for  coloring  matters  than  the,  vegetable  fibres  ;  they  not  only 
imbibe  them  more  easily,  and  with  less  preparation,  but  they 
hold  them  more  firmly  and  protect  them  better  from  the  de- 
structive influences  of  air  and  light.  There  are  some  colors 
which  cannot  be  fixed  at  all  upon  the  vegetable  fibrous  sub- 
stances, but  which  give  good  shades  upon  wool  and  silk  ;  pic- 
ric acid  is  a  notable  example.  Others  fixed  upon  cotton  are 
weak  and  unstable,  easily  destroyed  by  natural  agencies,  while 
the  same  coloring  matter  upon  wool  and  silk  enjoys  a  fair 


226  FLAVINE. 

degree  of  permanency — the  case  of  archil  is  an  illustration. 
There  are,  on  the  other  hand,  some  colors  which  fix  better  on 
cotton  than  on  wool,  principally  the  metallic  colors,  and  some 
which  are  not  good  on  wool,  because  of  its  too  great  affinity 
for  coloring  matters,  as  in  the  case  of  madder ;  the  wool  does 
not  permit  the  removal  of  the  brown  matters,  which  deterio- 
rate the  madder  red.  Some  vegetable  substances,  not  coloring 
matters,  have  a  strong  affinity  in  certain  cases  for  fibrous  mat- 
ter, such,  for  example,  as  the  tannin  matter  of  gall  nuts,  sumac, 
&c.  It  may  be  observed  that  these  substances  are  all  what  are 
called  astringents,  and  it  is  not  known  what  kind  of  combina- 
tion they  form  with  the  fibre;  but  it  is  one  of  a  very  intimate 
nature,  and  its  permanency  resembles  the  combinations  which 
are  formed  by  mineral  matters  with  it.  The  combination,  or, 
more  properly  speaking,  the  adhesion  of  certain  other  sub- 
stances, such  as  albumens,  oils,  caseine,  etc.,  is  not  of  a  chemical 
nature.  They  adhere  by  virtue  of  becoming  entangled  by  coa- 
gulation with  the  network  of  fibre,  or  they  adhere  by  their 
closeness  of  contact,  like  paint  to  a  wall. 

Flavine. — A  preparation  from  quercitron  bark,  which  may 
be  used  as  a  substitute  for  bark  in  printing  and  dyeing.  The 
agent  for  Sanford's  American  Flavine  gives  the  following  ex- 
amples of  the  quantities  in  which  it  is  applied  in  practice.  I 
give  the  words  of  his  circular  so  far  as  regards  the  process, 
which  are,  no  doubt,  applicable  to  other  preparations  of  bark. 

To  Dissolve  Flavine. — Put  in  a  tin  or  stone  dish,  pour  a  little 
hot  water  on  it,  and  stir  it  well  with  a  stick,  it  will  then  get 
into  a  paste ;  keep  adding  a  little  water  till  it  becomes  thin  ;  it 
is  then  ready  to  be  mixed  with  the  whole  quantity  of  water  in 
the  kettle  or  pan,  and  boiled  up  with  the  mordants,  using  the 
same  as  for  bark.  Or  another  way  of  mixing  it,  instead  of 
water,  take  a  solution  of  tin,  and  stir  it  the  same  way. 

For  Printing  Cotton  and  Delaines  (as  used  when  first  intro- 
duced).— One  pound  of  flavine,  mixed  to  a  paste,  in  a  basin,  by 
adding  hot  water  and  stirring  with  a  stick;  then  add  3J  oz. 
(measure)  of  ammonia,  sp.  gr.  894  (more  or  less,  according  to 
strength);  stir  it  well  up,  and  mix  with  one  gallon  of  boiling 
water,  and  boil  for  twenty  minutes,  it  will  then  be  in  solution 
and  quite  clear. 

A  standard  yellow  was  made  as  follows: — 

1  gallon  of  1  Ib.  flavine  liquor, 
4  Ibs.  of  gum  substitute, 

2  oz.  of  tin  crystals, 
J  Ib.  of  alum, 

4  oz.  of  acetic  acid ; 


FLESH   COLOR.  227 

steamed  with  six  inches  (pressure)  of  steam  for  one-half  hour, 
then  washed  in  water. 

Another  Method. — If  used  to  make  an  orange,  proceed  as  fol- 
lows :  Take  8  or  9  oz.  flavine,  and  mix  24  oz.  dry  starch  ;  mea- 
sure 4  quarts  of  water,  and  add  gradually  to  the  mixture  of 
flavine  and  starch,  making  a  perfect  paste;  then  add  water 
according  to  judgment,  and  boil.  When  boiled,  add  to  half  a 
pint  of  boiling  water  1  oz.  of  turpentine.  When  dissolved  and 
thoroughly  mixed,  add  half  a  pint  of  oxide  of  tin,  and  a  quar- 
ter of  a  pint  of  acetic  acid  at  4°  Tw. ;  mix  them  together,  and 
add  to  the  flavine.  Mix  well,  and  add  4  oz.  of  tin  crystals,  boil 
until  it  is  of  a  rich  golden  orange  color;  strain  it,  and  it  is  ready 
for  printing.  Use  the  best  starch,  the  amount  of  starch  is  very 
important,  as  if  not  properly  thickened  it  will  stick  in  the 
engraving. 

Fl(ivine  Green  upon  Woollen,  No.  1. — For  sixty  pounds  of 
woollen  yarn : — 

2  Ibs.  flavine, 
6  Ibs.  alum, 

1  Ib.  tin  crystals. 

Dissolve  in  boiling  water.  Then  dissolve  separately  four 
ounces  red  prussiate  of  potash,  and  add  it  to  the  above.  Then 
add  4|  Ibs.  extract  of  indigo,  and  12  oz.  oxalic  acid.  Dye  in 
the  usual  way.  This  makes  a  full  green.  It  is  perhaps  better 
to  prepare  the  yarn  by  steeping  it  first  for  half  an  hour  in 
boiling  water,  in  which  is  dissolved  one  half  of  the  above  quan- 
tities of  alum  and  oxalic  acid,  and  putting  the  remaining  half 
in  the  vat. 

No.  2. — A  very  good  green  can  also  be  made  by  using 

3  Ibs.  flavine, 
12  Ibs.  alum, 

12  oz.  oxalic  acid, 
4|  Ibs.  extract  of  indigo. 
No.  3.— 8  Ibs.  flavine, 
12  Ibs.  alum, 
1  Ib.  cream  of  tartar, 
4J  Ibs.  extract  of  indigo. 

Light  greens  may  be  dyed  in  the  same  vats  after  the  darker 
ones  without  renewing  them,  as  is  customary  in  using  fustic. 
,  For  very  dark  greens  a  prussiate  blue  may  be  made  first, 
and  it  may  be  dyed  afterwards  with  flavine,  using  alum  or  tin 
crystals,  or  tin  spirits  for  mordants. 

Flesh  Color, — A  light  pink  with  a  little  yellow  constitutes 
the  color  known  as  flesh.  The  term  flesh  color  is  more  properly 


228  FLOUR. 

rendered  skin  color,  since  it  is  evidently  intended  to  indicate 
the  color  of  healthy  skin,  or  the  color  of  muscle  as  seen  through 
skin.  In  dyeing  it  is  obtained  from  safflower,  used -in  small 
quantities,  from  a  spent  scarlet  bath,  in  which  cochineal  and 
tin  have  been  used  ;  and  from  anotta,  reddened  by  soaping  and 
a  little  alum.  These  are  sufficient  indications  for  a  shade  of 
color  which  varies  very  considerably  in  different  dye-houses, 
and  has  usually  to  be  dyed  to  pattern. 

Flour. — Wheaten  flour  forms  a  very  useful  thickening  in 
color, mixing,  and  on  account  of  its  cheapness  is  extensively 
used.  Flour,  as  a  chemical  body,  may  be  looked  upon  as  a 
mixture  of  starch  and  a  peculiar  substance  called  gluten.  It  is 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  gluten  contained  in  flour  that 
it  is  valuable  as  an  article  of  food ;  but  for  the  color  mixer, 
other  things  being  equal,  it  is  the  amount  of  starch  that  renders 
it  more  or  less  valuable.  The  gluten  has  no  sensible  thicken- 
ing power  of  itself,  but  it  certainly  influences  the  starch  in  its 
manner  of  thickening  colors.  A  given  quantity  of  flour  thickens 
much  better  than  the  amount  of  starch  which  can  be  obtained 
from  it:  thus,  the  thickening  power  of  a  flour,  though  in  rela- 
tion to  the  starch  it  contains,  is  as  a  rule  greater  than  that 
would  account  for,  and  leads  to  the  belief  of  the  existence  in 
the  flour  of  some  form  of  starch  decomposable  by  weak  chemi- 
cal or  mechanical  agency,  and  from  which  the  substance  called 
gluten  is  formed.  The  very  best  kinds  of  flour  are  weaker  for 
thickening  than  common  kinds,  requiring  from  half  a  pound 
to  three-quarters  more  to  the  gallon  of  water,  but  they  have  an 
advantage  in  the  fineness  and  smoothness  of  the  paste  they 
give,  and  their  consequent  better  working  in  the  machine.  A 
part  of  this  is  doubtless  owing  to  the  greater  quantity  of  gluten 
they  contain,  which  I  consider  is  the  substance,  giving  tough- 
ness and  tenacity  to  paste  colors ;  something  is  owing  to  the 
absence  of  inactive  matters  of  a  cellulose  insoluble  nature 
present  in  inferior  flour,  and  a  good  deal  to  the  fine  dressing 
which  such  first  quality  of  flour  receives.  As  a  chemical  mat- 
ter, flour  has  no  particular  affinities  or  actions ;  it  is  not  affected 
so  easily  as  starch  by  acids  or  other  chemical  bodies. 

Flour  is  occasionally  troublesome  through  grit  or  sand  being 
present,  which  it  is  impossible  wholly  to  remove  by  straining. 
The  coarser  or  worst  part  of  the  grit  may  be  thrown  out  by  a 
little  careful  management  before  boiling,  as  it  settles  down 
rather  quickly  in  the  thin  mixture  of  flour  and  water,  or  flour 
and  red  liquor.  If  a  quantity  be  mixed  in  a  tub,  of  a  churn 
shape,  wider  at  bottom  than  top,  and  the  mixture  be  kept 
quietly  revolving,  just  so  much  as  to  prevent  the  mass  of  flour 
sinking,  the  greatest  part  of  the  grit  may  be  brought  towards 


FLOUR.  229 

the  bottom.  The  top  part  can  then  be  drawn  off  by  a  spigot, 
placed  about  six  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  This 
plan  requires  a  little  address  to  make  it  answer,  but  it  will 
sometimes  remove  all  real  causes  of  complaint.  The  portion 
at  the  bottom  can  be  used  up  for  designs  or  patterns  that  are 
open,  and  do  not  show  the  action  of  the  grit  so  much.  Flour, 
starch,  and  gum  always  contain  some  grit,  but  the  amount 
varies  very  much ;  if  it  comes  to  one  per  cent,  it  is  very  bad. 
At  five  grains  to  a  thousand  it  is  still  bad ;  but  at  two  grains 
to  a  thousand  I  think  it  cannot  be  avoided  by  any  care  on  the 
part  of  the  miller.  It  is  impossible  to  remove  grit  by  straining. 
Sand  and  bran  will  come  out  in  a  fine  strainer,  or  a  fine  print- 
ing fent,  but  not  that  which  is  called  grit.  It  can  be  separated 
by  chemical  means,  and  shown  separately ;  it  is  a  fine  powder, 
that  looks  and  feels  in  the  fingers  like  dust;  but  under  the 
microscope,  and  between  the  teeth,  which  are  the  best  practical 
detectors  of  grit,  it  can  be  proved  to  be  hard  crystalline  sand, 
scratching  copper  and  steel,  and  taking  the  polish  or  the  face 
off'  a  roller  like  fine  emery  or  glass  paper..  In  the  article  upon 
GUMS  some  more  particulars  may  be  found  upon  the  matter. 
Flour  sometimes  gives  much  trouble  through  some  stringy, 
fibrous,  tenacious  substance,  which  forms  in  the  paste.  Only 
damaged  flours  do  this,  and  I  attribute  it  to  some  altered  state 
of  the  gluten.  The  matter  I  speak  of  collects  under  the  doctor, 
and  drags  out  the  color  from  the  engraving.  It  is  found,  on 
taking  off  the  doctor,  as  round  flattened  globules  (the  shape,  I 
believe,  being  given  by  the  revolution  of  the  roller),  about  the 
size  of  a  pellet,  or  larger.  They  have  an  India-rubber  elasti- 
city and  feel;  a  straining  takes  them  out ;  very  often  they  form 
again  on  working.  This  substance  appears  under  certain  con- 
ditions in  the  cooled  colors  before  going  to  the  machine.  If  a 
hot  paste  color  be  strained,  it  seems  free  from  them,  and  in 
twelve  hours  a  pint  or  so  may  be  obtained  from  three  or  four 
gallons  by  a  fresh  straining.  The  shape  and  marks  of  this  sub- 
stance lead  to  the  belief  that  it  existed  in  the  hot  color  in  some 
soft  plastic  state,  and  was  forced  through  the  strainer  by  con- 
siderable pressure;  never  forming  an  integral  part  of  the  mass 
of  the  paste,  but  upon  cooling  getting  hard  and  tough,  and 
able  to  resist  pressure  on  the  strainer,  while  the  real  paste  goes 
through.  There  seems  to  be  no  cure  for  this  but  changing 
the  supply  of  flour ;  the  mischief  is  done  in  the  flour,  and  can- 
not be  undone. 

The  best  and  only  test  of  any  practical  value  for  flour  is  to 
make  a  trial  of  it  in  thickening,  observing  how  much  it  takes 
to  give  a  good  consistent  paste.  About  twenty  four  ounces  to 
a  gallon  of  water  should  make  colors  thick  enough  for  all  usual 


230  FLOWERS   OF   MADDER — FAUSTIC. 

purposes ;  it  should  remain  firm  when  cold,  and  not  show  any 
tendency  to  break  or  become  watery. 

Flowers  of  Madder  ;  Fkur  de  Oarance.—  K  preparation 
of  madder,  by  processes  which  remove  from  it  a  considerable 
portion  of  useless  matters,  and  concentrate  the  coloring  matter. 
(See  MADDER.) 

Fuchsine. — This  was  the  name  at  first  given  to  the  red 
coloring  matter  obtained  from  aniline,  by  means  of  bi-chloride 
of  tin ;  although  it  was  a  very  beautiful  color,  the  more  supe- 
rior color  called  magenta,  obtained  by  Medlock's  patent  (arsenic 
acid),  has  completely  driven  it  from  the  market. 

Fustic  ;  Yellow  Wood.  Old  Fustic.— The  wood  of  a  tree 
called  by  the  botanists  Morus  tinctoria,  and  formerly  known  as 
Dyers'  Mulberry.  This  wood  is  very  extensively  used  in  dye- 
ing, appearing  to  be  the  most  suitable  yellow  coloring  matter 
for  working  with  other  colors,  in  compound  shades,  preferable 
in  this  respect  to  weld  and  quercitron  bark.  It  is  not  in  gene- 
ral use  in  printing.  With  alumina  mordant  it  gives  yellow  of 
an  orange  shade;  with  iron  it  gives  drabs,  grays,  and  olives; 
as  a  yellow  coloring  matter  it  is  considered  to  be  only  about 
one-fourth  as  strong  as  an  equal  weight  of  quercitron  bark,  and 
considerably  inferior  to  it  in  purity  of  colol ;  but  it  has  the 
valuable  property  of  withstanding  the  action  of  acids  and  acid 
salts  more  perfectly  than  bark,  and  on  that  account  is  used  in 
greens,  blacks,  and  all  mixed  colors  where  the  yellow  part  is 
required,  as  can  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  receipts  for  these 
colors.  The  colors  it  gives  are  not  very  stable;  they  stain 
easily,  fade  by  exposure  to  air  and  light,  and  do  not  very  well 
resist  the  action  of  soap.  Like  logwood,  and  other  hard  woods, 
it  is  thought  to  be  greatly  improved  by  ageing  or  mastering  in 
a  damped  state  for  several  weeks  before  it  is  used  in  dyeing, 
or  before  it  is  boiled  with  water  to  extract  its  coloring  matter. 
The  pure  coloring  principle  of  fustic  is  called  Marine. 

Young  Fustic,  French  Fustet. — This  is  quite  a  different  sub- 
stance from  the  above,  much  more  resembling  sumac  than  the 
yellow  wood  in  its  origin.  It  is  an  European  shrub,  and  ob- 
tained its  prefix  "young"  on  account  of  the  srnallness  of  its 
branches  compared  with  that  of  the  yellow  wood,  which  was 
distinguished  as  old-  fustic.  It  contains  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  yellow  coloring  matter,  and  may  be  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  the  yellow  wood,  but  its  colors  are  usually  con- 
sidered more  fugitive.  It  is  not  applied  in  calico  printing,  and 
very  little  if  at  all  in  cotton  dyeing.  The  plant  which  yields 
it  is  known  to  botanists  as  rhus  cotinus,  and  is  sometimes  called 
Venice  sumac. 


GALL  NUTS.  231 


G. 

Gall  Nuts,  Galls. — This  valuable  dyeing  material  is  an 
excrescence  from  certain  trees  similar  to  the  oak;  it  is  caused 
originally  by  the  puncture  of  a  little  insect  on  the  leaves  or 
small  branches  of  the  tree,  in  order  to  deposit  its  egg  in  the 
cavity  formed.  The  juices  of  the  tree  collect  round  the  egg, 
and  hardening,  form  the  gall  nut.  In  favorable  circumstances, 
the  egg  comes  to  maturity,  and  the  insect  born  from  it  eats  its 
way  out  of  the  nut  in  order  to  take  its  flight.  The  gall  nuts, 
however,  are  as  much  as  possible  collected  before  the  insect 
has  arrived  at  maturity,  for,  though  smaller,  they  are  heavier 
and  better.  The  galls,  in  which  the  insect  has  been  developed, 
are  hollow,  and  have  a  small  round  hole  about  ^.2  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  from  the  exterior  to  the  centre.  The  galls,  which 
have  been  collected  before  the  escape  of  the  insect,  are  fre- 
quently known  as  black  galls,  or  blue  galls,  also  as  true 
galls  ;  "while  the  other  are  called  white  galls  or  false  galls.  The 
former,  as  their  names  would  intimate,  are  deemed  preferable 
to  the  latter,  and  command  a  higher  price;  but  in  the  English 
market  both  kinds  are  frequently  found  mixed  together  in  the 
same  parcel.  The  galls  called  Aleppo  are  considered  the  best ; 
those  from  Morea  and  Smyrna  next,  while  the  galls  obtained 
in  more  northern  climates  are  so  much  inferior  as  to  be  scarcely 
useable  in  dyeing.  Galls  contain  from  50  to  70  per  cent,  of 
tannic  acid,  and  it  appears  that  the  whole  of  their  valuable 
properties  are  attributable  to  the  tannic  acid  present.  The 
quantity  of  this  acid  present  in  any  sample  of  galls  may  be 
ascertained  with  considerable  accuracy  by  chemical  analysis ; 
but  for  a  practical  test  of  the  quality  of  this  article,  it  is  usual 
to  make  a  decoction  with  a  known  weight,  and  compound 
from  this  solution  some  black  or  gray  color,  comparing  the 
shades  with  those  produced  by  a  known  quality. 

Galls  are  but  little  used  in  calico  printing,  their  application 
being  confined  to  a  few  gray  and  black  colors.  In  dyeing  they 
are  somewhat  more  employed,  but  not  nearly  to  the  extent 
they  were  before  the  introduction  of  sumac  as  an  astringent 
material,  or  the  general  substitution  of  logwood  in  dyeing 
black  colors.  In  the  better  class  of  blacks  upon  silks,  galls 
are  still  much  used ;  they  give  a  very  durable  but  somewhat 
grayish  shade  of  color,  and  possess  a  property,  very  much 
esteemed  in  certain  trades,  of  weighting,  i.  e.,  accumulating  on 
the  fibre  in  such  quantity  as  to  add  very  materially  to  the 
weight  of  the  silk. 

The  coloring  principle  of  galls  is  dissolved  largely  by  hot 


232  GALLIC  ACID — GARANCINE. 

water,  and  the  solution  may  be  concentrated  without  deposition 
or  crystallizing.  A  weak  infusion  of  galls  soon  Joses  power 
by  undergoing  a  kind  of  fermentation,  which  facilitates  the 
conversion  of  the  tannic  acid  into  gallic  acid  ;  strong  gall  liquor 
does  not  change  so  rapidly.  In  making  extracts  of  galls  which 
have  to  be  kept  for  any  length  of  time,  the  French  writers 
advise  to  use  as  little  water  as  possible  in  making  the  extract, 
because  then  the  tannic  acid  is  dissolved,  and  the  fermenting 
matter  left  behind.  M.  Persoz  states  that  if  vthe  gall  liquor  be 
raised  to  the  boil,  and  kept  in  well  closed  bottles,  quite  full  of 
liquor,  it  will  not  be  injured  in  the  course  of  three  years.  Galls 
cannot,  in  strictness,  be  said  to  contain  any  coloring  matter  ;  it 
is  more  properly  a  coloring  principle  which,  in  contact  with 
certain  mordants,  produces  the  color  for  which  it  is  used.  Thus, 
the  solution  of  galls  has  only  a  dull  yellow  color,  and  the  tan- 
nic acid  to  which  its  active  properties  are  due  is  nearly  color- 
less. With  alumina  mordants  it  only  gives  faint  shades  of 
gray  ;  it  is  with  the  iron  mordants  that  it  gives  fast  and  durable 
blacks.  The  tannic  acid  appears  to  have  a  direct  affinity  of 
itself  for  fibrous  matters,  and  to  be  able  to  accumulate  upon 
them  to  a  considerable  extent,  increasing  the  weight  and  alter- 
ing the  physical  properties  of  the  fibre.  It  appears  also  to 
form  combinations  with  coloring  matters,  and  to  fulfil  the  place 
of  a  mordant.  Where  galls  and  similar  substances  can  be  used 
with  advantage  in  dyeing,  their  action  seems  to  extend  beyond 
the  share  they  have  in  contributing  to  the  depth  of  color,  and 
to  consist  also  in  causing  the  fibre  to  take  up  more  color,  and 
to  form  a  more  intimate  combination  with  it,  and  one  more 
capable  of  resisting  the  action  of  soap  and  atmospheric  influ- 
ences. It  is  on  account  of  this  property  that  galls  and  sumac 
are  employed  on  Turkey  red  dyeing,  and  on  other  cases  of 
madder  and  garancine  dyeing. 

Gallic  Acid. — An  acid  which  exists  in  very  small  quantity 
in  good  galls,  but  which  is  produced  from  the  tannic  acid  of 
galls  when  the  latter  are  left  exposed  to  air  and  moisture.  It 
is  nearly  worthless  as  a  dyeing  material,  and  care  should  be 
taken  that  it  is  not  formed  in  the  case  of  decoctions  of  galls 
and  sumac  kept  for  a  long  time  in  open  vessels. 

Gallipoli  Oil. — An  impure  sort  of  olive  oil  in  considerable 
use  in  calico  printing  and  Turkey  red  dyeing.  (See  OIL.) 

Garancine. — This  name  is  applied  to  a  preparation  of  mad- 
der obtained  by  heating  it  with  sulphuric  acid  and  water;  it  is 
derived  from  the  French  garance  for  madder.  The  discovery 
of  this  article  appears  to  be  due  to  Messrs.  Eobiquet  and  Colin, 
and  dates  from  1827,  but  it  did  not  come  into  extensive  use 
for  several  years  afterwards.  These  chemists  found  that  strong 


GARANCINE.  233 

sulphuric  acid  converted  ground  madder  into  a  black  mass  like 
charcoal,  but  that,  curiously  enough  and  quite  unexpectedly, 
the  coloring  matter  was  not  injured  by  the  acid,  and  when  the 
excess  of  acid  was  removed  by  washing,  the  charcoal-like  pow- 
der was  as  capable  of  dyeing  as  the  madder  itself,  and  in  some 
respects  superior  to  it.  The  product,  at  first  called  charbon 
sulfurique,  was  prepared  on  the  large  scale  and  offered  in  the 
trade  as  a  substitute  for  madder;  whether  owing  to  actual 
defects  in  the  manufacture  of  the  article,  and  inexperience  in 
its  application,  or  whether,  as  seems  most  probable,  it  claimed 
more  than  it  could  perform,  it  was  for  a  time  a  failure.  In  a 
little  time  its  powers  and  values  were  better  known — a  style  of 
work  was  created  for  it — it  became  very  extensively  used,  and 
its  discovery  ranks  as  one  of  the  great  eras  in  the  history  of 
dyeing  and  printing.  The  method  of  making  a  kind  of  garan- 
cine  from  spent  madder  was  patented  in  England  by  Steiner, 
in  1843,  but  five  or  six  years  afterwards,  in  a  trial  in  the  law 
courts  for  an  infringement  of  the  patent,  it  was.  upset  as  not 
being  novel,  on  the  ground  of  a  previous  publication  in  a  French 
work  known  in  England.  Since  this  trial  it  has  been  open  for 
any  one  to  convert  the  spent  madder  into  garancine,  and  most 
calico  printers  who  consume  largely  of  this  dyeing  matter,  arid 
who  dye  garancine  styles,  do  themselves  make  it  again  avail- 
able for  dyeing.  The  French  writers  call  the  material  made 
from  spent  madder  by  the  name  of  garanceux,  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  product  of  the  fresh  madder;  and,  as  the  articles  have 
a  very  different  value  in  trade  and  different  properties  in  dye- 
ing, I  adopt  and  recommend  the  name  of  garanceux  in  default 
of  an  English  word  of  the  same  meaning. 

Making  of  Garancine. — The  madder  is  put  into  a  wooden, 
stone,  or  leaden  cistern,  mixed  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
water  to  give  it  the  consistence  of  a  thin  paste,  and  the  acid 
added  ;  as  much  as  40  Ibs.  of  brown  vitriol  may  be  used  for 
every  hundred  weight  of  madder,  and  a  considerably  smaller 
quantity  may  also  be  used  with  safety  ;  but  as  vitriol  is  cheap, 
and  the  larger  quantity  is  not  injurious,  it  is  frequently  em- 
ployed in  order  to  be  on  the  safe  side.  In  my  experiments  I 
have  found  that  a  very  small  amount  of  acid  is  sufficient  to 
make  madder  into  garancine.  but  there  are  advantages  in  work- 
ing which  make  it  desirable  to  use  a  much  larger  quantity 
than  is  actually  necessary.  The  mixture  being  made,  the  cis- 
tern is  covered,  a  jet  of  steam  introduced,  and  the  whole  mass 
raised  to  the  boiling  point,  and  kept  boiling  for  two  or  three 
hours  or  even  longer.  The  mass  is  then  run  upon  properly 
constructed  filters,  the  great  excess  of  acid. drained  oft',  and 
clear  water  frequently  passed  through  the  acid  mixture,  so 
16 


234  GARANCINE. 

that  the  whole  of  the  acid  may  be  washed  away.  The  wash- 
ing may  take  six  to  eight  waters,  and  occupy  from  two  to  six 
days,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  madder  operated  upon. 
The  wet  garancine  is  then  subjected  to  pressure  to  expel  the 
water,  the  drying  completed  in  stoves,  and  then  ground  and 
sieved.  During  the  grinding  it  is  usually  mixed  with  carbon- 
ate of  soda,  to  neutralize  a  remaining  trace  of  acid,  the  presence 
of  which  in  a  free  state  would  .be  injurious  to  the  dyeing. 

The  madder  in  being  thus  treated  loses  from  one-half  to  two- 
thirds  of  its  weight,  and  as  the  same  amount  of  coloring  matter 
is  present  in  the  smaller  weight  as  existed  in  the  larger,  garan- 
cine is  much  stronger  than  madder,  weight  for  weight.  But 
this  loss  of  weight  is  not  constant;  some  kinds  of  madder  con- 
tain more  of  the  solid,  woody  fibre,  and  less  of  the  soft,  soluble 
principle  than  others  do.  In  such  cases  the  loss  is  less,  and  the 
garancine  being  encumbered  with  useless  woody  matter  is  not 
so  strong.  The  kind  of  madder  called  munjeet  is  one  that  con- 
tains a  very  small  portion  of  soluble  matters ;  it  scarcely  loses 
weight  in  making  into  garanciue,  and  not  containing  any  chlo- 
rogenine,  does  not  change  color  in  a  notable  degree.  It  pro- 
duces a  very  weak  garancine,  and  is  employed  to  mix  with 
others  to  reduce  their  strength,  or  to  increase  their  weight. 
What  the  real  and  essential  action  of  the  acids  is  in  producing 
garancine  is  not  known.  It  has  been  imagined  that  they  acted 
by  breaking  up  the  woody  fibre,  tearing  it  asunder,  as  it 
were,  and  letting  the  water  get  access  to  the  coloring  particles 
previously  enclosed,  and  so  transferring  them  to  the  d}?eing 
bath.  But  the  weakness  of  the  acids  which  can  be  successfully 
employed,  throws  doubt  upon  this  explanation.  It  was  sup- 
posed again  that  the  coloring  matter  was  in  a  state  of  combina- 
tion with  some  earthy  base,  as  lime  and  magnesia  ;  that  it 
could  not  dye  while  so  combined  ;  and  that  the  acids  liberated 
it  by  themselves  taking  the  lime  and  magnesia.  But  this  is 
not  supported  by  any  appeal  to  facts  or  experiments  which 
bear  directly  upon  the  question  ;  it  may  be  the  explanation,  but 
it  is  not  proved.  It  seems  probable  that  some  chemical  affini- 
ties of  a  more  refined  and  subtle  nature  are  brought  into  play  : 
it  is  likely  that  the  acid  employed  forms  a  combination  with 
the  coloring  matter,  which  is  itself  easily  decomposed,  even  by 
water.  It  would  not  be  in  accordance  with  analogy  to  suppose 
any  formation  or  creation  of  coloring  matter,  but  simply  to 
suppose  that  a  portion  of  the  coloring  matter  was  present  in 
some  form  or  other  in  which  it  was  not  soluble  in  water,  but 
by  some  agency  not  known  it  becomes  soluble  and  capable  of 
combining  with  -mordants. 

The  blackening  of  madder,  when  made  into  garancine  by  the 


GARANCINE.  235 

ordinary  methods  of  a  mixture  of  acid  and  water,  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  a  peculiar  matter  in  it,  which  is  called  chlorogenine  • 
a  substance  which  can  become  green  by  the  action  of  several 
reagents,  and  especially  by  the  action  of  acids.  The  intensely 
dark,  almost  black,  color  which  some  samples  of  garancine 
have  in  the  damp  state  is  due  to  the  dark  green  substance  thus 
produced ;  the  true  shade  can  only  be  seen  when  it  is  dry,  by 
transmitted  light.  If  a  clear  solution  of  madder  be  placed  in  a 
deep  glass,  and  strong  sulphuric  acid  poured  on  it  without 
mixing,  this  latter  will  sink  to  the  bottom  ;  but  at  the  line  of 
junction  of  the  two  liquids  a  green  color  will  be  perceptible, 
which  grows  in  extent  and  depth,  becoming  nearly  black.  If 
the  liquor  which  filters  from  steeped  madder  be  boiled  in  a 
glass  flask  with  acid,  it  changes  color,  and  the  dark  green  sub- 
stance alluded  to  settles  down  as  a  powder :  it  is  so  dark,  that 
it  is  only  when  it  has  been  washed  and  dried  that  it  is  plainly 
seen  to  be  green  and  not  black.  In  the  state  in  which  it  exists 
in  the  madder  root  it  is  soluble  in  water,  but  when  it  has  been 
changed  by  hot  acids  it  is  insoluble,  settles  down  upon  the 
woody  fibre,  and  remains  with  it.  The  reason  why  garancine 
made  from  washed  madder,  and  garanceux  also,  are  not  dark 
colored  is  because  their  chlorogenine  has  been  washed  away; 
and  the  reason  why  some  kinds  of  garancine  are  darker  colored 
than  others  is  because  the  original  madder  contained  more 
chlorogenine.  The  quality  of  a  madder  does  not,  as  far  as  I  arn 
aware,  bear  any  relation  to  the  amount  of  chlorogenine  in  it, 
and,  therefore,  the  quality  of  a  garancine  cannot  be  correctly 
judged  of  by  its  shade  of  color.  The  formation  of  this  dark 
green  substance  goes  on  step  by  step  with  the  action  of  the 
acid  in  making  garancine,  but  not  apparently  connected  with 
it ;  it  serves  as  a  test  to  show  the  completeness  of  the  action  of 
the  acid,  for  the  change  of  the  chlorogenine  does  not  take 
place  unless  the  garancine  be  made ;  but  it  is  possible  to  make 
the  garancine  without  using  so  much  acid,  or  employing  a  tem- 
perature high  enough  to  convert  this  principle  into  the  green 
state. 

With  regard  to  the  length  of  time  during  which  the  madder 
and  acid  must  be  kept  boiling,  it  appears,  from  laboratory  ex- 
periments, that  five  minutes  boiling  is  quite  as  good  as  twelve 
hours ;  but  large  masses  take  much  time  to  get  thoroughly 
heated,  and  the  risk  in  diminishing  the  period  of  heating  would 
be  that  some  parts  would  not  be  raised  to  the  boiling  point. 
I  made  a  series  of  experiments  upon  making  garancine  at  low 
temperatures,  and  have  found  that  madder  can  be  changed,  at 
a- temperature  not  exceeding  160°  F.,  to  garanciue  of  the  best 
quality,  and  with  trifling  quantities  of  acid.  In  using  sulphu- 


236  GARANCINE. 

ric  acid,  muriatic  acid,  and  nitric  acid,  I  have  obtained  results 
not  distinguishable  from  each  other.  Other  things  being  equal, 
muriatic  acid  gives  the  darkest  colored  product,  and  nitric  acid 
the  least  colored.  In  the  use  of  nitric  acid  there  is  not  a  very 
wide  margin  between  the  strength  at  which  it  acts,  in  the  same 
manner  as  sulphuric  acid  or  muriatic  acid,  and  the  strength  at 
which  its  oxidizing  properties  come  into  play,  and  totally  de- 
stroy all  the  coloring  matter.  If  about  half  an  ounce  of  good 
commercial  nitric  acid  be  mixed  with  20  oz.  of  water,  and  2  oz. 
madder  be  mixed  up  with  it,  and  the  whole  gradually  heated 
up  in  a  water  bath,  with  regular  stirring,  the  madder  looks 
unacted  upon  at  first;  but  when  the  temperature  approaches 
150°  it  undergoes  a  remarkable  change — it  becomes  of  a  brown- 
ish color,  and  contracts  into  a  very  much  less  space  than  it  pre- 
viously occupied.  If  the  temperature  be  pushed  a  little 
higher,  there  is  formation  of  the  green  substance  spoken  of, 
which  floats  in  the  liquor,  and  which,  if  not  poured  off,  will 
settle  upon  the  madder  and  adhere  to  it.  If  the  heat  be  with- 
drawn, the  mixture  cooled,  washed  until  all  theacid  is  removed, 
and  dried,  it  will  be  found  that  the  madder  has  lost  more  than 
one  half  its  weight,  and  the  product  is  found  to  dye  up  like 
good  garancine.  The  same  effects  are  produced  by  using  sul- 
phuric and  muriatic  acids.  These  experiments  are  interesting, 
as  showing  at  what  temperature  the  conversion  into  garanciue 
takes  place.  By  using  a  little  more  acid  in  the  case  of  muriatic 
acid,  a  product  can  be  obtained  which  is  perfectly  black  when 
rnoist,  and  of  a  dull  dark  green  when  dried.  It  is,  therefore, 
apparent  that  garancine  can  be  procured  without  the  dark 
colored  body  which  generally  accompanies  it  when  made  from 
unwashed  madder. 

A  quality  of  garancine  more  especially  intended  for  dyeing 
purples  is  made,  it  is  frequently  sold  as  commercial  alizarine. 
(See  ALIZARINE.) 

Garanceux. — The  manufacture  of  garanceux  from  spent  mad- 
der is  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  garancine,  and  the  same 
general  explanations  apply  to  one  equally  as  to  the  other.  The 
difference  between  garancine  and  garanceux  is  not  of  a  radical 
nature,  and  may  be  explained  in  a  great  measure  by  the  differ- 
ent amount  of  coloring  matter  present  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  woody  fibre  and  mineral  matter,  both  of  which  are 
to  a  certain  extent  obstructives  to  the  free  solution  of  the  color- 
ing matter,  and  may  produce  those  effects  which  distinguish 
these  two  preparations.  The  method  of  making  garanceux  is 
simple  and  well  understood,  and  requires  nothing  but  care  and 
attention  to  obtain  regular  results.  The  spent  madder  from 
the  dye  becks  and  wince  pits  is  collected  in  a  sufficiently  large 


GABANCINE.  237 

receptacle,  and  allowed  to  settle,  with  the  addition  of  a  little 
weak  vitriol,  which  both  stops  any  inclination  to  fermentation 
and  throws  down  a  fine  powder,  which  otherwise  floats  in  the 
liquor.  The  wet  mass  should  be  well  pressed  until  it  does  not 
contain  more  than  two-thirds  of  its  weight  of  water,  and  then 
broken  up  and  mixed  with  the  acid  ;  about  a  dozen  pounds  of 
brown  vitriol  to  the  hundred  weight  is  a  good  proportion, 
mixed  with  about  three  gallons  of  water  previously  to  degging 
the  spent  madder  with  it.  It  is  an  essential  point  that  the  acid 
touch  all  the  particles  of  madder,  and  therefore  such  a  system 
of  turning  over,  sieving,  etc.,  as  will  insure  a  perfect  mixture 
of  the  acid  must  be  strictly  attended  to.  It  is  good  to  leave 
the  degged  madder  for  some  days  before  steaming  ;  many  weeks 
or  months  of  storing  does  the  mixture  no  harm,  and  allows  the 
acid  to  thoroughly  penetrate  it.  The  steaming  must  be 
watched  to  see  that  all  the  madder  gets  a  fair  proportion  of 
steam  ;  if  the  spent  madder  be  too  moist  it  sets  in  the  steaming 
cistern,  and  forms  chinks,  through  which  the  steam  blows 
without  permeating  the  whole  mass.  It  should  be  so  moist  as 
to  give  water  upon  pressure  between  the  fingers,  but  not  wet 
enough  to  adhere  in  a  lump  when  pressed  in  the  hand.  Garan- 
ceux  can  also  be  made  equally  well  by  boiling  with  acid,  but 
the  steaming  process  appears  to  be  preferable.  The  washing 
of  the  acid  stuff  is  important,  and  demands  the  greatest  atten- 
tion. On  account  of  its  loose  texture  garanceux  washes  much 
faster  and  easier  than  garancine — the  waters  can  be  run  off 
more  quickly — so  that  two  working  days  are  enough  to  wash 
it  in.  The  washing  is  known  to  be  accomplished  by  the  liquor 
not  tasting  acid,  and  by  the  springing  out  of  a  fine  slimy  pow- 
der, which  never  appears  till  the  washing  is  almost  completed. 
It  is  not  to  be  recommended  that  any  alkali  should  be  used  to 
neutralize  the  remainder  of  the  acid  as  a  usual  thing :  but  it  is 
sometimes  done,  and  then  crystals  of  soda  or  milk  of  lime  may 
be  added  in  proper  quantity.  The  garancine  keeps  better  when 
left  a  little  acid,  especially  if  it  is  to  be  kept  in  a  moist  state,  as 
will  be  usually  the  case  on  printworks  ;  it  can  be  neutralized  in 
the  dye-beck  with  safety.  When  the  washing  is  complete  it 
should  be  pressed  again ;  it  might  be  used  in  a  simply  drained 
state,  but  it  is  better  to  have  it  regularly  pressed,  so  as  to  know 
how  much  is  being  used,  as  well  as  for  facility  of  storing.  Well 
pressed  garanceux  contains  between  a  third  and  a  fourth  of 
its  weight  of  dry  matter,  the  remainder  being  water.  The 
strength  of  garanceux,  in  proportion  to  garancine  of  first 
quality,  will  vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  madder,  and 
to  the  proportion  in  which  it  has  been  spent  in  the  first  dye- 
ing. Garanceux  from  mixed  Turkey  and  French  madder  is 


238  GAKANCIXE. 

equal,  as  it  comes  from  the  press,  to  from  one-sixth  to  one- 
ninth  of  its  weight  of  real  good  garancine,  or,  when  dried,  it  is 
equal  to  about  one-third.  If  the  madder  has  been  well  man- 
aged in  the  dyehouse,  making  it  go  as  far  as  possible,  and 
that  it  is  evidently  the  interest  of  the  dyer,  it  will  take  nine 
parts  of  the  pressed  garanceux  from  it  to  be  equal  to  one  part 
of  best  garancine,  and  less  as  it  has  been  used  in  excess  of 
the  requirements  of  the  dyeing  to  begin  with.  It  is  a  point 
of  the  utmost  importance  to  see  that  garanceux  is  properly 
neutralized,  either  in  the  dye-beck  or  before  it  goes  in ;  an 
error  on  either  side — that  is,  an  insufficient  or  an  excessive 
quantity  of  the  alkaline  matter — is  equally  injurious.  I  have 
seen  excellent  garanceux  condemned  as  worthless,  and  even 
sentenced  to  be  thrown  away,  because  too  little  carbonate  of 
soda  was  used  with  it.  The  most  useful  matter  to  neutralize 
garanceux  in  the  becks  is  the  bicarbonate  of  soda,  it  is  very 
regular  in  its  composition  and  of  a  mild  nature ;  no  fixed  pro- 
portion can  be  prescribed,  because  the  acidity  is  various;  the 
highest  amount  that  should  be  required  is  about  one  pound  to 
seventy  of  the  garanceux  ;  if  the  acidity  passes  this,  good  re- 
sults will  not  be  obtained — it  should  be  washed  over  again. 
The  lowest  amount  will  be  about  one  pound  to  a  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds  of  garanceux,  taking  this  last  in  the  wet  state, 
and  containing  about  one-third  of  dry  matter  and  two-thirds  of 
water.  The  injurious  effects  of  too  much  soda  are  perhaps 
even  more  marked  than  a  slight  deficiency  ;  the  colors  are  dull 
and  cloudy,  without  brilliancy  or  solidity.  A  deficient  quan- 
tity of  soda  is  shown  by  a  redness  of  the  chocolates,  grayness 
of  the  purples,  poorness  in  the  blacks,  and  the  general  bare- 
ness and  poverty  of  the  whole  of  the  colors. 

The  colors  which  garancine  and  garanceux  give  to  mordanted 
cloth  are  the  same  in  kind  as  those  from  madder,  but  not  ex- 
actly of  the  same  quality ;  the  whites  are  purer,  on  account  of 
the  absence  of  the  soluble  matters  which  stain  them  in  madder 
dyeing.  They  will  not  stand  a  severe  soaping,  and  cannot  be 
brought  to  the  same  degree  of  brightness  as  madder  colors. 
These  products  are  not  much  employed  in  dyeing  by  them- 
selves, but  generally  in  combination  with  some  of  the  cheaper 
dyewoods,  as  peachwood,  sumac,  and  bark.  Garancine  dyeing 
cannot  be  understood  until  the  action  and  nature  of  -these 
woods  are  ascertained,  since  the  simple  garancine  colors  are 
modified  and  changed  in  a  remarkable  manner  by  the  colors 
produced  by  these  woods.  Garancine  is  not  simply  a  con- 
centrated madder,  to  perform  in  less,  bulk  what  madder  does 
or  can  do  in  larger  bulk;  it  yields  colors  which  cannot  be 
obtained  from  madder.  The  existing  garancine  styles  could 


GARANCINE   COLORS.       .  239 

never  have  been  produced  with  madder,  however  much  was 
employed  in  the  dyeing.  It  is  well  known  that  a  large  quan- 
tity of  madder  must  be  used  to  obtain  a  chocolate,  so  much  so 
that  chocolates  on  account  of  their  expense  are  nearly  excluded 
from  madder  styles,  and  the  best  chocolate  that  can  be  obtained 
is  of  a  chestnut  color,  and  not  of  that  deep  brown  shade  which 
is  required  in  the  market.  The  coloring  matter  of  madder  is 
surrounded  with  so  much  foreign  substance  as  to  hinder  its 
filling  the  strongest  mordants,  and  producing  the  heaviest 
shades  which  the  pure  coloring  matter  can  do.  Garancine, 
being  free  from  all  these  soluble  matters,  has  a  free  power  of 
combination  to  the  utmost  extent  of  its  affinity  and  saturating 
power;  and  can  produce  those  deep  chocolates  which  no 
amount  of  madder  could  yield.  It  has  the  valuable  property 
also  of  working  well  with  other  coloring  matters,  and  admit- 
ting them  to  share  in  producing  its  effects ;  this  madder  does 
not  do  in  the  same  manner,  it  is  itself  too  powerful,  and  re- 
quires such  energetic  treatments  to  restore  the  whites  to  a 
good  shade,  that  the  weaker  dyewoods,  which  may  be  used  in 
combination  with  it,  suffer  to  a  great  degree  in  themselves,  and 
tend  to  deteriorate,  to  what  seems  a  disproportionate  extent,  the 
shades  which  owe  their  chief  part  to  madder. 

Garancine  Colors. — The  chief  colors  for  which  garancine 
is  employed  in  calico  printing  are  black,  red,  chocolate,  and 
brown ;  the  latter  being  partly  derived  from  catechu.  Purples 
are  also  obtained  from  certain  qualities  of  garancine;  but  what 
is  called  the  garancine  style  or  brunette,  consists  of  deep  colors 
of  the  chocolate,  brown,  and  black  species.  The  mordants  used 
for  obtaining  the  colors  from  garancine  and  garanceux  are  iron 
liquor,  red  liquor,  and  mixtures  of  the  two.  Garancine  does 
not  dye  colors  without  mordants. 

Bed  Colors  are  produced  from  red  liquor  or  acetate  of  alumina 
— sometimes  with  addition  of  tin  crystals.  . 

Black  Colors  are  produced  from  iron  liquor  or  acetate  of  iron, 
at  a  strength  from  8°  to  12°  Tw. 

Purple  Colors  or  Lilac  are  produced  from  iron  liquor,  at  a 
strength  of  from  1°  Tw.  to  4°  Tw. 

Chocolate  Colors  are  produced  by  a  mixture  of  iron  and  red 
liquor — the  darkest  shades  being  made  with,  say,  equal  parts 
of  iron  liquor  and  red  liquor  at  12°.  If  a  chocolate  is  desired 
of  a  redder  shade,  the  proportion  of  red  liquor  to  iron  liquor 
is  increased ;  when  required  of  a  lighter  shade,  the  strength  of 
both  liquors  is  reduced. 

Brown  Colors  are  obtained  by  means  of  catechu.  Eed-browns 
are  obtained  by  mixtures  of  catechu  colors  and  red  liquor. 

Drab  or  Gray  Shades  are  obtained  from  catechu  colors,  mixed 
with  an  iron  salt. 


240  GARANCINE   COLORS. 

In  illustration  of  the  proportions  in  which  the  various  mor- 
dants are  mixed  I  give  a  number  of  receipts  for  each  color: — 

Block  Mordant  for  Garancine. 

1  gallon  iron  liquor  at  12°, 

1  gallon  water, 

2|  Ibs.  flour, 

J  pint  logwood  liquor  for  sightening. 

The  flour  in  this  receipt  may  be  replaced  by  starch  or  gum; 
but,  if  by  the  latter,  the  iron  liquor  should  be  used  somewhat 
stronger.  Gallipolli  oil,  in  the  proportion  of  one-eighth  of  a 
pint  per  gallon  of  color,  may  be  added  to  prevenf  frothing,  etc. 

Red  Mordant  for  Garancine. 

1  gallon  red  liquor,  at  16°  (p.  42), 

1|  Ib.  starch, 

\  pint  peachwood  liquor,  for  sightening. 

Another  Red  for  Garancine. 

1  gallon  red  liquor,  at  18°, 
1£  Ib.  starch, 

£  pint  peachwood ;  boil,  and  then  add 

2  oz.  crystals  of  tin. 

This  last  red  is  capable  of  resisting  light  covers  of  chocolate ; 
for  resisting  heavier  covers  the  quantity  may  be  increased  to 
8  oz.  per  gallon  of  mordant,  or  a  proportionate  quantity  of 
liquid  muriate  of  tin  (about  double  the  weight)  may  be  em- 
ployed instead.  The  addition  of  solution  of  tin  gives  a  clearer 
and  somewhat  lighter  red. 

Light  red  shades  are  seldom  required  in  garancine  styles ;  if 
wanted,  they  are  made  by  reducing  the  strength  of  red  liquor. 

Chocolate  Mordant  for  Garancine. 

8  gallons  red  liquor  at  18°, 

5  gallons  iron  liquor,  at  8°, 

20  Ibs.  flour, 

1  quart  logwood  liquor ;  boil  well.     ' 

This  gives  a  dark  chocolate  of  a  medium  shade,  that  is  between 
red  and  black ;  by  altering  the  proportions  of  red  and  iron 
liquor,  about  30  well  defined  shades  may  be  produced.  For 
example,  to  produce  a  black  chocolate  the  iron  and  red  liquor 
may  be  in  equal  quantities  and  of  equal  strengths  on  the 
hydrometer;  and,  by  maintaining  the  red  liquor  at  one  uni- 
form strength  and  gradually  decreasing  the  iron,  the  chocolates 


GARANCINE   COLORS.  241 

become  less  dark,  and  pass  into  the  chestnut  and  red  choco- 
late shades.  The  lowest  chocolate — that  is,  the  one  containing 
the  least  amount  of  iron — usually  worked  contains  about  one 
measure  of  iron  liquor  at  24°,  to  30  measures  of  red  liquor 
at  18°. 

Some  of  the  brown  colors  applicable  to  garancine  styles  have 
been  given  under  CATECHU;  a  further  selection  is  given 
here : — 

Dark  Brown  for  Garancine. 
18  Ibs.  catechu, 
2^  Ibs.  sal  ammoniac, 

2  gallons  water ;  boil,  strain,  and  add 

3  gallons  gum  water, 

2  quarts  nitrate  of  copper,  at  84°, 
2  quarts  acetate  of  copper. 

This  brown  may  serve  as  a  standard  from  which  to  obtain  the 
lighter  shades  by  reduction  with  gurn  water ;  thus,  instead  of 
3  gallons  gum  water,  4,  4£,  5,  or  6  gallons  may  be  employed. 
To  modify  the  shade  and  to  produce  red  browns,  more  correctly 
cinnamon  shades  of  brown,  a  quantity  of  red  liquor  is  added  in 
proportion  to  the  shade  required.  The  above  dark  brown  is 
converted  into  a  red  brown  by  addition  of  one  quart  of  strong 
red  liquor  to  2|  gallons  of  color;  a  greater  quantity  of  red 
liquor  would  make  the  brown  too  red.  The  proportion  is  re- 
duced for  the  lowest  red  shades  to  one  part  of  red  liquor  to  30 
parts  of  dark  brown,  as  above. 

Medium  Brown  for  Garancine. 
12  Ibs.  catechu, 
2J  Ibs.  sal-ammoniac, 

2  gallons  water;  boil,  strain,  and  add 

4  gallons  gum  water, . 

3  quarts  nitrate  of  copper,  at  90°, 
3  pints  acetate  of  copper. 

This  color  serves  to  illustrate  the  reductiont  o  lighter  shades, 
for  it  is  essentially  the  same  as-  the  dark  brown,  only  with  less 
catechu  and  more  gum  water.  From  it  the  still  lighter  shades 
of  brown  may  be  produced  by  increasing  the  proportion  of 
gum  water. 

The  drab  and  gray  shades  are  produced  from  catechu  brown, 
modified  by  containing  some  iron  salt.  An  example  is  given 
(p.  199)  which  may  serve  for  all  the  drab  colors  in  these  styles; 
the  following  is  a  modification : — 


242  GARANCINE   COLORS. 

Paste  Catechu  Drab  for  Garancine. 

2J  Ibs.  catechu, 

2£  Ibs.  sal  ammoniac, 

3  quarts  water ;  boil,   strain,  and  add 

1  quart  acetic  acid, 

1  pint  acetate  of  copper. 

The  solution    thus    produced   serves  as  a  stock   or   standard 
liquor,  from  which  the  actual  drab  color  is  made  as  follows  : — 

No.  1,  or  Darkest  Drab. 

7  pints  of  the  standard, 

H  lb.  of  starch ;  boil,  and  add 

1£  pint  muriate  of  iron,  at  8°  Tw.; 

Diluted  with  water  or  gum  water,  and  a  variation  of  the 
quantity  of  muriate  of  iron,  produces  the  numerous  modifica- 
tions of  this  color  which  enter  into  garancine  styles. 

An  orange  color  for  garancine  styles  may  be  produced  by 
printing  on  a  mordant  of  acetate  of  tin,  as  follows  : — 

Orange  Mordant  for  Garancine. 

2  Ibs.  white  acetate  of  lime, 

3  Ibs.  crystals  of  tin, 
1  gallon  of  water, 
1J  lb.  of  starch. 

The  garancine  used  to  dye  styles  containing  this  color  must 
be  mixed  with  a  considerable  proportion  of  Persian  berries  or 
quercitron  bark,  to  yield  the  yellow  portion  of  the  orange.  The 
color  thus  obtained  is  so  excessively  fugitive  that  it  has  ceased 
to  be  produced  as  a  regular  shade  in  garancines.  Another 
method  of  obtaining  the  same  end  consists  in  making  a  spirit 
yellow  from  bark  liquor  and  muriate  of  tin,  printing  it  with 
the  usual  colors,  and  dyeing  in  a  mixture  of  garancine  and 
quercitron  bark. 

Dyeing  of  Garancine  Colors. — After  being  sufficiently  aged, 
the  goods  are  cleansed  from  excess  of  mordant  and  thickening 
matter,  either  in  cow-dung  or  one  of  the  dung  substitutes  at  a 
high  temperature.  The  washing  after  dunging  must  be  of  a 
very  perfect  nature,  in  order  to  remove  every  particle  of  un- 
combined  mordant  from  the  cloth.  Great  attention  must  be 
paid  to  this  point,  because  the  mordants  are  very  concentrated 
and  usually  thickened  with  paste,  which  prevents  their  readily 
washing  off.  If  any  loose  mordant  gets  into  the  dye-beck  it  is 
impossible  to  produce  good  work,  because  the  parties  exhaust 
the  coloring  matter  and  fix  upon  the  whites  completely,  and 


GARANCTNE   COLORS.  243 

beyond  the  power  of  cure,  injuring  the  general  appearance  of 
the  work.  The  dyeing  may  be  commenced  at  &  temperature 
of  100°,  carried  to  150°  in  30  minutes,  to  170°  in  60  minutes, 
to  180°  in  90  minutes,  to  200°  in  120  minutes,  and  then  boiled 
for  20  minutes  to  finish  ;  the  whole  time  occupied  being  2  hours 
and  20  minutes.  The  clearing  generally  consists  of  a  good 
washing  and  a  passage  through  chloride  of  lime  and  steam. 
(See  CLEARING.) 

The  quantity  of  garancine  or  garanceux  to  be  employed  in 
the  dye  is  of  course  variable,  according  to  the  design,  nature 
of  the  colors,  and  quality  of  the  garancine.  No  guide  can  be 
given  upon  that  point,  it  being  a  matter  for  trial. 

On  account  of  the  very  deep  shades  required  in  the  brunette 
styles,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  combine  the  use  of  ga- 
rancine with  some  of  the  cheaper  dyewoods  to  fill  up  the  color. 
The  woods  so  used  are  peachwood,  quercitron  bark,  and  sumac. 
If  these  substances  be  used  in  moderate  proportions  with 
regard  to  the  garancine,  the  stability  of  the  colors  produced  is 
not  much  affected;  but  in  some  instances  they  have  been  used 
in  great  excess,  and  the  colors  so  dyed  readily  fade  and  wash 
out.  It  is  difficult  to  say  what  proportion  is  allowable,  but 
probably  for  best  garancine,  of  three  times  the  strength  of 
madder,  an  equal  weight  or  one  and  a  half  times  the  weight  of 
woods  may  be  used  with  advantage;  that  is  to  say,  for  each 
pound  of  the  strongest  garancine  half  pou  nd  each  of  peach- wood, 
bark,  and  sumac.  For  dry  garanceux  made  from  spent  mad- 
der, which  is  from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  strength  of 
good  garancine,  not  more  than  half  its  weight  of  woods  should 
be  used.  The  woods  used  in  this  quantity  have  a  great  influ- 
ence upon  the  shade,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  have  them  of 
regular  quality.  From  a  number  of  experiments  I  made  to 
ascertain  the  influence  of  the  woods  upon  the  colors  produced, 
I  made  the  following  conclusions  : — 

Peachwood  darkens  the  chocolates,  making  them  fuller ; 
heightens  the  red,  and,  if  purples  be  present,  fills  them  up.  The 
chocolate  obtained  with  garancine  alone  is  red;  the  addition  of 
peachwood  makes  it  fuller  and  heavier.  When  bark  and  sumac 
are  used  without  peachwood  the  reds  suffer  in  brightness,  and 
the  chocolate  tends  towards  a  cold  clayey  aspect,  or  cinnamon 
shade.  If  bark  and  sumac  are  used  with  a  double  portion  of 
peachwood  the  chocolate  is  darker  but  suffers  in  brightness, 
the  reds  remaining  about  the  same.  The  chief  action  of  peach- 
wood  is,  therefore,  to  fill  up  the  garancine  shades;  the  colors 
it  yields  not  being  much  different  from  the  garancine  colors 
themselves. 

Quercitron  Bark  itself  gives  yellow  color  with  alumina  mor- 


244  GARDENIA. 

dants,  drab  with  weak  iron,  and  greenish  olive  with  chocolate 
mordants.  Garancine  and  it  together  differ  from  garancine 
alone  by  a  yellowish  shade  over  the  chocolate,  taking  it  to  the 
clayey  side ;  the  reds  are  made  decidedly  orange,  and  the  pur- 
ples turned  grayish.  When  peachwood  and  sumac  are  used 
without  the  bark  the  chocolate  is  deficient  in  brightness ;  it  has 
a  purplish  cast,  and  looks  heavy  and  flat;  the  reds  also  want 
more  fire  and  brilliancy.  If  a  double  quantity  of  bark  be 
employed,  the  chocolate  turns  to  the  yellowish  clayey  shade 
and  the  reds  look  weak.  All  this  time  the  black  is  not  much 
affected,  the  garancine  itself  appearing  to  have  a  strong  posses- 
sion of  that  color. 

Sumac  is  the  general  darkener  of  all  the  colors.  It  improves 
the  reds,  chocolates,  and  blacks ;  but  destroys  lilacs  or  purples 
if  they  should  happen  to  be  in  the  piece.  Without  sumac,  and 
with  peachwood  and  bark,  the  reds  would  be  dull  and  heavy 
and  the  chocolates  not  dark  enough.  It  practically  fills  the 
place  of  bark  by  its  yellow  coloring  matter;  but  that  is  insig- 
nificant when  compared  with  its  action  upon  the  iron  mordants, 
to  which  it  communicates  dark  shades,  giving  depth  and  appa- 
rent solidity  to  the  whole.  Upon  the  red  it  has  not  much 
influence ;  it  turns  it  a  little  towards  the  orange,  and  thus 
brightens  it. 

Size  or  glue  is  a  very  general  addition  in  garancine  dyeing. 
Its  chief  use  is  in  preserving  the  whites,  which  it  effects  by 
forming  an  insoluble  compound  with  the  tannin  matter  of  the 
sumac,  and  thus  preventing  its  fixing  upon  the  unmordanted 
parts  of  the  cloth  and  constituting  itself  a  species  of  mordant 
for  the  other  colors.  The  compound  produced,  which  we  may 
call  the  tannate  of.  gelatine,  is,  however,  decomposed  in  the  pre- 
sence of  mordants  at  a  high  temperature;  the  tannin  matter 
combines  with  them  and  the  gelatine  or  glue  becomes  free 
again. 

Gjirancme  is  employed  in  dyeing  Turkey  reds  and  in  imita- 
tion madder  purples;  it  is  also  used  as  an  ingredient  in  some 
other  styles,  but  not  to  any  considerable  extent. 

Gardenia. — A  genus  of  plants  and  trees,  of  which  some 
species  appear  to  be  capable  of  yielding  valuable  coloring  mat- 
ters. Bancroft  and  others  have  drawn  attention  to  Gardenia 
aculeata,  or  indigo  berry,  which  is  said  to  stain  paper  and  linen 
of  a  fine  fixed  blue  color — it  is  found  in  Jamaica  :  the  Gardenia 
florida,  which  is  said  to  be  used  by  the  Chinese  for  dyeing 
scarlet,  under  the  name  of  unki ;  and  the  Gardenia  gtnipa,  the 
fruit  of  which  contains  a  colorless  juice,  which  goes  blue  imme- 
diately that  it  is  exposed  to  the  air.  "It  is  universally  em- 
ployed," says  Bancroft,  "  by  the  savage  tribes  of  Guiana  and 


GLAUBER'S  SALTS— GLUE.  245 

Brazil,  to  stain  their  skins  with  a  variety  of  spots,  lines,  and 
figures,  for  the  purpose  of  ornament  at  their  feasts  and  dances, 
as  well  as  to  render  themselves  terrible  to  their  enemies  when 
going  to  war ;  as  the  isalis  or  woad  was  employed  by  the 
Britons  in  Caesar's  time."  This  blue  coloring  matter,  though 
it  attaches  itself  to  the  skin  very  permanently,  does  not  appear 
to  be  useful  in  dyeing;  it  is  certainly  quite  different  to  indigo, 
which,  in  some  particulars,  it  appeared  at  first  to  have  a  resem- 
blance to. 

Glauber's  Salts,— A  name  for  sulphate  of  soda,  (See 
SODA.) 

Glucose. — This  name  is  given  to  a  sweetish  matter,  obtained 
by  boiling  starch  from  any  source  with  acids,  until  it  is  decom- 
posed and  no  longer  colors  iodine  blue.  The  acid  being  neu- 
tralized, the  solution  is  found  to  have  a  faint  sweetness.  It 
may  be,  boiled  down  to  a  syrup,  when,  after  standing  a  few 
days,  it  sets  into  a  granular  honey-like  mass.  As  a  chemical 
body  it  is  distinguished  by  possessing  high  powers  of  deoxida- 
tion,  especially  in  combination  with  alkalies.  It  has  been 
applied  to  the  reduction  of  indigo  in  one  or  two  cases,  which 
will  be  mentioned  under  INDIGO.  This  substance  is  sometimes 
called  starch-sugar,  grape-sugar,  and — though  this  latter  incor- 
rectly— dextrine. 

Glue,  Gelatine,  Size. — Glue,  or  size,  is  made  from  refuse 
animal  matters,  as  bones,  skins,  etc.  It  is  employed  in  printing 
and  dyeing  to  a  limited  extent,  but  largely  in  finishing.  In 
printing  it  is  used  as  a  thickener  in  some  few  cases,  and  enters 
into  the  composition  of  some  resists.  In  dyeing  it  is  employed 
in  conjunction  with  what  are  called  astringent  substances,  or 
substances  that  are  in  part,  but  not  essentially,  composed  of 
astringent  matter.  It  serves  to  protect  the  white  and  assist  in 
the  regularity  of  the  dyeing.  Size  is  used  in  cases  where  there  is 
no  astringent  or  tanning  substance  present,  but  in  such  cases 
I  think  it  is  unnecessary.  It  is  a  useful  or  essential  ingredient 
where  sumac  or  galls  are  used,  as  in  ordinary  garancine  dyeing  ; 
but  when  garancine  is  used  without  sumac  I  do  not  think  that 
size  is  of  any  use.  Such  was  the  conclusion  made  from  careful 
experiments  to  ascertain  if  its  addition  improved  the  results  or 
not.  Glue  is  sometimes  used  on  print  works  in  the  solid  state, 
and  dissolved  as  it  is  wanted ;  but  generally  it  is  used  in  the 
state  of  size  or  liquid  glue,  as  being  cheaper  and  more  conve- 
nient. Of  solid  glues  there  are  different  qualities  with  regard 
to  their  power  of  dissolving  in  water  and  keeping  in  a  fluid 
state.  Some  kinds,  when  dissolved  at  the  rate  of  one  pound 
per  gallon  of  hot  water,  go  firm  and  solid  on  cooling  ;  others 
may  be  dissolved  at  the  rate  of  three  pounds  per  gallcVi  of 


246  GLUTEN. 

water,  and  only  thick  gummy  fluids  on  cooling:  the  commer- 
cial size  is  of  this  nature.  The  best  way  to  test  the  value  of 
a  liquid  glue  is  to  ascertain  how  much  solid  matter  there  is  in  a 
gallon  of  liquor.  This  can  be  partly  estimated  by  its  strengh,  as 
.  shown  on  the  glass ;  but  more  correctly  by  evaporating  a  known 
weight  down  to  dryness,  and  weighing  the  solid  matter.  At 
the  same  time  it  should  be  examined  for  mineral  matters,  of 
which  only  a  small  amount  are  naturally  present,  but  which 
might  be  added  as  an  adulteration  to  deceive  with  regard  to 
appearance  of  strength.  I  have  found  the  following  results: — 

WATER.  DRY  GLUE. 

No.  10  sample  contained 68  32 

No.  22  sample  contained 70  30 

No.    8  sample  contained     ......     65  35 

Lightfoot  patented  a  method  of  using  glue  for  fixing  colors ; 
the  coloring  matter  mixed  with  the  glue  was  printed,  aged,  and,  if 
necessary,  steamed,  then  passed  into  a  solution  of  some  metallic 
salt,  forming  an  insoluble  compound  with  the  glue — salts  of 
mercury  were  preferred.  I  understand  that  the  deficiency  of 
brilliancy  in  colors  so  fixed  is  a  radical  objection  to  the  process. 
In  Germany,  some  of  the  printers  fix  pigment  colors  by  means 
of  glue ;  the  process  consists  in  mixing  the  ultramarine,  or 
other  pigment,  with  glue,  printing,  and  then  passing  into  hot 
solution  of  alum,  which,  forming  a  coagulum  with  the  glue, 
fixed  the  color.  I  obtained  very  poor  results  by  this  method ; 
but  I  was  told  that  a  peculiar  quality  of  glue,  only  made  in 
one  manufactory,  and  that  in  Germany,  was  suitable ;  however, 
upon  procuring  samples  of  colors  so  fixed,  or  supposed  to  be 
fixed,  it  was  evident  that  there  was  nothing  in  the  process 
worth  following. 

To  prevent  fustians,  and  other  goods  finished  with  bone  size, 
from  becoming  mildewed,  the  best  addition  appears  to  be 
purified  coal-tar  creasote,  which  is  now  an  article  of  commerce, 
under  the  names  of  carbolic  acid  and  phenyline.  A  compara- 
tively small  quantity  suffices  to  prevent  mildew  under  ordinary 
circumstances. 

Gluten. — Gluten  is  the  nitrogenous  constituent  of  wheat 
flour,  and  appears  to  have  some  properties  which  bring  it  in 
relation  to  albumen  and  caseine  or  lactarine.  It  is  easily 
obtained  by  mixing  good  flour  to  stiff  dough,  and  kneading 
this  under  a  slender  stream  of  water:  the  starch  is  washed 
away,  while  the  tenacious  gluten  collects  into  an  India-rubber- 
like  mass  in  the  hands.  In  1850  I  made  experiments  upon 
this  substance  as  a  substitute  for  albumen,  and  obtained  it 
easily — though,  perhaps,  wastefully  by  enclosing  parcels  of 


GLYCERINE — GOLD.  247 

stiff  dough  in  small  coarse  bags,  and  putting  them  into  a  dat»h- 
wheel,  and  so  washing  away  the  starch  and  soluble  matters. 
This  substance  is  soluble  in  weak  alkalies,  and  has  been  proposed 
as  a  fixing  vehicle  for  pigment  colors ;  sometimes  tolerably 
successful,  at  others  an  entire  failure  under  unknown  conditions, 
it  is  too  irregular  to  be  trusted.  Recently  efforts  have  been 
made  to  use  it  as  an  animalizing  agent  for  the  preparation  of 
vegetable  fibres,  to  receive  colors,  such  as  aniline  and  archil 
shades.  Mr.  Crum's  patent  claims  the  disintegration  of  gluten 
by  allowing  it  to  go  into  incipient  putrefaction,  then  dissolving 
it  in  dilute  alkalies,  and  impregnating  cloth  with  it.  I  am  not 
aware  that  this  substance  has  yet  been  largely  employed  in  this 
way. 

Glycerine,  Sweet  Principle  of  Oils. — This  substance,  which 
has  of  late  years  become  an  article  of  extensive  commerce,  has 
been  proposed  for  use  both  in  color  mixing  and  finishing  on 
account  of  its  never  perfectly  drying,  and  so  keeping  substances 
moist  and  soft.  The  advantages  of  its  use  are  not,  however, 
very  apparent,  while  it  is  a  comparatively  expensive  substance. 
It  has  some  peculiar  solvent  powers,  which  may,  probably,  come 
in  useful  for  coloring  matters  under  some  conditions. 

Gold,  Gilding  of  Thread  and  Cloth. — The  application  of  gold 
and  silver  to  textile  materials  is  of  the  most  ancient  origin  ;  and 
though  the  civilized  taste  of  Europe  does  not  admit  of  the 
gorgeous  combinations  of  the  Eastern  peoples,  there  is  still  a 
regular,  though  small,  demand  for  gilded  fabrics;  and  no  doubt 
it  would  be  greater  if  the  processes  could  be  simplified  and 
brought  more  in  unison  with  the  machinery  and  methods  em- 
ployed in  fixing  general  colors  and  pigments.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  methods  said  to  be  employed  for  fixing  gold  or 
silver  leaf  upon  fabrics:  In  the  first  method,  the  fabric  is  pre- 
pared with  a  solution  of  fish  glue  (isinglass)  or  gum  tragacanth, 
and  then  the  design  printed  on  with  an  oil  mordant;  and  when 
this  has  arrived  at  a  proper  state  of  dryness,  the  gold  leaves 
are  applied,  and  pressed  down  with  a  leather  cushion,  the 
fabric  exposed  some  time  to  the  air,  and  then  washed  to  remove 
the  gum  or  glue  prepare.  The  oil  mordant  is  prepared  as  fol- 
lows: One  pint  of  oil,  which  has  been  converted  into  drying 
oil  by  the  usual  processes,  is  mixed  with  two  ounces  of  finely 
ground  litharge  and  half  an  ounce  of  prepared  acetate  of 
lead — that  is  acetate  of  lead  which  has  been  dried  and  heated 
until  it  has  been  for  some  time  in  igneous  fusion — the  whole 
ingredients  are  very  well  ground  together,  and  thinned  with 
turpentine,  if  necessary. 

A  second  method  consists  in  giving  the  stuff  to  be  gilded 
several  coats  of  fish  glue,  until  sufficient  has  been  added  to 


248  GOLD. 

cause  a  moist  hand  to  adhere  rather  strongly  to  the  surface. 
The  stuff  is  then  hung  up  in  a  damp,  cool  place,  until  it  is 
deemed  in  proper  condition  to  receive  the  gold  leaf,  which  is 
applied  in  designs,  by  placing  the  gold  leaf  loosely  on  the  stuff, 
and  then  stamping  them  with  blocks  upon  which  the  design  is 
cut.  The  gold  leaf  is  prevented  adhering  to  the  blocks  by  the 
repeated  action  of  talc,  or  French  chalk,  in  fine  powder. 

The  -third  process  is  applicable  to  moderately  open  fabrics, 
like  muslin;  a  skin  is  stretched  tight  upon  a  table,  lightly 
rubbed  with  tallow  or  suet,  by  means  of  a  linen  ball  saturated 
with  either  of  these  fatty  matters ;  the  leaves  of  gold  are  then 
placed  upon  the  skin  in  such  positions  as  the  design  requires, 
and  the  muslin  is  then  gently  placed  over  without  disturbing  the 
gold.  The  design  is  now  printed  upon  the  block  with  a  hot 
solution  of  Flanders  glue,  containing  one-eighth  part  of  gum 
galbanum,  or  else  with  a  very  strong  flour  paste.  After  a  suf- 
ficient time  has  been  allowed  for  drying,  the  piece  is  removed 
with  the  gold  leaves  adhering,  and  by  a  gentle  brushing  the 
gold  not  fixed  by  the  paste  or  glue  is  removed,  and  the  design 
becomes  apparent. 

A  fourth  process,  for  very  open  fabrics,  as  lace,  crape,  etc., 
is  carried  out  as  follows :  The  stuff  is  stretched,  by  means  of 
pins,  upon  a  well  waxed  cloth,  thick  flour  paste  is  first  printed 
and  allowed  to  dry,  and  then  paste  colored  with  yellew  ochre 
is  applied ;  this  paste,  to  make  it  adhesive  and  moist,  is  mixed 
with  sugar;  several  applications  must  be  made  with  the  block, 
the  first  printing  must  be  with  pressure  to  force  the  paste  into 
the  meshes  of  the  stuff,  the  second  somewhat  more  lightly, 
and  the  latter  ones  without  pressure,  just  allowing  the  paste  to 
flow  from  the  block.  When  the  color  has  acquired  a  proper 
consistency  the  leaves  of  gold  are  applied  and  the  fabric  dried, 
removed  from  the  waxed  cloth,  which  leaves  it  easily,  and  the 
superfluous  gold  brushed  away.  The  first  method  is  the  only 
one  which  will  resist  washing  in  water;  it  has  the  inconve- 
nience of  retaining  the  smell  of  the  oil  for  a  considerable  period. 

Other  methods  of  applying  gold  and  silver  consist  in  reducing 
them  to  a  very  fine  powder,  mixing  with  some  vehicle,  as  gum. 
and  printing.  The  metallic  lustre  is  obtained  by  burnishing 
with  a  stone,  or  passing  between  heavy  metallic  callenders. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  deposit  gold  from  its  solu- 
tions upon  fibrous  matters,  with  but  very  little  success.  One 
of  the  most  promising  methods  consisted  in  saturating  the  fibre 
with  solution  of  chloride  of  gold,  and  then  bringing  it  into  an 
atmosphere  of  phosphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  by  which  the 
metallic  lustre  was  developed ;  but  the  result  is  too  irregular, 
and  quite  impracticable. 


GRAY   COLORS.  249 

Golden  Rod. — An  American  plant,  solidago  canadensis, 
which,  according  to  several  authorities,  yields  good  yellows 
upon  silk,  wool,  and  cotton,  with  aluminous  mordants.  The 
attempts  which  have  been  made  to  introduce  it  into  trade  have 
not  met  with  success.  The  shades  of  color  it  yields  are  similar 
to  those  obtained  from  weld. 

Gray  Colors. — Gray  is  a  mixture  of  black  and  white ;  it 
also  results  from  a  mixture  of  the  three  elementary  colors,  red, 
yellow,  and  blue,  in  which  the  blue  preponderates  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent.  There  are  almost  an  infinite  number  of  gray 
shades,  some  named  from  fancied  resemblances  to  natural  ob 
jects,  others  with  purely  arbitrary  names.  In  giving  a  selec- 
tion of  receipts  and  processes  for  this  color,  I  shall  rather  aim 
at  laying  down  the  principles  upon  which  the  results  are  ob- 
tained than  pretend  to  include  all  possible  modifications  of  it. 

Grays  upon  Cotton. — These  are  practically  dilute  blacks; 
that  is,  the  same  materials  are  employed  as  for  black,  but  in 
smaller  quantity.  The  goods  are  worked  in  surnac  and  then 
raised  with  copperas;  this  gives  a  rather  bluish  gray,  some- 
thing like  diluted  ink;  to  modify  it  to  any  particular  hue,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  add  the  coloring  matter  producing  that 
shade.  To  make  it  more  yellowish,  a  small  amount  of  fustic 
and  alum  are  employed;  to  make  it  fuller,  peachwood  and 
limawood  with  alum  are  used.  Most  of  the  colors  called  drab, 
the  methods  of  producing  which  are  given  on  page  199,  are 
shades  of  gray,  which,  by  varying  the  proportions  of  dyewood, 
may  be  made  to  assume  various  hues.  Catechu  is  the  basis  of 
a  great  number  of  grays  upon  cotton  goods,  and  is  modified  by 
logwood  and  copperas  towards  the  stone  grays,  arid  by  logwood 
and  alum  towards  the  slate  grays.  For  the  greenish  or  olive 
grays,  logwood  gives  the  blue  part,  and  fustic  the  yellow,  with 
alum  for  the  mordant.  Galls  and  copperas  are  sometimes  used 
as  the  basis  of  gray,  but  not  often,  on  account  of  the  expense 
of  the  galls. 

The  gray  colors  obtained  by  printing  on  calico  are  generally 
compounded  of  the  elementary  colors,  red,  yellow,  and  blue,, 
as  irt  the  following  receipt: — 

Pearl  Gray. 

3|  gallons  gum  water, 

10  oz.  yellow  prussiate, 

2  quarts  of  lilac  standard  (p.  200), 

1  quart  of  bark  liquor,  at  20°. 

The  lilac  standard  quoted  above  is  composed  of  logwood  and 
red  liquor  chiefly,  and  yields  what  there  is  of  the  red.  part ;.  the 
17 


250  GEAY   COLORS. 

prussiate,  with  the  excess  of  acid  contained  in  the  ]ilac  color, 
gives  the  blue,  and  the  bark  liquor  gives  the  yellow.  For  all 
light  shades  it  is  customary,  in  color  mixing,  to  employ  stan- 
dards which  contain  the  elements  of  the  color  in  a  concentrated 
form.  This  is  the  case  for  several  reasons :  the  colors  are  less 
bulky,  can  be  mixed  with  greater  certainty  strong  than  weak, 
and,  because  these  colors  are  mostly  precipitates,  do  not  print 
well  or  fix  well  if  formed  in  dilute  liquids,  being  apparently 
too  irregularly  diffused.  This  will  explain  the  frequent  refer- 
ence to  standards,  which,  though  unsatisfactory  in  appearance, 
is  the  actual  practical  method  of  compounding  these  shades. 
For  example,  in  making  a  stone  gray,  as  in  the  following  re- 
ceipt, there  are  three  standards  employed  : — 

2  quarts  pale  purple  standard  (p.  189), 

1  quart  common  blue  standard  (p.  104), 
1  quart  pink  standard  (see  below). 

Pink  Standard. 

1  gallon  cochineal  liquor,  at  6°, 
6  oz.  alum, 

3  oz.  cream  of  tartar, 
J  oz.  oxalic  acid. 

The  result  of  this  receipt  is  itself  a  standard,  from  which  the 
actual  colors  are  made  by  dilution  with  gum  water.  Again, 
if  we  require  a  slate  gray  standard,  we  should  find  such  a  re- 
ceipt as  this: — 

Standard  for  Slate  Color. 

2  quarts  pale  purple  standard, 

3  pints  common  steam  blue  (p.  104). 

The  colors  are  produced  by  diluting  this  composition  with  gurn 
water.  The  following  grays  are  based  upon  the  lilac  standard, 
given  in  the  first  column  of  page  200;  they  are  actually  for  de- 
laines, but  applicable  also  to  calico  and  to  wool  : — 

Dark  Gray  for  Grounds — Delaine. 

4  quarts  of  gum  water, 

2  quarts  lilac  standard  (p.  200), 
14  oz.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 
1  quart  hot  water, 
1J  pint  extract  of  indigo. 

This  gray,  containing  a  considerable  quantity  of  blue  and  no 
yellow,  would  be  a  dark  mourning  gray.  It  can  be  diluted  by 
mixing  with  gum  water.  For  calico,  of  course  the  extract  of 
indigo  would  be  left  out,  and,  if  the  blue  was  deficient,  the  yel- 
low prussiate  would  be  increased. 


GRAY   COLORS.  251 

Dark  Pearl  Gray — Delaine. 
3J  quarts  gum  water, 

1  pint  lilac  standard, 
2£  oz.  yellow  prussiate, 

|  pint  of  bark  liquor,  at  20°, 

j1^  pint  extract  of  indigo. 

By  varying  the  proportions  here  given,  the  gray  maybe  modi- 
fied to  produce  other  shades,  called  silver  gray,  lavender  gray, 
etc. 

Or  ay  from  Galls — Calico. 
22  Ibs.  gall  nuts, 
11  Ibs.  sulphate  of  iron, 
10  gallons  common  vinegar, 
10  gallons  water;  steeped  for  15  days, 
And  the  clear  liquor  strained  ; 

2  gallons  gum  water, 

1  quart  of  gall  and  copperas  liquor, 
1  quart  acetic  acid. 

A  lilac  gray  color  can  also  be  obtained  from  logwood  and  mixed 
iron  and  red  liquors,  in  the  following  proportion  : — 

Gray  from  Logwood. 
1  quart  logwood  liquor,  at  8°, 
1  quart  red  liquor,  at  14°, 

1  pint  iron  liquor,  at  21°, 

2  gallons  gum  water. 

Some  agreeable  gray  colors  have  been  obtained  on  calico  by 
combining  the  chromium  shades  with  red  coloring  matters  ;  an 
example  of  which  is  given  under  CHROMIUM. 

Gray  Colors  upon  Woollen. — For  the  light  shade  of  mourning 
gray  the  coloring  matters  consist  of  blue  in  excess,  modified  by 
a  slight  quantity  of  red.  The  blue  part  is  sulphate  of  indigo, 
and  the  red  preferably  ammoniacal  cochineal ;  the  mordants 
being  alum  or  sulphate  of  alumina  and  cream  of  tartar.  For 
10  Ibs.  of  merino,  or  similar  fabric,  mordant  as  usual  in  1^  Ib. 
alum  and  1  Ib.  white  tartar ;  then  take  1 J  Ib.  of  alum  and  1  Ib. 
of  white  tartar,  dissolve,  and  add  the  sulphate  of  indigo  and 
cochineal  according  to  the  shade  required;  about  45  minutes, 
at  a  temperature  of  160°,  is  sufficient  to  dye.  To  obtain  clear 
light  shades  the  heat  must  not  be  pushed  too  high,  nor  the 
time  protracted  ;  the  quality  of  the  sulphate  of  indigo  will  also 
considerably  influence  the  nature  of  the  shades  produced.  For 
the  more  neutral  grays  the  three  primary  colors  are  blended; 


252  GRAY  COLORS. 

the  yellow  being  chiefly  derived  from  fustic,  the  blue  from  sul- 
phate of  indigo,  and  the  red  from  archil  or  cudbear,  alum  and 
tartar  being  as  before  the  mordanting  agents.  According  to 
the  relative  proportions  of  these  coloring  matters,  the  shade 
varies  in  an  almost  infinite  variety  of  hues  and  tones,  so  that 
the  quantities  given  below  are  merely  suggestive. 

Dark  Chestnut  Gray. — For  10  Ibs.  of  woollen  cloth  mordant 
with  1  Ib.  of  sulphate  of  alumina  (or  instead  2  Ibs  of  alum) 
and  1  Ib.  of  tartar,  and  dye  with  \  Ib.  of  extract  of  indigo,  1  Ib. 
of  archil,  and  \  Ib.  of  fustic,  the  two  latter  being  in  the  state 
of  decoction ;  work  for  an  hour  at  the  boil.  One-half  those 
quantities  yield  a  lighter  shade,  and  even  one-fourth  give  a 
good  color. 

Brown  Gray. — For  the  same  quantity  of  wool  mordanted  as 
before,  take  2  Ibs.  archil,  6  oz.  extract  of  indigo,  \  Ib.  fustic, 
the  archil  or  fustic  as  before  being  added  in  the  state  of  clear 
liquor.  This  shade  can  be  reduced  again  by  taking  one-half, 
one-third,  or  one-fourth  of  these  quantities. 

Yellow  Grays. — For  the  same  quantity  of  wool,  and  mor- 
danted as  before,  take  2  Ibs.  of  fustic,  £  Ib.  of  archil,  and  3  oz. 
of  extract  of  indigo,  and  dye  as  before.  These  quantities  can 
also  be  reduced  one-half  and  one  quarter  for  lighter  shades. 

In  all  complex  shades  of  this  kind  the  lighter  styles  are  best 
dyed  first,  and  the  darkest  colors  dyed  in  the  spent  liquors, 
properly  freshened  up  with  coloring  matters  and  mordant. 

Besides  archil,  the  red  part  of  these  shades  can  be  given  by 
cochineal,  which,  however,  is  expensive,  or  by  madder  and  the 
common  red  woods.  In  some  very  few  cases,  where  great  sta- 
bility is  required,  the  wool  receives  its  blue  part  by  a  dip  in 
the  indigo  vat. 

Another  methocl  of  obtaining  several  shades  of  gray,  on 
woollen  cloth  of  a  heavier  kind,  is  performed  by  boiling  the 
piece  first  in  a  small  quantity  of  galls  and  sumac,  and  then 
passing  in  a  dilute  solution  of  green  copperas,  just  warm  ;  this 
gives  a  blue  gray,  which  is  afterwards  converted  to'any  desired 
hue  by  a  fresh  dyeing  in  a  small  quantity  of  madder,  and  with 
sulphate  of  indigo  and  decoction  of  fustic  in  quantities  depend- 
ing upon  the  shade  required.  Or  the  dyeing  is  performed  at 
one  operation,  by  taking,  say  for  100  Ibs.  of  heavy  woollen 
cloth: — 

l.|  Ib.  fustic.     • 
£  Ib.  logwood, 
\  Ib.  sumac, 
\  Ib.  alum  ; 

boil  these  for  half  an  hour,  or,  what  is  better,  using  decoctions 
representing  these  quantities  of  dry  woods,  then  adding  £  Ib. 


GRAY   COLORS.  253 

madder  and  the  woollen  cloth,  and  boiling  for  thirty  minutes. 
When  the  dye  has  well  penetrated,  the  color  is  saddened  by 
copperas  and  extract  of  indigo  to  the  degree  required. 

A  cheaper  dye  for  merinoes  than  that  given  above  consists 
in  mordanting  in  alum  and  bichromate  of  potash  and  tartar, 
and  then  dyeing  in  a  mixture  of  woods  proportioned  to  the 
shade  required;  as,  for  example,  for  10  Ibs.  wool,  1  oz.  bichro- 
mate of  potash,  J  oz.  alum,  £  oz.  tartar;  boil  thirty  minutes, 
and  dye  in  a  mixture  of  fustic,  peachwood,  and  logwood,  sad- 
dening if  necessary  with  copperas ;  or  leave  out  the  logwood, 
and  use  sulphate  of  indigo  for  giving  the  blue,  and  copperas 
to  sadden.  Madder  frequently  enters  into  these  colors  as  a 
red  constituent. 

Gray  colors  for  printing  on  wool  are  the  same  as  those  given 
for  delaine,  with  some  additional  ones  not  applicable  to  delaine, 
as  follows: — 

Mourning  Gray — Wool. 

1  gallon  crimson  (p.  167), 

4  oz.  sulphate  of  indigo, 

3  pints  berry  liquor,  at  7°, 

8  oz.  alum  ;  thickened  according  to  requirement. 

This  is  a  dark  color,  which  may  be  reduced  by  gum  water,  and 
addition  of  oxalic  and  tartaric  acid. 

Silver  Gray  for  Wool. 

3  oz.  sulphate  indigo, 

1|  gallon  hot  water, 

8  oz.  tartaric  acid, 

8  oz.  alum, 

6  oz.  ammoniacal  cochineal, 

2  gallons  thick  gum  water, 

6  oz.  bichloride  of  tin. 

Another  Mourning  Gray — Wool. 

1  gallon  logwood  liquor,  at  5°, 
10  oz.  nitrate  of  iron,  at  80°, 
1  gallon  gum  water. 

This  color — rather  deep — can  be  reduced  by  gum  water  to  any 
desired  depth  of  shade. 

Gray  Colors  on  Silk. — Logwood  an'd  tin  salts  give  a  lavender 
gray;  archil,  dissolved  in  a  soap  lather,  gives  also  shades  of 
lavender  gray;  for  the  warmer  grays  a  basis  of  anotta  is  dyed, 
and  then  the  shade  saddened  by  means  of  sumac  and  fustic 
with  copperas  and  alum.  Archil,  cochineal,  and  sulphate  of 
indigo  also  enter  into  the  composition  of  these  shades;  in  fact,  any 


254  GREEN   COLORS. 

of  the  red,  yellow,  and  blue  coloring  matters  in  combination  yield 
grays,  and,  on  account  of  their  number,  the  methods  of  obtaining 
gray  are  so  numerous  as  to  render  classification  impossible. 

The  colors  for  printing  on  silk  are  mostly  compound  colors, 
obtained  by  mixing  red,  yellow,  and  blue  standards,  as  in  the 
case  of  calicoes.  The  following  is  from  logwood : — 

Mourning  Gray — Silk. 

2  quarts  logwood, 

2 

£  oz.  tartaric  acid, 

2  Ibs.  ground  gum. 

There  are  no  colors  so  difficult  to  describe  as  those  produced 
by  a  mixture  of  several  dye-woods,  and  none  in  which  the  ex- 
cellence of  the  results  depends  so  greatly  upon  the  care  and 
tact  of  the  colorist.  There  are  many  means  of  arriving  at  the 
same  end,  so  that  each  dyer  arid  color  mixer  has  his  own  pet 
method,  which  he  likes  because  he  can  manage  best.  The 
receipts  and  processes  here  given  will,  however,  serve  to  extend 
and  generalize  the  knowledge  upon  these  shades  of  color. 

Green  Colors. — All  the  green  colors  in  use — with  the  prac- 
tically unimportant  exceptions  of  Chinese  green  and  oxide  of 
chromium  green — are  compounded  of  blue  and  yellow  ;  and 
though  there  is  a  considerable  variety  of  processes,  and  some 
little  choice  of  blue  and  yellow  elements,  the  principles  of  the 
combination  are  very  simple,  and  require  no  elucidation.  It 
only  remains  therefore  to  give  such  a  selection  from  receipts 
and  processes  as  will  illustrate  the  method  of  obtaining  the 
chief  greens  at  present  in  use  upon  cotton,  wool,  and  siUi. 

Green  Colors  on  Cotton. — The  blue  is  generally  dyed  first  for 
the  faster  kind  of  greens,  and  the  yellow  dyed  upon  it. 

Vat  Blue  and  Chrome  Yellow. — Dye  the  cotton  of  a  sky  blue 
in  the  indigo  vat,  then  work  it  in  any  of  the  lead  preparations 
given  for  chrome  colors  (p.  142),  and  raise  in  bichromate.  It 
requires  some  experience,  and  a  good  eye,  to  ascertain  the  right 
shade  of  blue  for  a  given  pattern  of  green.  When  the  point 
has  been  missed,  it  is  frequently  compensated  by  sulphate  of 
indigo;  but,  as  this  has  not  the  slightest  affinity  for  cotton, 
it  washes  out  on  the  first  contact  with  water,  besides  fading 
rapidly  in  light  and  air. 

Vat  Blue  and  Bark  Yellow. — Dye  a  sky  blue  in  the  indigo 
vat,  and  then  work  the  cloth  or  yarn  in  red  liquor  at  8°  for  a 
sufficient  time ;  wash  out,  and  dye  with  bark  liquor,  raising 
with  alum  or  solution  of  tin. 

Vat  Blue  and  Fustic  Yellow. — Precisely  as  the  last  receipt, 


GREEN   COLORS.  255 

only  substituting  the  yellow  coloring  matter  of  fustic  for  that 
of  quercitron  bark. 

Bark  and  Extract  of  Indigo. — This  is  a  shamefully  loose  color, 
and  quite  unworthy  of  a  record  if  it  was  not  for  the  fact  that  a 
considerable  quantity  of  cloth  so  dyed  is  regularly  shipped 
abroad.  The  cotton  is  worked  in  red  liquor  at  6°  Tw.,  then 
dyed  yellow  with  bark,  and  the  blue  part  obtained  by  working 
in  extract  of  indigo  and  drying  without  the  usual  washing, 
which  would,  in  this  case,  remove  all  the  blue.  The  yellow 
may  be  obtained  by  fustic  instead  of  bark. 

Prussian  Blue  and  Fustic. — Dye  a  light  Prussian  blue  as  given 
on  page  102,  then  mordant  by  working  in  red  liquor  at  8°,  and 
dye  in  fustic  liquor,  raising  with  alum.  Bark  can  replace  fustic 
in  this  receipt. 

Greens  Used  in  Calico  Printing. — The  best  colors  have  Prus- 
sian blue  for  a  basis,  and  either  bark  or  berry  liquor  for  the 
yellow  part.  Besides  the  receipts  here  given  for  steam  greens 
most  of  those  given  for  delaines  are  also  applicable  to  calico. 

Common  Steam  Green — Calico. 
6  oz.  starch, 

2  pints  berry  liquor  at  6°, 
8  oz.  yellow  prussiute, 
4  oz.  alum, 
^  pint  acetic  acid, 
1  oz.  oxalic  acid, 
4  oz.  muriate  of  tin  at  120°. 

The  following  is  a  higher  class  of  green : — 

Green  for  Calico — Steam. 

1|  Ib.  starch, 

1  gallon  bark  liquor  at  16°;  boil,  and  add 

6  oz.  alum, 

1  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

2  oz.  tin  crystals ;  when  nearly  cool,  add 
1J  Ib.  tartaric  acid, 

2£  Ibs.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 
1  pint  prussiate  of  tin  pulp. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  indicate  the  rationale  of  these  colors; 
but  I  may  state  that  the  bark  or  berry  along  with  the  alum, 
and  partly  also  with  the  tin,  if  any  be  used,  forms  the  yellow 
color;  and  the  prussiate,  acted  upon  by  the  free  acid  of  tin 
salt,  as  well  as  by  the  tartaric  and  oxalic  acids  added,  yields 
the  blue  part. 


256  GREEN   COLORS. 

Green  for  Calico — Blotch. 

2  gallons  bark  liquor  at  10°, 

3  Ibs.  starch;  boil,  and  add 
1£  Ib.  alum,  and,  when  cool, 

3  Ibs.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 

1|  Ib.  tartaric  acid, 

6  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

|  pint  prussiate  of  tin. 

Turpentine  or  gallipoli  oil  may  be  added  in  small  quantities  to 
assist  in  the  working.  Steam  greens  require  raising  in  bichro- 
mate on  account  of  the  blue  part. 

Indigo  and  Chrome  Greens. — These  greens  have  nearly  dis- 
appeared since  the  discovery  of  steam  blue  has  enabled  the 
printer  to  obta'in  more  beautiful  and  regular  results,  and  I  shall 
only  give  a  brief  indication  of  the  methods  which  were  followed 
in  obtaining  them.  For  white  objects  on  a  green  ground,  a 
resist  was  printed  similar  to  the  resists  used  in  indigo  dipping, 
the  pieces  dipped  for  five  minutes  in  a  plombate  of  lime  vat 
(see  page  144),  a  quantity  of  lead  would  thus  fix  upon  all  the 
unresisted  parts;  the  pieces  then  dipped  in  clear  water,  and 
then  in  an  indigo  vat  until  the  desired  blue  shade  was  obtained. 
The  yellow  was  then  raised  by  passing  in  chromate. 

The  discharge  white  on  these  styles  was  obtained  by  first 
dipping  a  sky  blue,  then  padding  in  lead  salt  and  dyeing  in 
chrome;  this  gave  a  uniform  green,  upon  which  one  of  the  strong 
acid  discharges  of  page  193  being  printed,  produced  a  white, 
provided  that  the  blue  was  not  too  strong  for  the  quantity  of 
chromic  acid  present  to  discharge. 

Another  green  was  obtained  by  combining  lead  salts  with 
pencil  blue  and  raising  the  color  in  chrome. 

Indigo  and  Bark  Greens. — These  greens  were  adapted  to  the 
calico  printers'  purposes  by  Thompson  of  Clitheroe,  and  met 
with  great  success  about  thirty  years  ago.  A  blue  ground  of  the 
requisite  depth  was  first  dyed  in  the  indigo  vat,  and  the  piece 
padded  in  red  liquor  containing  a  sufficient  quantity  of  bichrome 
to  discharge  the  blue.  When  dried,  a  white  discharge  (page 
193)  was  printed  on,  which  not  only  destroyed  the  blue  but  also 
cut  out  the  alumina;  the  pieces  were  now  dunged  and  dyed  in 
bark,  the  yellow  of  which  combining  with  the  indigo  blue  pro- 
duced the  green.  There  have  been  other  methods  of  combin- 
ing mordants  with  China  blue,  etc.,  but  the  styles  are  now  so 
seldom  called  for  as  not  to  require  further  notice. 

Greens  on  Wool. — For  all  light  woollen  goods,  merinoes,  etc., 
the  blue  part  is  sulphate  of  indigo  and  the  yellow  chiefly  fustic; 
but  turmeric  is  largely  used ;  weld  and  quercitron  bark  are 


GREEN   COLORS.  257 

also  employed.  In  using  turmeric,  which  is  a  very  loose  color, 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  dye  at  too  high  a  temperature.  To 
preserve  the  best  color  the  turmeric  is  not  added  with  the  other 
ingredients — the  extract  of  indigo  and  fustic — but  towards  the 
end  of  the  dye.  The  wool  is  mordanted  in  alum  and  tartar  as 
usual,  lifted  out,  and  the  quantity  of  dyeing  matter  added.  I 
give  some  examples  showing  the  quantities  used: — 

Dark  Green. — Decoction  of  2J  Ibs.  of  best  fustic,  1J  Ib.  ex- 
tract of  indigo,  to  10  or  12  Ibs.  of  wool;  temperature  not  to 
exceed  170°  nor  time  60  minutes.  If  the  exact  shade  is  not 
hit,  of  course  the  quantities  of  blue  and  yellow  part  must  be 
altered. 

By  diminishing  these  quantities  of  coloring  matters  by  one- 
quarter,  one-half,and  three-quarters,  various  depths  are  obtained ; 
by  maintaining  the  strength  of  yellow  and  diminishing  the  blue, 
the  green  are  more  yellow;  by  taking  the  contrary  course,  the 
greens  are  bluer. 

The  best  greens  are  dyed  at  twice,  that  is,  the  wool  is  mor- 
danted separately ;  but  most  greens  are  dyed  at  one  operation 
by  adding  the  alum,  tartar,  fustic,  turmeric,  and  extract  of 
indigo,  all  together. 

M.  Theophile  Grison,  to  whose  "  Teinturier  au  xixe  Siecle"  I 
have  frequently  referred  for  information  upon  woollen  dyeing, 
proposes  a  modification  of  sulphate  of  indigo  discovered  by 
himself,  for  obtaining  bright  light  shades  of  green.  He  dis- 
solves one  part  of  purified  extract  of  indigo  (carmin  (f indigo)  in 
four  parts  of  ammonia,  strains  through  a  calico  fent,  and  leaves 
in  covered  stoneware  jars  from  six  to  twenty  days ;  at  the  end 
of  six  days  the  green  obtainable  is  of  a  bluish  kind,  and  at 
twenty  days  it  is  very  yellow.  When  the  contact  is  judged  to 
be  sufficiently  prolonged,  the  ammonia  is  neutralized  by  sul- 
phuric acid.  The  green  precipitate  thus  produced  is  drained 
on  a  filter  and  pressed  to  remove  the  greater  quantity  of  water; 
it  is  then  washed  with  a  dilute  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda, 
and  is  ready  for  use.  To  apply  it,  it  is  dissolved  in  water,  con- 
taining its  own  weight  of  alum,  and  the  solution  employed 
fresh,  without  keeping.  Acetate  of  alumina  is  the  most  suita- 
ble mordant  for  it,  and  a  temperature  of  140°  answers  best  in 
dyeing. 

A  fast  green  is  obtained  by  dyeing  a  blue  in  the  indigo  vat 
and  then  mordanting  in  alum,  and  adding  fustic  for  the  yellow 
part.  Logwood  is  sometimes  used,  in  the  duller  and  more  olive 
greens,  as  the  blue  part. 

Picric  acid  has  been  proposed  as  the  yellow  part,  but  it  is 
deficient  in  depth.  Bark  and  weld  are  too  much  acted  upon 
by  the  acidity  of  the  bath  to  yield  good  colors  ;  fustic,  although 


258  GREEN   COLORS. 

it  has  the  inconvenience  of  making  the  stuffs  rather  harsh,  is  the 
only  yellow  color  which  works  well  with  sulphate  of  indigo. 

Greens  on  Wool  by  Printing. — These  greens  are  chiefly  sul- 
phate of  indigo  for  the  blue  part,  and  bark  or  berries  for  the 
yellow  part.  Fustic  is  seldom  used,  because  the  advantages  it 
possesses  in  dyeing  are  not  so  conspicuous  in  printing,  and  it 
is  much  less  rich  in  coloring  matter  than  either  bark  or  berries, 
and  consequently  more  difficult  to  extract,  nevertheless  it  is 
sometimes  used. 

Dark  Green,  all  Wool— Blotch. 

3  gallons  bark  liquor  at  16°, 
6  Ibs.  sulphate  of  indigo, 
6  oz.  sal  ammoniac, 
3  Ibs.  sulphate  of  alumina, 

3  pints  water, 

1^  Ib.  tartaric  acid, 
14  oz.  oxalic  acid ;  and  when  quite  cold, 
20  oz.  bichloride  of  tin, 

8  oz.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 

thickened  with  gum  substitute,  according  to  the  pattern.  For 
bright  light  greens  Persian  berries  appear  the  most  suitable 
yellow  part,  turmeric  next,  but  more  fugitive,  and  bark  last. 
The  following  dark  green  is  somewhat  different  from  the 
above: — 

,  Deep  Green — Wool. 

1  gallon  bark  liquor  at  15°, 
12  oz.  sulphate  of  indigo, 

8^oz.  alum, 

3"lbs.  gum  in  powder  ;  heat,  and  then  add 

4  oz.  tartaric  acid,  and,  when  cold, 
»•  •     1  oz.  oxalft  acid, 

4  oz.  bichloride  of  tin  at  100°. 

In  the  following  green,  which  is  of  a  lighter  kind,  fustic  liquor 
is  employed  as  the  yellow  .part : — 

Another  Green  for  Wool. 

2  quarts^ fustic  liquor  at  12°, 
4  oz.  sulphate  of  indigo, 

14  oz^aluTn, 

3  oz.  tartaric  acid, 
1 J  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

1  gallon  gum  water, 

4  oz.  bichloride  of  tin  at  100°. 


GREEN   COLORS.  259 

In  some  receipts  for  green  a  small  quantity  of  cochineal  red 
is  added  to  correct  a  grayness  due  to  the  sulphate  of  indigo. 
Out  of  at  least  fifty  receipts  for  green  on  wool  under  my  eyes 
I  think  it  quite  unnecessary  to  give  any  more,  since  the  above 
are  sufficiently  representative  for  the  purposes  in  view.  Greens 
upon  delaine,  however,  are  somewhat  different,  and  I  give  a 
few  examples  to  illustrate  them.  It  will  be  observed  that, 
upon  wool,  the  blue  from  the  prussiates  is  not  required,  the 
extract  of  indigo  fulfiling  the  blue  part ;  but  upon  a  fabric 
containing  cotton  the  extract  of  indigo  blue  will  not  fix,  so 
that  the  presence  of  the  elements  of  Prussian  blue  is  a  necessity. 
Much  care  is  required  in  delaine  colors  to  obtain  the  wool  and 
cotton  threads  of  a  similar  shade,  they  will  be  usually  found 
quite  different.  This  is  owing  to  want  of  care  in  the  appor- 
tioning of  the  blue  parts. 

Dark  Green — Delaine. 

6  pints  berry  liquor  at  15°, 
4  pints  red  liquor  at  20°, 
1|  Ib.  starch  ;  boil,  and  add 
14  oz.  extract  of  indigo, 
8  oz.  alum, 

2^  Ibs.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 
1  Ib.  tar'taric  acid, 
4  oz.  oxalic  acid. 

Another  Dark  Green — Delaine. 

8  gallons  bark  liquor,  at  16°, 

13  Ibs.  starch, 

4  Ibs.  gum  substitute;  boil,  and  add 

5  Ibs.  alum, 

1  Ib.  crystals  of  tin, 

14  Ibs.  tartaric  acid, 

14  Ibs.  prussiate  of  potash, 
1  Ib.  oxalic  acid,      \ 
1  quart  hot  water,   j 
\  gallon  extract  of  indigo. 

These  dark  greens  may  be  reduced  by  starch  or  gum-water  to 
yield  the  lighter  shades.  I  give  three  more  receipts  for  green, 
which  in  themselves  would  suffice  for  almost  any  number  of 
shades.  The  No.  1  green  is  dark,  the  No.  2  is  medium  and 
blue,  No.  3  is  lighter  or  yellow.  By  combination  of  one  with 
another,  and  by  reduction  with  gum- water,  the  shades  and  hues 
can  be  modified  at  will : — 


260  GREEN   COLORS. 

No.  1  Green,  for  Delaine — Dark. 

3  quarts  bark  liquor,  at  12°, 
1  Ib.  starch ;  boil,  and  add 

6  oz.  alum ;  when  cool,  add 
14  oz.  yellow  prussiate, 

7  oz.  tartaric  acid, 
1J  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

5  oz.  extract  of  indigo, 
£  pint  prussiate  of  tin. 

No.  2  Green,  for  Delaine — Blue  Shade. 

1  gallon  bark  liquor,  at  6°, 
1 J  Ib.  starch  ;  boil,  and  add 

4  oz.  alum ;  when  cool,  add 

9  oz.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 

3  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

10  oz.  extract  of  indigo, 
I  pint  prussiate  of  tin. 

No.  3  Green,  for  Delaine — Yellowish. 

1  gallon  gurn-water, 

2  quarts  berry  liquor,  at  12°, 

1  pint  red  liquor,  at  15°, 

4  oz.  alum,  dissolved  in 

3  pints  hot  water, 

6  oz.  yellow  prussiate, 

2  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

4  oz.  extract  of  indigo, 
2  oz.  prussiate  of  tin. 

Green  Colors  on  Silk. — These  colors,  whether  dyed  or  printed, 
are  very  similar  in  their  production  and  composition  to  greens 
on  wool.  The  silk  for  dyeing  is  well  alumed,  and  the  yellow 
dyed  first  in  fustic;  then  that  purified  kind  of  sulphate  of 
indigo  which  has  been  described  as  DISTILLED  BLUE  is  added, 
and  the  dyeing  continued  until  the  desired  shade  is  obtained. 
Besides  fustic,  turmeric,  weld,  and  bark  are  employed  as  the 
yellow  part.  Ebony  wood  chips  are  sometimes  employed  for 
the  yellow;  addition  of  logwood  gives  shades  of  olive-green. 
The  following  is  a  dark  green  color  for  printing  on  silk : — 

2  quarts  berry  liquor,  at  15°, 

1  Ib.  gum ;  dissolve,  and  add 
4  oz.  extract  of  indigo, 

2  oz.  tartaric  acid,  at  40°, 

1  oz.  nitro-muriate  of  tin,  at  80°. 


GUM.  x  261 

If  turmeric  be  used  as  the  yellow  part,  a  smaller  quantity 
will  suffice  thau  of  berries,  on  account  of  the  greater  intensity 
of  its  shade.  (See  also  CHINESE  GREEN.) 

Gum. — Gum  is  a  substance  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
the  printer,  although  hardly  ever  used  by  the  simple  dyer.  Its 
study,  therefore,  deserves  great  attention,  for  success  in  obtain- 
ing good  colors  and  good  printing  depends  in  a  remarkable 
degree  upon  the  nature  of  the  gum  or  other  thickening  mate- 
rial employed. 

The  name  of  gum  is  given  to  any  substance  exuding  from 
trees  and  vegetables,  and  drying  up  in  the  semi-transparent, 
globular-shaped  masses  we  are  accustomed  to  see  in  gum  arabic. 
But  another  distinction  must  be  made:  some  of  these  sub- 
stances are  of  a  resinous  nature,  and  not  acted  upon  by  water. 
Gums  may,  therefore,  be  divided  into  gums  proper  and  gum 
resins ;  the  first  being  those  soluble  in  water,  the  second  includ- 
ing such  substances  as  copal,  animi,  etc.,  which  are  called  gums 
by  the  varnish  makers,  but  which  possess  none  of  the  properties 
which  characterize  gum  arabic,  the  type  and  model  of  gums. 
A  good  gum  is  recognized  by  dissolving  easily  in  water,  to 
which  it  communicates  a  thickness  or  viscosity  of  a  different 
nature  to  that  given  by  flour  or  starch;  the  solution  being 
fluid,  easily  poured  from  vessel  to  vessel,  flowing  with  a  long 
unbroken  stream  when  poured  from  a  height,  and  not  going 
thicker  by  keeping,  provided  evaporation  does  not  take  place. 
The  chemical  composition  of  natural  gums  is  nearly  the  same 
as  that  of  starch,  and  their  chemical  relations  to  other  bodies 
much  of  the  same  nature,  that  is  to  say  very  feeble  and  insig- 
nificant. It  is  this  indifference  which  makes  gum  so  valuable 
an  agent  in  thickening  colors;  it  does  not  interfere  in  the 
reaction  of  the  various  drugs  upon  one  another,  and  interposes 
no  obstruction  to  their  combinations  with  the  tissue,  except 
such  as  are  of  a  physical  nature  and  inseparable  from  matter  in 
its  most  inert  form.  There  are  only  three  or  four  compounds 
which  cannot  be  thickened  with  gum  in  all  the  range  of  ordinary 
color  mixing,  and  they  are  not  often  employed.  There  is  the 
sulphate  of  chromium,  which  frequently  coagulates  the  gum- 
water,  but  not  always ;  I  consider  it  is  a  deficiency  of  acid 
which  causes  it  to  coagulate ;  the  basic  acetate  of  lead  forms  a 
combination  with  gum  of  a  curdy  nature,  quite  unfit  for  print- 
ing, and  the  solution  of  protoxide  of  tin  in  soda  the  same. 
These,  and  one  or  two  other  mixtures  must  be  thickened  when 
required,  either  with  sugar  or  some  of  the  artificial  gum  sub- 
stitutes to  b'e  mentioned  afterwards.  The  principal  natural 
gums  in  use  among  printers  are  as  follows: — 

Gum  Arabic. — This  is  the  most  expensive  and  finest  kind  of 


262  GUM. 

gum,  seldom  used  in  print  works,  but  it  may  be  taken  as  the 
sample  of  what  gum  ought  to  be — in  color,  solubility,  and  in 
keeping  its  fluid  condition  without  any  tendency  to  go  sour. 
What  is  frequently  sold  as  gum  arabic  is  only  picked  gum 
Senegal.  It  is  employed  principally  in  the  fine  arts,  and  for 
finishing  crapes,  silks,  and  similar  goods. 

Gum  Senegal. — This  is  next  in  quality  to  gum  arabic,  and 
for  all  ordinary  purposes,  and  certainly  for  calico  printing  pur- 
poses, it  answers  as  well.  It  is  a  coarser  looking  gum,  and 
when  unpicked  consists  of  masses  of  various  sizes  and  colors. 
A  portion  is  quite  transparent  and  clear;  this  is  usually  picked 
out  and  sold  at  a  higher  price,  on  account  of  its  yielding  a 
colorless  solution,  applicable  to  many  purposes  where  color  is 
objectionable.  Other  pieces  are  colored  in  various  degrees, 
from  slight  yellow  to  deep  brownish-red,  the  whole  intermixed 
with  variable  quantities  of  straw,  bark,  chips,  sand,  and  gravel, 
depending  upon  the  care  used  in  gathering  it.  It  dissolves 
easily  in  warm  water,  and  gives  a  good  strong  gum  water  at 
about  eight  pounds  to  the  gallon.  It  has  a  tendency  to  go  sour 
upon  standing,  which  may  be  partially  corrected  by  the  addi- 
tion of  crystals  of  soda;  but  this  acidity  is  not,  under  most 
circumstances,  objectionable. 

East  India  Gum,  Turkey  Gum. — Other  qualities  of  gum  are 
in  the  market  under  the  above  and  other  titles.  They  are  in- 
ferior to  good  gum  Senegal,  but  they  are  not  constant  or  regular 
in  their  quality.  Some  samples  which  I  have  seen  have 
scarcely  been  fitted  at  all  for  making  gum  water.  Instead  of 
dissolving  easily  in  warm  water,  they  swell  into  jelly,  which  is 
ropy  and  gluey,  not  flowing  smooth,  something  like  the  white 
of  egg  before  it  is  beaten  up.  It  is  possible  to  use  this  gum, 
for  it  has  been  used  in  large  quantity,  but  it  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended for  finer  kinds  of  work.  It  does  not  give  as  good 
shades,  and  it  does  not  wash  off  soft.  This  inferior  quality  is 
best  recognized  by  steeping  the  lumps  in  cold  water,  and  ob- 
serving if  they  melt  away  into  the  liquor  or  swell  up  into 
toughish  lumps,  after  some  hours'  standing.  If  they  dissolve 
into  clear  gum  water  they  may  be  accounted  good  ;  if  not  they 
may  be  useable,  but  certainly  they  are  not  worth  so  much  as 
the  other  kinds. 

Gum  Tragacanth. — If  gum  arabic  is  a  gum  it  is  hard  to  know 
upon  what  kind  of  analogy  tragacanth  can  be  called  a  gum.  It 
more  resembles  solidified  paste,  which  resumes  its  bulk  when 
it  is  wetted,  but  must  be  called  a  gum  for  want  of  a  better 
name.  It  is  an  excellent  gum  for  many  purposes — smooth, 
firm,  and  solid — but  unfortunately  for  the  color  mixer,  so  ex- 
pensive that  he  can*  only  employ  it  in  very  limited  quantity. 


GUM   SUBSTITUTES.  263 

The  amount  of  water  that  it  can  thicken  is  very  remarkable. 
At  one  pound  per  gallon  it  forms  a  mass  which,  in  small  ves- 
sels, may  be  inverted  without  running  out,  and  at  this  thick- 
ness it  can  be  used.  It  is  dissolved  by  steeping  it  for  several 
hours  in  lukewarm  water,  with  occasional  stirring.  In  some 
cases  it  is  recommended  to  add  nitric  acid  to  the  water,  in  small 
proportion,  to  be  neutralized  afterwards  by  crystals  of  soda  ; 
but  I  do  not  understand  the  benefit  of  it,  and  I  question  if  it 
does  not  all  reside  in  the  nitrate  of  soda  formed  being  slightly 
hygrometric,  and  keeping  the  color  moister  upon  the  cloth. 

Any  other  gums  which  may  be  found  in  commerce  will  be 
similar  to  those  mentioned,  perhaps  better  for  them,  more  likely 
worse.  The  only  reliable  test  for  the  quality  of  gum  is  in 
making  trial  of  it,  dissolving  it,  seeing  how  it  keeps,  making 
color  from  it,  noting  the  results,  and  observing  if  it  washes  off 
easily,  leaving  the  cloth  soft  and  fine.  It  is  said  that  natural 
gums  have  been  mixed  with  artificial  gums  ingeniously  brought 
to  resemble  the  lumps.  I  have  never  found  anything  of  this 
kind,  and  doubt  if  it  would  pay  to  carry  it  out  at  the  prices 
gum  has  commanded  these  few  years  past.  For  some  of  the 
properties  of  gum  not  mentioned  here,  reference  must  be  made 
to  the  article  treating  on  thickening  matters  generally. 

Gum  Substitutes. — Towards  the  end  of  the  last  century 
the  natural  gums,  used  by  calico  printers,  Ig^came  so  dear  as 
to  seriously  injure  the  trade.  Many  attempts  were  made  to 
obtain  some  substitute,  but  with  little  success,  the  investigators 
chiefly  looking  to  the  gelatinous  matters  of  linseed  and 
mosses  as  the  most  probable  sources  of  a  substitute.  The  fact 
that  heat  converted  starch  into  a  gummy  substance  seems  to 
have  been  accidentally  discovered  in  the  early  part  of  the  pre- 
sent century,  but  to  whom  the  merit  of  this  great  boon  to  calico 
printing  belongs  is  not  generally  known.  There  seems  to  be 
no  doubt  that  it  was  a  discovery  belonging  to  these  islands, 
and  one  which  has  done  much  to  put  calico  printing  in  its  pre- 
sent flourishing  position.  Foreign  gums  are  now  only  excep- 
tionally employed  for  purposes  of  thickening  colors.  The  arti- 
ficial gums  have  replaced  them  in  the  great  majority  of  cases, 
for  they  can  in  general  be  better  adapted  to  the  requirements 
of  any  given  color  than  the  natural  gums.  I  have  had  expe- 
rience in  the  making  and  using  of  artificial  gums,  and  believe 
that  they  can  be  made  to  answer  every  purpose  of  thickening 
as  well  and  generally  better  than  the  natural  gums  ;  economy- 
will  in  all  usual  circumstances  be  greatly  in  favor  of  the  arti- 
ficial gums.  There  are  very  few  print  works  in  Great  Britain 
making  gums;  those  who  do  find  an  advantage  from  it  in 
several  ways.  In  the  United  States  nearly  all  printers  make 


264  GUM   SUBSTITUTES. 

their  own  gums;  but  for  the  successful  carrying  out  of  this 
and  other  chemical  manufactures,  more  knowledge  of  chemistry 
is  necessary  than  is  usually  found  on  an  English  print  works. 

The  general  principle  in  gum  making  is  to  subject  every 
particle  of  the  starchy  matter,  whether  wheaten  starch,  potato 
flour  or  farina,  or  sago  flour,  to  the  action  of  a  high  tempera- 
ture. The  effect  of  the  heat  is  to  cause  a  change  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  farinaceous  globules,  so  that,  when  put  into  water, 
they  burst  and  dissolve,  while  previously  they  were  unacted 
upon  by  it.  Whether  the  change  is  chemical  or  physical  is 
not  well  known.  Under  the  microscope  the  globules  seem 
unaltered  except  in  size.  They  are  become  much  smaller  in 
roasting,  but  the  envelope  does  not  seem  broken ;  the  contact 
of  water  ruptures  it  directly,  and  all  dissolves  into  a  clear 
liquid  of  a  pale  yellow  color.  This  yellow  or  brown  color  is 
an  inevitable  result  of  the  heat  used,  and  in  some  cases  it  is 
objectionable.  A  French  chemist,  M.  Payen,  found  that  if  the 
starch  or  farina  was  mixed  thoroughly  with  weak  acids,  it  re- 
quired a  lower  heat  to  make  it  into  gum,  and  the  product 
could  be  obtained  nearly  white.  I  found  that  if  certain  acid 
gases  and  vapors  were  passed  over  hot  starch  and  farina,  they 
were  changed  into  gum  at  a  comparatively  low  temperature 
without  changing  the  color  of  the  farina  in  a  perceptible  de- 
gree. These  light  colored  gums  are  employed  in  many  steam 
colors,  and  for  finishing  goods.  The  gums  which  are  to  be 
found  in  trade  are  very  various  in  their  properties ;  the  quan- 
tity required  to  thicken  a  gallon  of  water;  and  the  names 
which  they  bear.  Each  manufacturer  has  his  own  process  of 
mixture  and  preparation,  and  has  a  reputation  for  producing  a 
particular  kind  of  gum,  to  which  he  usually  gives  any  name 
that  he  likes.  Of  special  trade  gums  I  cannot  here  take  full 
notice,  but  an  account  will  be  given  of  what  may  be  called 
simple  gums,  that  is.  gums  which  are  genuine  results  of  roast- 
ing the  pure  starches.  But,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
most  of  the  gums  used  by  calico  printers  are  mixtures  made  to 
suit  the  particular  requirements  of  the  style  of  work  or  the 
prejudices  of  the  establishment. 

Calcined  Farina. — This  is  what  its  name  indicates,  farina  or 
potato  starch  roasted  or  calcined  to  the  required  shade.  It  is 
the  oldest  form  of  artificial  gum,  and  perhaps  the  most-  gen- 
erally employed.  Its  color  is  usually  much  darker  than  is 
necessary;  calcined  farina  of  a  light  buff  color  dissolves  as 
well  and  makes  a  better  gum  water  than  the  very  dark  brown 
kind,  but  this  latter  is  preferred  more  from  prejudice  than 
reason.  There  is  a  probability  of  a  light-colored  calcined 
farina  going  pasty  on  standing;  in  so  far  as  this  goes  a  dark- 


GUM   SUBSTITUTES.  265 

colored  one  is  preferable,  but  to  become  pasty  is  a  sign  of  care- 
lessness of  manufacture.  If  a  light  colored  calcined  farina  is 
quite  soluble  and  remains  gummy,  I  consider  it  preferable  to 
a  dark-colored  one ;  it  is  more  solid  in  the  gum  water,  more 
tenacious,  and  gives  a  better  mark  and  better  shade  of  color, 
especially  with  iron  mordants.  There  is  less  risk  of  burned 
particles,  which  remain  in  suspension  in  the  gum  water,  and 
cause  annoyance  in  the  printing.  Calcined  farina  thickens  at 
from  seven  to  ten  pounds  per  gallon  of  water;  some  kinds  are 
as  thick  at  seven  as  others  at  nine;  when  ten  pounds  are  re- 
quired for  ordinary  thickness,  the  calcined  farina  is  said  to  be 
weak.  What  this  weakness  consists  in,  or  is  owing  to,  is  not 
satisfactorily  known  ;  it  is  not  in  the  calcining  but  in  the  raw 
farina,  and  may  be  attributable  to  the  quality  of  the  potatoes, 
or  to  the  methods  of  extracting  the  farina  from  them.  There 
are  weak  and  strong  farinas  in  the  market,  which  yield  gums 
of  the  same  kind,  and  the  gum  maker  is  only  indirectly  re- 
sponsible for  the  difference  in  product.  The  objection  to  cal- 
cined farina  is  its  expense,  requiring,  as  it  does,  so  great  a 
quantity  to  thicken  a  gallon  of  water.  It  is  a  common  cus- 
tom to  mix  thicker  gums  with  it,  and  sometimes  to  mix  flour 
with  it,  but  it  is  not  easy  in  this  manner  to  produce  a  good 
gum  water. 

A  method  of  testing  a  small  sample  of  calcined  farina  is  to 
mix  it  thoroughly  with  cold  water,  and  place  the  liquid  in  a 
glass  tube  kept  upright.  In  the  course  of  a  few  hours  all  the 
insoluble  or  imperfectly  calcined  and  raw  particles  fall  towards 
the  bottom  of  the  glass,  and  from  their  bulk  the  quality  of 
the  sample  is  judged.  When  there  is  a  sufficient  quantity, 
the  best  test  is  to  make  a  gallon  or  two  of  gum  water  from  it, 
arid  examine  when  cold  as  to  thickness,  solidity,  smoothness, 
and  tendency  to  pastiness.  For  grit,  pour  off  the  top  and  feel 
the  bottoms,  if  there  are  any,  testing  them  between  the  teeth 
or  between  the  point  of  a  knife  and  a  piece  of  glass ;  not  all 
that  seems  to  be  grit  is  so.  If  the  lumps  yield  to  the  teeth 
they  will  most  probably  be  charred  particles  of  the  farina.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  properties  of  calcined  farina  that 
when  hot  it  is  so  thin  that  all  the  grit  can  sink  through  it  to 
the  bottom ;  other  gums  that  are  thick  when  boiled  keep  the 
grit  in  suspension,  and  it  cannot  be  removed  from  them, 
causing  much  trouble  in  the  printing.  Good  calcined  farina 
keeps  fluid  for  many  weeks ;  only  inferior  qualities  go  thick 
within  a  mouth,  but  it  is  not  unusual  to  have  samples  that  set  so 
hard  and  firm  in  about  two  days,  that  in  color-shop  phrase, 
"you  might  stand  upon  them" — a  metaphorical  expression 
fur  the  most  part,  but  sometimes  literally  true.  There  issonie- 
18 


266  GUM   SUBSTITUTES. 

thing  really  remarkable  in  seeing  a  hot  solution  of  bad  gnm  as 
thin  as  water  setting  to  a  hard  solid  mass  when  cold,  which  can 
be  broken  in  pieces  and  crumbled  in  the  hand.  Some  farinas 
do  not  go  hard,  but  thicken  a  little;  these  generally  work 
thick  in  the  color  boxes ;  they  are  actually  a  mixture  of  real 
calcined  farina  and  raw  farina,  or  in  an  intermediate  state  of 
conversion.  They  are  only  mechanically  intermixed,  and  the 
thin  part  appears  to  leave  the  color  faster  than  the  thick  in 
the  machine;  the  mass  gets  thicker  and  thicker  until  it  be- 
comes impossible  to  work  it.  It  must  then  be  either  warmed 
up,  mixed  with  thin,  or,  as  frequently  happens,  thrown  away. 

Dark  British  Gum. — This  name  was  originally  given  to  pure 
wheaten  starch,  roasted  to  a  dark  brown  color.  Many  gum 
makers  sell  a  compound  gum  under  this  designation,  contain- 
ing only  a  small  quantity  of  wheaten  starch,  or  none  at  all. 
Others  still  furnish  calcined  starch  under  its  old  name;  it  will 
be  taken  here  as  made  entirely  from  starch.  It  is  a  stronger 
gum  than  calcined  farina,  thickening  at  about  six  pounds  to 
the  gallon  of  water;  it  works  and  keeps  very  well  when  pro- 
perly made;  it  is  better  adapted  for  alkaline  colors  than  cal- 
cined farina,  and  generally  with  the  same  strength  of  mordant 
gives  deeper  and  fuller  shades.  Owing  to  the  costliness  of 
wheaten  starch,  it  is  the  most  expensive  of  the  artificial  gums. 
For  the  same  reason  there  is  a  great  inducement  to  the  maker 
to  substitute  cheaper  original  matters  in  its  preparation,  and 
sometimes  to  dispense  with  wheaten  starch  altogether. 

Light  British  Gum. — This  was  originally  pure  wheaten 
starch,  which  had  received  a  very  slight  roasting.  It  had  in 
consequence  a  light  color,  and,  from  not  being  wholly  con- 
verted into  gum,  had  a  pastier  nature  than  the  dark  British ; 
it  is  suitable  for  steam  colors.  It  should  thicken  at  from  three 
and  a  half  to  four  and  a  half  pounds  per  gallon,  and  should 
keep  in  working  order  for  ten  days  at  least.  Light  British 
gum,  like  dark  British,  is  now  seldom  made  from  starch  alone, 
but  is  a  compound  gum,  containing  two  or  more  different 
gums. 

Gum  Substitute. — This  is  usually  the  same  as  light  British; 
but  it  is  a  name  of  so  indefinite  a  nature  that  it  can  easily 
include  any  kind  of  gum,  and  does  actually  serve  for  many 
varieties. 

Soluble  Gum. — The  gum  sold  as  soluble  gum,  and  known 
also  as  patent  light  gum,  delaine  gum,  etc.,  is  of  a  light  color, 
and,  as  its  name  indicates,  should  be  easily  and  largely  soluble 
in  cold  water.  It  is  made  by  the  use  of  acids,  and  requiring 
more  time  and  more  care  than  most  of  the  other  gums,  is  more 
expensive.  It  should  thicken  at  about  five  pounds  to  the 


GUM   SUBSTITUTES.  267 

gallon,  but  it  is  variable,  and  sometimes  requires  as  much  as 
eight  pounds  to  give  good  gurn  water.  The  solution  should 
be  clear  and  but  lightly  colored.  It  is  not  so  solid  or  adhe- 
sive a  gum  water  as  that  made  from  natural  gums  at  the  same 
weight,  nor  would  it  answer  well  if  it  was. 

Dextrine  Gum. — In  some  establishments  a  species  of  gum  is 
prepared  in  the  fluid  state  by  acting  upon  starch  or  farina,  by 
means  of  the  diastase  or  ground  malt.  It  is  said  to  possess 
some  valuable  properties  for  delaine  colors  in  washing  out 
easily,  but  has  the  defect  of  irregularity  in  body  and  prone- 
ness  to  fermentation. 

Generalities  upon  Artificial  Gums. — The  goodness  or  badness 
of  a  gum  cannot  be  tested  upon  small  quantities  with  any 
trustworthy  results,  nor  can  it  be  predicated  from  the  appear- 
ance of  the  gum  water,  except  by  one  accustomed  to  judge  of 
it;  for  the  most  part  the  quality  of  gum  can  only  be  decided 
upon  after  it  has  done  fifty  or  sixty  pieces.  A  good  gum  will 
print  that  number  without  requiring  to  be  emptied  out  of  the 
box,  and  without  being  thicker  at  the  end  than  at  first.  Sixty 
pieces  should  be  reckoned  a  sufficient  test  for  any  gum,  and  a 
gum  deserves  to  be  condemned  that  will  not  print  more  than 
thirty  without  changing.  A  first-rate  gum  for  madder  purples 
will  keep  fluid  for  a  month  in  the  color-house  tubs,  and,  if 
going  pasty  then,  will  only  require  mixing  with  some  hot  gurn 
water,  or  warming  up  by  itself  to  be  right  again.  Inferior 
gurns  go  pasty  in  from  three  to  seven  days.  It  is  very  bad 
gum  that  will  not  stand  good  for  three  days;  when  gurns  go 
thick,  the  only  remedy  is  to  warm  them  up  again  and  get 
them  used  without  having  to  stand  long.  Such  gums  are 
wasteful,  and  should  not  be  tolerated,  for  colors  made  with 
them  become  thick  and  unfit  for  working,  and  the  frequent 
warming  is  injurious,  so  that  a  good  deal  is  spoiled  altogether 
and  thrown  away.  Some  gums  froth  much  more  than  others 
in  working,  and  in  consequence  give  bad  work.  I  could  never 
satisfy  myself  as  to  what  this  froth-producing  property  could 
be  attributed  to  with  justice.  It  was  always  worse  in  gums 
made  from  inferior  farina,  that  is,  farina  not  perfectly  freed 
from  the  pulpy  matter  of  the  tuber;  but  it  existed  in  gums 
made  from  very  good  materials.  A  dose  of  linseed  oil  in  the 
gum  water  as  it  is  being  boiled  up  is  the  best  preventive  of 
frothing,  but  it  does  not  always  stop  it.  Some  colors  are  more 
liable  to  frothing  than  others — notably,  buffs  from  acetate  of 
iron,  alkaline  pinks,  and  light  shades  of  madder  purple.  If  a 
moderate  quantity  of  oil  does  not  prevent  it,  I  know  no  other 
remedy.  When  the  frothy  color  is  left  to  stand,  the  froth  col- 
lects on  the  top,  and  good  color,  which  can  be  used  again, 


268  GUM   SUBSTITUTES. 

settles  down;  but  the  time  it  requires  to  settle,  and  the  quan- 
tity that  will  not  settle  at  all,  depends  upon  the  kind  of  gum, 
and  how  much  it  has  been  worked.  A  Twaddle  is  sometimes 
employed  to  test  gum  water,  but  it  is  of  very  little  good;  if 
the  gum  is  fluid  enough  to  let  it  sink  as  far  as  it  will,  it  marks 
higher  in  proportion  as  there  is  more  gum  to  the  gallon  of 
water;  thus  calcined  farina  at  eight  pounds  will  mark  more 
than  dark  British  at  six  pounds,  although  this  latter  may  be 
for  all  useful  purposes  a  thicker  gum  than  the  former.  What 
the  hydrometer  shows  is  density,  not  thickness;  and  it  will  be 
found  to  mark  higher  on  a  solution  of  common  salt,  at  three 
pounds  per  gallon,  than  on  any  gum  water,  at  the  same  quan- 
tity of  gum  per  gallon,  though  one  is  as  thin  as  water  and  the 
other  of  some  thickness.  An  instrument  has  been  devised, 
called  a  viscometer,  for  indicating  the  comparative  thickness 
of  gum  waters.  It  consists  of  a  tin  tube,  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  diameter,  open  at  the  top,  and  pierced  with  a  hole 
about  one-twelfth  inch  in  diameter  at  the  bottom  end,  which 
is  closed  with  the  exception  of  this  hole;  it  is  loaded  with 
lead  at  the  bottom.  The  manner  of  applying  it  is  to  place  it 
gently  on  the  surface  of  the  gum  water,  and  note  how  many 
seconds  it  takes  to  sink  to  a  certain  mark;  the  time  depends 
upon  the  viscosity  of  the  gum,  measured  by  the  rapidity  with 
which  it  enters  the  small  hole  at  the  bottom.  In  water  the 
viscometer  sinks  in  a  couple  of  seconds;  in  thick  gum  water  it 
may  take  seventy  or  eighty  seconds  to  sink  under  the  surface. 
Another  plan  was  to  measure  the  time  a  gum  water  took  to 
ascend  a  strip  of  bibulous  paper,  like  blotting  paper,  or  chemi- 
cal filtering  paper,  and  jndge  of  its  thickness  by  its  resistance 
to  capillary  attraction.  These,  and  other  plans,  will  not  give 
much  assistance  in  forming  a  correct  idea  of  the  qualities  of  a 
gum  water.  An  experienced  machine  printer  or  color  mixer 
will  inform  himself  of  the  value  of  the  gurn  water  he  is  work- 
ing with,  more  effectively  and  truly,  by  simply  putting  his 
hand  iu  the  gum  water  or  color,  than  by  any  elaborate  scien- 
tific tests  or  apparatus  yet  invented.  This  is  the  result  of  long 
working  among  such  things,  which  teaches  how  to  arrive  at 
conclusions  by  a  kind  of  instinct,  or  at  least  intuition,  which 
seems  to  have  no  steps.  Artificial  gums  are  sometimes  over- 
loaded with  grit;  as  mentioned  under  calcined  farina,  it  falls 
to  the  bottom  when  the  gums  are  thin  on  boiling,  but  in  gums 
thickening  at  five  and  six  pounds  to  the  gallon,  and  possessing 
some  degree  of  thickness  when  boiling,  the  grit  remains  in 
suspension  throughout  the  mass  of  gum  water.  To  ascertain 
whether  a  certain  gum  contains  grit,  and  how  much  it  con- 
tains, the  following  plan  may  be  adopted:  Take  any  conve- 


GUM  SUBSTITUTES.  269 

nient  quantity  of  the  gum  (for  a  color-shop  experiment  about 
five  pounds  will  be  required),  mix  this  quantity  with  a  gallon 
of  water,  in  a  clean  copper  pan,  and  add  a  gill  of  vitriol  and  a 
gill  of  spirits  of  salts;  raise  to  the  boil,  and  boil  half  an  hour; 
the  acids  take  all  the  thickness  out  of  the  gum,  making  it  as 
thin  as  water:  let  it  stand  for  half  an  hour  and  draw  off' all  but 
the  bottoms ;  wash  the  bottoms  two  or  three  times  with  warm 
water,  letting  them  settle  properly  before  drawing  off  the 
liquor,  then  dry  in  the  pan  and  take  out  the  dry  bottoms  for 
examination.  If  there  be  grit  in  the  gum  it  will  show  here, 
and  can  be  felt  by  the  teeth.  Besides  grit,  there  will  be  mostly 
a  quantity  of  vegetable  matter  present,  rather  disguising  the 
appearance  of  it:  to  get  rid  of  this  the  whole  must  be  made 
red  hot  on  a  clean  slip  of  metal ;  the  organic  substances  will 
burn  away,  leaving  the  grit  behind,  which  may  be  now  more 
satisfactorily  examined  and  its  quantity  weighed.  It  will  be 
found  exceedingly  fine,  passing  readily  through  the  finest 
sieve,  actually  running  through  dressing  silk  as  rapidly  as  if 
it  were  quicksilver.  At  first  it  does  not  seem  as  if  this  were 
the  grit  which  destroyed  the  face  of  the  roller,  necessitating 
frequent  polishings  in  order  to  get  clean  work,  and  roughen- 
ing the  doctor  edge;  but  if  it  be  tried  upon  a  polished  plate  of 
copper  it  soon  shows  how  quickly  it  will  roughen  the  surface. 
I  have  never  found  gum  totally  free  from  grit;  the  very  best 
I  have  ever  tested  contained  about  one  grain  to  a  thousand  of 
gum,  and  this  quantity  never  gave  rise  to  any  complaints  on 
the  part  of  the  printers.  The  worst  I  ever  tested  contained 
about  sixteen  grains  to  the  thousand  of  gurn,  and  was  very 
bad  indeed,  spoiling  the  roller  before  twenty  pieces  were 
printed.  This  grit  existed  in  the  farina  and  sago  flour  from 
which  the  gum  was  made,  and  whatever  blame  there  was 
really  rested  upon  the  maker  of  the  farina.  Upon  analyzing 
the  grit,  I  found  it  to  be  similar  in  composition  to  the  stone 
from  which  mill-stones  are  usually  made,  and  suspected  it 
came  from  the  stones  used  in  grinding  the  potato  pulp.  Sab- 
sequent  inquiry  supported  this  assumption ;  but  some  is  de- 
rived from  other  sources.  The  amount  of  grit  which  is 
unavoidable,  I  estimate  at  two  parts  in  one  thousand,  or  one 
five-hundredth.  Even  the  largest  usual  amount  of  grit  found 
does  not  seem  much  in  itself,  about  sixteen  pounds  weight  in 
half  a  ton  of  gum  ;  but  if  it  is  reckoned  for  gum  water  it  arises 
to  a  serious  amount.  Suppose  calcined  farina  at  ten  pounds 
per  gallon,  there  is  two  and  a  half  ounces  of  grit  in  every 
gallon  or  five  quarts  of  gum  water;  and  in  gum  at  five  pounds 
per  gallon  there  will  be  an  ounce  and  a  quarter.  In  the  case 
of  a  gum  containing  five  grains  per  thousand,  a  gallon  of  ten 


270  GUM   SUBSTITUTES. 

pound  farina  water  would  contain  nearly  an  ounce  of  grit.  In 
open  patterns  the  grit  passes  with  the  color  on  to  the  piece  ;  it 
is  in  closer  styles  that  it  is  troublesome.  There  is  no  method 
of  removing  the  grit  when  it  is  once  in  the  gum ;  the  most 
careful  straining  has  very  little  influence  in  taking  it  out. 

A  good  gum  has  a  very  indifferent  or  neutral  chemical  char- 
acter, having  little  or  no  affinity  for  the  various  chemical  sub- 
stances employed  in  printing.  It  is  observed  that  different 
gums  give  different  shades  of  colors  when  the  drugs  are  quite 
the  same ;  this  is  usually  owing  to  the  physical,  and  not  the 
chemical,  nature  of  the  gum.  The  shade  of  color  from  two 
different  qualities  of  gum  is  usually  in  relation  to  the  quantity 
of  gum  required  to  thicken  a  gallon— the  less  gum  the  darker 
shade — and  also  it  is  influenced  by  the  structure  of  the  gum 
when  dried ;  if  the  gum  dries  hard  and  flinty,  the  colors  are 
not  usually  so  good  as  when  it  dries  porous  and  soft.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  compound  or  mixed  gums  are  in  many  cases 
preferable  to  pure  ones;  a  pure  gum,  like  calcined  farina,, is 
too  dense  or  close  in  its  texture,  when  dried  it  is  too  much  like 
varnish.  A  good  gum  will  partly  partake  of  the  properties  of 
paste,  drying  up  porous,  not  so  close  and  hard  as  a  natural 
gum.  A  gum  may  contain  sugar,  or  saccharine  matters,  which 
will  interfere  with  the  fixing  of  the  color  and  mordant,  obstruct- 
ing the  deposition  of  mineral  matter  upon  the  fibre,  and  inju- 
riously affecting  the  shade  of  color  produced,  especially  in  the 
case  of  iron  mordants.  The  gums  most  likely  to  be  bad  from 
this  cause  are  the  soluble  gums,  which  are  made  by  means  of 
acids,  and  the  light  gum  substitutes,  which  often  contain  soluble 
gum.  As  before  stated,  acids  have  a  tendency  to  convert  starch 
or  farina  into  sugar;  and  it  frequently  happens  that  in  the 
making  of  these  light  gums  sugar  is  formed  from  the  raw  mate- 
rial. Its  presence  can  be  detected  by  the  taste.  Though  sugar 
is  mentioned  in  particular,  it  must  be  understood  as  including 
other  substances,  not  correctly  coming  under  this  designation, 
but  producing  the  same  effect,  and  having  nearly  the  same  com- 
position; compounds  possibly  intermediate  between  gurn  and 
sugar,  possibly  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  the  sugar 
itself  into  some  more  developed  compound.  The  existence  of 
something  similar  to  caramel,  or  burnt  sugar,  in  calcined  farina 
and  dark  gums,  may  be  easily  conjectured  from  its  color  and 
taste.  Gums  which  enter  into  fermentation  in  warm  weather 
generally  contain  saccharine  matters,  and  are  also  generally 
made  from  inferior  material.  That  fermentation  can  reach  an 
extent  capable  of  injuring  the  gum  is  very  probable,  but  a 
slight  fermentation  does  not  do  so.  In  fermenting,  the  sugar 
is  destroyed  and  acid  produced  ;  the  acid  is  the  acetic  acid, 


t 
GUM  THUS — HARMALINE.  271 

which  is  not  injurious,  in  moderate  quantities,  to  mordants  or 
the  majority  of  colors.  According  to  my  observation,  a  little 
alcohol  exists  at  the  same  time  as  the  acid,  but  it  appears  to 
soon  pass  away,  and  be  changed  to  acid ;  if  alcohol  was  present, 
even  in  larger  quantities  than  is  possible,  it  would  do  no  harm. 

A  gum  will  either  dissolve  totally  in  cold  water  or  only 
dissolve  in  part.  The  first  class  is  distinguished  by  becoming 
thin  on  boiling,  the  second  by  going  thick.  A  soluble  gum 
has  some  advantages,  and  some  defects,  as  a  working  gum,  and 
can  only  be  advantageously  applied  to  certain  classes  of  work. 
Dissolving  off  the  cloth  easily,  it  should  be  used  for  steam  and 
spirit  colors ;  and  generally,  in  all  cases  where  the  pieces  are 
washed  off  cold,  less  washing  is  required  to  take  the  gum  out, 
and  the  color  is,  of  course,  less  injured.  Beyond  these  cases, 
I  do  not  see  any  advantage  in  having  a  gum  perfectly  soluble ; 
it  ought  not  to  be  a  required  condition  in  a  gum  which  is  em- 
ployed, or  intended  to  be  applied,  in  making  colors  for  dyeing. 
The  hot  dunging  or  cleansing  liquor  clears  off  a  thickening 
equally  well,  whether  it  be  paste  or  gum ;  and  though  a  gum 
thickening  will  be  more  speedily  cleansed  than  a  paste  thicken- 
ing, and,  consequently,  a  soluble  gum  more  quickly  than  one 
only  partly  soluble,  the  time  required  in  the  hot  dunging  liquors 
is  greatly  in  excess  of  that  required  to  take  off'  the  most  resistant 
of  ordinary  gum  thickenings. 

Gum  Thus. — A  resinous  substance  which  is  employed  in 
bleaching,  in  the  same  way  as  RESIN.  Its  properties  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  common  pine  resin,  and  it  is  preferred  to  it 
by  some  bleachers.  I  had  an  opportunity  of  testing  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  gum  thus  and  resin  upon  the  large  scale,  but  I 
could  not  perceive  any  difference  when  both  were  equally  well 
prepared.  Gum  thus  is  usually  higher  priced  than  resin. 


H. 


Hachrout.— The  Hindoo  name  for  a  plant  yielding  the 
same  colors  as  madder;  only  known  in  Europe  from  the 
accounts  of  travellers. 

Harmaline. — This  name  is  properly  given  to  the  red  color- 
ing principle  of  the  seeds  of  peganum  harmala  ;  but  this  is  not 
a  commercial  article,  and  the  name  has  been  improperly  used 
to  distinguish  some  qualities  of  the  aniline  colors.  The  seeds 
containing  the  real  harmaline  have  been  tried  for  dyeing,  but 
the  results  were  not  encouraging. 


272  HARTSHORN — HYDROCHLORIC   ACID. 

Hartshorn,  Spirits  of  Hartshorn. — An  old  name,  and  still 
in  common  use,  for  ammonia. 

Hellebore. — It  is  said  that  the  Canadian  Indians  made  use 
of  tire  three  leaved  hellebore  (helleborus  trifolius)  for  communi- 
cating a  fine  yellow  color  to  skins  and  wool. 

Hematine,  Hemateine. — Names  of  the  pure  coloring  prin- 
ciple of  LOGWOOD,  which  see. 

Hematosin,  Hcematosine. — The  coloring  matter  of  blood. 
In  the  cases  in  which  blood  is  used  in  dyeing  operations,  it  is 
supposed  by  some  authorities  that  its  coloring  matter  fixes  upon 
the  fabric.  For  %  method  of  preparing  and  preserving  blood 
for  dyeing  purposes,  reference  may  be  made  to  a  patent  granted 
to  James  Pillans,  December  29th,"l854. 

Hematoxyline. — The  more  appropriate  name  for  the  pure 
coloring  matter  of  logwood.  (See  LOGWOOD.) 

Hemlock  Spruce. — The  bark  of  this  tree  (pinus  abies 
Americana)  is  employed  in  America  for  tanning,  and,  like  most 
other  barks,  gives  some  colors  to  mordanted  goods,  but  nothing 
worthy  of  special  notice. 

Hiccory. — Bancroft  patented  the  application  of  the  bark 
and  fruit  of  the  American  hiccory,  or  walnut  tree,  as  a  dyeing 
material  for  producing  yellow  and  green  colors.  It  was  not 
found  practically  economical. 

Hydrate. — In  chemistry,  this  name  indicates  a  compound 
of  a  substance  with  water.  Thus  lime,  in  the  freshly  burnt 
state,  is  dry  or  anhydrous,  but,  if  left  in  a  damp  place,  it  falls 
to  powder,  at  the  same  time  absorbing  water.  The  powder, 
though  dry  to  the  touch,  contains  about  one-fourth  of  its  weight 
of  water,  and  is  the  hydrate  of  lime.  If  this  hydrate  of  lime 
be  heated  red  hot  the  water  is  expelled,  and  the  lime  is  said  to 
be  dehydrated. 

Hydrochloric  Acid,  'Muriatic  Acid,  Spirits  of  Salts.—  This 
acid,  commonly  known  as  muriatic  acid  or  spirits  of  salt,  is  a 
compound  of  chlorine  with  hydrogen  ;  it  is  a  gas,  and  the  liquid 
commercial  acid  is  a  solution  of  it  in  water,  the  strongest  acid 
containing  about  one  third  part  of  its  weight  of  dry  acid  gas. 
The  strength  of  muriatic  acid  can  be  very  well  ascertained  by 
means  of  the  hydrometer;  it  is  too  cheap  to  make  it  worth 
while  to  adulterate  it;  such  impurities  as  it  contains  are  what 
it  takes  up  in  the  course  of  its  manufacture,  these  are  princi- 
pally iron,  to  which  the  yellow  color  of  the  acid  is  owing,  and 
sulphurous  acid,  or  some  sulphuretted  compound  derived  from 
the  oil  of  vitriol,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  it;  some  other 
substances  are  likely  to  be  contained  in  it,  in  small  quantity, 
but  don't  interfere  with  its  use.  There  are  two  kinds  of  acid 
known  in  commerce,  the  one  called  "cylinder' salts,"  because 


HYDROMETER. 


273 


it  is  derived  from  the  manufacture  of  salt  cake  in  cylinders, 
the  other  called  "tower  salts,"  because  made  by  the  method 
known  as  the  tower  method ;  preference  is  usually  given  by 
the  consumers  to  the  former,  and  a  slightly  higher  price  can  be 
commanded ;  but  in  what  the  difference  consists,  or  if  there  is 
any  real  difference  in  them,  the  author  is  not  informed.  Spirits 
of  salt  is  used  for  several  purposes  in  the  arts ;  in  bleaching  it 
is  often  used  instead  of  vitriol  to  make  the  sours  which  follow 
the  chemic  or  bleaching  powder  solution,  and  it  is  thought  to 
give  better  results  than  vitriol,  especially  for  calico  intended 
for  garancine  work ;  it  is  the  best  acid  for  taking  iron  mould 
spots  out  of  the  cloth,  applied  at  the  full  strength  and  washed 
as  soon  as  it  is  seen  to  have  dissolved  the  iron  mould.  It  does 
not  destroy  cloth  immediately  as  strong  vitriol  does,  in  fact 
calico  will  stand  the  strong  acid  for  a  long  time,  provided  it  be 
quite  immersed  in  it ;  but  if  calico  is  dipped  in  even  very  weak 
spirits  of  salt,  and  left  in  the  air  so  as  to  get  dry,  it  will  become 
quite  tender;  if  a  piece  of  calico  quite  dry  be  passed  up  into 
a  jar  of  the  dry  acid  gas  no  immediate  effect  is  visible,  but  if 
before  passing  it  into  the  gas  it  be  breathed  upon  or  held  over 
boiling  water,  the  gas  is  immediately  absorbed  and  the  fibrous 
texture  destroyed,  as  much,  probably,  by  the  effect  of  the  heat 
developed  as  by  the  greater  concentration  of  the  liquid  acid 
formed.  The  usual  commercial  spirits  of  salt  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.170  or  34°  Tw.,  and  contains  from  30°  to  33°  per 
cent,  of  the  dry  acid.  The  amount  of  real  acid  can  be  ascer- 
tained by  the  quantity  of  alkali  which  it  can  neutralize,  as 
ascertained  by  the  method  given  p.  52. 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount  of  real  acid  in  100 
parts  of  the  liquid  acid,  at  the  strengths  set  down  : — 


Twaddle. 

Per  cent. 

Twaddle. 

Per  cent.             Twaddle. 

Per  cent. 

40 

40.77 

26 

26.50 

12 

12.23 

38 

38.4 

24 

24.48 

10 

10.19 

36 

36.30 

22 

22.42 

8 

8.15 

34 

34.2 

20 

20.28 

6 

6.11 

32 

32.2 

18 

18.34 

4 

4.07 

30 

30.17 

16 

16.31 

2 

2.03 

28 

28.30 

14 

14.27 

1 

1.00 

Hydrometer,  Twaddle. — Hydrometer  is  the  scientific  name 
for  an  instrument  for  readily  ascertaining  the  density  or  specific 
gravity  of  solutions.  The  hydrometer  in  use  in  this  country 
was  originally  graduated  by  a  manufacturer  named  Twaddle, 
and  bore  his  name ;  hence  the  instrument  itself  is  called  a 
Twaddle.  The  construction  of  the  hydrometer  is  too  familiar 


274  HYDROMETER. 

to  all  who  use  it  to  need  any  description,  and  its  application  is 
so  simple  as  to  be  acquired  without  any  trouble  or  instruction  ; 
a  few  general  hints  however  may  be  useful. 

The  Twaddle  should  not  be  used  in  warm  liquids ;  for,  besides 
the  risk  of  breakage,  it  will  not  show  the  same  degree  upon 
the  same  liquor  when  hot  and  when  cold.  In  warm  liquors  the 
Twaddle  sinks  lower  than  in  cold,  to  the  extent  of  one  or  two 
degrees.  In  testing  liquids,  therefore,  care  should  be  taken  to 
have  them  at  nearly  one  uniform  temperature. 

The  Twaddle  shows  the  weight  or  density  of  liquids,  and 
nothing  else.  It  does  not  show  the  thickness  for  example,  and 
can  only  be  a  fallacious  guide  in  testing  gum  waters.  Neither 
does  it  show  the  purity  of  any  liquid,  though  its  indications 
upon  this  point  are  frequently  accepted  without  question.  It 
is  quite  common,  for  example,  to  strengthen  liquors  with  com- 
mon salt,  as  in  the  case  of  bleaching  liquor,  which  cannot  very 
well  be  made  stronger  than  7°  or  8°  on  Twaddle,  yet  it  is  fre- 
quently found  marking  24°  or  28°.  The  ill-informed  bleacher 
would  not  be  satisfied  with  a  liquor  at  7°  or  8°,  and  the  manu- 
facturer is  in  a  manner  compelled  to  bring  up  the  density  by 
adding  common  salt,  which  of  course  contributes  nothing  to  the 
bleaching  power  of  the  liquid,  though  it  causes  it  to  mark  15° 
or  16°  higher  on  the  hydrometer.  Thus  a  philosopical  instru- 
ment, in  ignorant  hands,  becomes  a  delusion  instead  of  a  pro- 
tection. An  instance  came  under  my  notice  when  a  cunning 
manufacturer  attempted  to  take  an  advantage  of  the  half  know- 
ledge of  the  hydrometer  possessed  by  some  purchasers.  He 
offered  what  he  called  a  double  stannate  of  soda,  much  stronger 
than  ordinary,  for  he  stated  "if  a  pound  of  ordinary  stannate 
of  soda  be  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  water  it  will  only  mark  12°, 
but  a  pound  of  mine  will  mark  16°;"  and  such  was  the  fact, 
but,  nevertheless,  it  was  not  worth  a  fraction  more  than  the 
common  stannate.  Ordinary  stannate  contains  about  one  fourth 
its  weight  of  water,  the  double  stannate  simply  consisted  of 
ordinary  stannate,  from  which  the  water  had  been  expelled,  and 
common  salt  put  in  to  make  up  the  weight.  If  manufacturing 
chemists  were  honest,  and  all  the  larger  ones,  at  any  rate,  I  find 
to  be  so,  the  hydrometer  would  serve  most  of  the  purposes  of 
analytic  chemistry  on  a  works;  in  such  liquids  for  example  as 
muriate  of  iron,  muriate  of  tin,  nitrate  of  iron,  nitric  acid,  etc., 
there  should  not  be  any  other  test  required;  but,  unfortunately, 
there  are  unprincipled  traders  who,  under  cover  of  the  hydro- 
meter, perpetrate  the  most  impudent  frauds  upon  purchasers 
— frauds  which  can  only  be  detected  by  chemical  analysis. 

An  hydrometer  is  most  delicate  when  the  bulb  is  large  and 
the  stem  out  of  the  water  thin. 


HYGROMETER — HYPOSULPHITES.  275 

The  degrees  of  Twaddle's  hydrometer  are  easily  turned  into 
specific  gravity  numbers — a  quality  which  makes  it  preferable 
to  any  other  hydrometer  in  use.  The  rule  is  to  multiply  the 
indicated  degree  by  5,  and  add  1000  to  the  product ;  for 
example,  9°  Tw.  equals  specific  gravity  1045;  25°  Tw.  equals 
specific  gravity  1125  ;  100°  Tw.  equals  specific  gravity  1500 ; 
and  so  on.  To  bring  specific  gravity  numbers  to  degrees  of 
Twaddle,  subtract  1000,  and  divide  the  remainder  by  5 ;  for 
example,  specific  gravity  1100  equals  20°  Tw. 

An  instrument  so  much  in  use  should  be  correct  in  its  indi- 
cations, but  there  are  some  very  false  ones  offered  for  sale,  and 
purchasers  should  only  trust  to  an  instrument  made  by  some 
well  known  and  established  house. 

Hygrometer. — This  is  an  instrument  for  indicating  the 
degree  of  moisture  in  the  air;  its  use  on  a  print  works  is  to 
enable  the  stoves  to  be  kept  at  a  regular  degree  of  moistness, 
for,  if  it  begins  to  indicate  too  much  moisture,  the  steam  is  cut 
off,  if  it  indicates  too  little  moisture  more  steam  is  admitted, 
and  so  on.  The  form  of  the  instrument  generally  used  is  the 
modification  called  Mason's  hygrometer.  It  consists  of  two 
exactly  similar  thermometers  fixed  to  a  stand  ;  the  bulb  of  one 
thermometer  is  kept  constantly  wet,  by  a  thread  communicating 
with  a  reservoir  of  water,  while  the  bulb  of  the  other  is  freely 
exposed  to  the  air.  Mason's  hygrometer  is  from  this  fact  fre- 
quently called  the  wet  and  dry  bulb  hygrometer.  The  dry 
bulb  always  indicates  a  little  higher  temperature  than  the  wet 
bulb,  because  the  evaporation  of  water  from  the  wet  bulb 
absorbs  heat  from  the  mercury  and  glass ;  but  the  difference 
between  the  two  bulbs  is  in  ratio  with  the  dryness  of  the  air, 
the  dryer  the  air  the  more  rapid  the  evaporation,  and  the  lower 
the  temperature  of  the  wet  bulb,  and  the  greater  difference 
between  it  and  the  dry  bulb.  Moisture  in  the  air  prevents 
rapid  evaporation  from  the  wet  bulb,  and  there  is  a  less  differ- 
ence between  the  two  thermometers.  If  the  air  is  perfectly  full 
of  moisture  there  will  be  no  evaporation  from  the  wet  bulb, 
consequently  no  cooling,  and  the  temperature  of  the  two  ther- 
mometers will  be  equal.  Such  an  event  rarely  occurs  in  the 
open  air  or  in  rooms,  but  is  not  uncommon  in  close  dyehouses 
or  in  stoves  containing  damp  goods. 

Hypochlorite  of  Lime. — A  name  sometimes  applied  in 
scientific  works  to  bleaching  powder,  or  chloride  of  lime,  or 
rather  to  that  part  of  common  bleaching  powder  in  which, 
according  to  theory,  all  its  active  properties  reside. 

Hyposulphites, — A  series  of  salts  so  called,  the  only  one 
of  which  in  common  occurrence  is  the  hyposulphite  of  soda. 
This  salt  has  received  some  applications,  and,  from  its  peculiar 


276  HYPOSULPHITES. 

properties,  it  is  anticipated  it  may  yet  be  largely  employed. 
It  is  used  as  an  antichlore,  or  substance  for  neutralizing  any 
excess  of  chlorine  which  may  be  left  in  fabrics  after  bleaching. 
Another  application  was  invented  by  Kopp,  who  found  that 
the  hyposulphite  of  alumina  produceable  by  its  means  deposited 
•its  alumina  by  simply  drying,  and  constituted  a  red  mordant, 
which  did  not  require  any  ageing.  The  patent  in  which  this 
novelty  is  included  bears  date  July  10,  1855.  The  following 
are  some  working  receipts  in  which  the  hyposulphite  red  was 
applied.  The  first  step  is  to  prepare  a  muriate  of  alumina  li- 
quor as  follows : — 

Muriate  of  Alumina  Standard. 
6  Ibs.  alum, 
3  quarts  hot  water, 

10  oz.  ground  chalk ;  dissolve,  and  add 
5  pints  muriate  of  lime  at  35°  Tw. 

These  ingredients  were  well  stirred,  an  abundant  deposit  of 
sulphate  of  lime  formed,  and  the  impure  solution  of  muriate  of 
alumina  strained  off.  The  color  (mordant)  was  prepared  as 
follows: — 

Dark  Hypo  Red. 

3  quarts  standard  above, 

1£  Ib.  starch ;  boil,  and  when  cool,  add 

2  Ibs.  hyposulphite  of  soda. 

Stir  well  and  sighten,  preferably,  with  ground  indigo.  For 
light  reds  or  pinks  a  slightly  modified  process  was  followed  : — 

Hypo  Standard  for  Pink  or  Light  Red. 

2  gallons  hot  water, 

5  Ibs.  alum,  ' 

8  oz.  ground  chalk  ;  dissolve,  and  add 

2  quarts  of  muriate  of  lime  at  34°. 

The  color  for  printing  was  prepared  as  follows : — 

Hypo  Pink  or  Light  Red. 

3  quarts  water, 

1  quart  of  standard  above, 

1J  Ib.  starch. 

£  Ib.  of  gum  substitute  ;  boil,  cool,  and  add 

4  oz.  hyposulphite  of  soda. 

The  muriate  of  alumina  presents  some  difficulties  in  thickening, 
on  account  of  its  acidity  ;  and  it  is  imperative  that  thehyposul- 


INDIGO.  277 

phite  should  be  added  to  the  already  thickened  and  cold  color. 
I  have  seen  a  good  deal  of  this  style  worked  ;  but  it  was  subject 
to  irregularity,  and  did  not  present  any  conspicuous  advantages 
over  common  red  liquor  mordants.  The  property  of  the  hypo- 
sulphites, which  is  taken  advantage  of  in  this  application,  is 
that  of  their  ready  decomposition  in  the  presence  of  acid  salts, 
and  heat.  As  soon  as  the  hyposulphite  of  alumina  (formed  by 
interchange  of  acid  and  base  between  the  salts)  was  drawn  over 
the  hot  tins  or  steam  chests  it  was  decomposed,  sulphurous  acid 
was  given  off,  sulphur  deposited  and  the  alumina  free  from  acid 
remained  attached  to  the  cloth. 

The  hyposulphite  was  applied  in  a  nearly  similar  manner  to 
iron  or  tin  mordants. 

Another  application  has  been  made  of  the  hyposulphite,  in 
which  the  atom  of  sulphur  it  holds  in  loose  combination  has 
been  taken  advantage  of  to  produce  metallic  sulphides  upon 
fabrics.  This  application  was  patented  1855,  Nov.  20,  and 
consists  essentially  in  steeping  dyed  fabrics,  to  which  the 
metallic  lustre  is  to  be  imparted,  in  solution  of  sulphate  of 
copper,  and  then  in  a  strong  solution  of  the  hyposulphite;  a 
precipitate  of  the  sulphide  of  the  metal  takes  place,  which, 
having  a  metallic  reflection,  produces  the  intended  effect.  A 
similar  effect  was  previously  obtained  by  Schischkar  and  Gal- 
vert,  by  submitting  goods  impregnated  with  metallic  solutions 
to  the  combined  action  of  steam  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
gas.  See  patent,  dated  1854,  January  5. 


I. 

IndigO. — This  most  important  dyeing  material  is  contained 
as  a  colorless  juice  in  a  genus  of  plants,  to  which  the  general 
name  of  indigofera  is  applied.  The  method  of  extracting  it 
consists  in  steeping  the  plant  in  water;  it  enters  into  a  state  of 
fermentation,  and  the  coloring  matter  dissolves  in  the  water  in 
the  yellow  state ;  the  water  is  drawn  off,  and  by  agitating  it  so 
as  to  bring  it  freely  into  contact  with  the  air,  the  indigo  acquires 
the  blue  state,  and  settles  down  as  a  blue  precipitate,  which  is 
drained,  pressed,  and  dried  into  the  form  under  which  it  is  sold 
to  the  consumers.  India,  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archi-' 
pelago,  produce  nearly  four-fifths  of  all  the  indigo  consumed 
in  the  civilized  world ;  of  the  remainder,  Central  America  fur- 
nishes the  greater  portion  ;  the  quantities  received  from  Egypt 
and  other  African  countries  is  very  small. 

There  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the  value  of  different 
sorts  of  indigo,  the  best  quality  commanding  from  three  to  four 


278  INDIGO. 

times  the  price  of  the  lowest  quality,  there  being  many  inter- 
mediate qualities  and  prices.  The  brokers  of  indigo  believe 
that  they  are  enabled  to  fix  the  true  value  of  a  sample  by  its 
external  characters  alone,  and  I  am  inclined  to  think  they  are 
seldom  far  from  the  truth  ;  nevertheless,  it  would  be  extremely 
desirable  that  their  judgment  should  be  controlled  by  chemical 
analysis;  but  at  the  present  time  this  is  not  possible  for  two 
reasons — first,  the  method  of  selling  indigo  does  not  permit  of 
any  testing ;  and,  secondly,  there  is  no  really  trustworthy 
method  of  analyzing  it.  Gross  frauds,  which  are  said  to  be 
sometimes  attempted  by  the  indigo  makers,  could  be  easily 
detected  by  chemical  analysis,  such  as  the  admixture  of  ground 
slate,  black  sand,  plumbago,  lead  powder,  starch,  etc.  It  is 
stated  that  indigo  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  alumina  colored 
with  logwood.  It  is  doubtful  whether  such  adulterations  are 
frequent,  and  whether  they  could  deceive  an  experienced  pur- 
chaser; on'  the  other  hand,  it  is  extremely  doubtful  if  any 
method  of  chemical  analysis  as  yet  known  can  be  depended 
upon  to  give  results  true  to  five  per  cent,  of  the  pure  indigo  in 
the  sample.  The  best  method  I  know  of  testing  indigo  is  by 
making  an  imitation  blue  vat,  which  may  be  done  with  the 
following  quantities:  Take  a  fair  sample  of  the  indigo,  and, 
having  ground  it  very  finely,  weigh  75  grains,  and  in  order 
still  further  to  soften  and  disintegrate  it,  boil  it  for  a  short  time 
with  weak  caustic  soda,  and  then,  if  there  be  any  soft  lumps  or 
clots,  strain  through  calico  ;  mix  this  with  three  quarts  of  water 
in  a  narrow-necked  bottle,  which  it  will  nearly  fill,  and  add  400 
grains  of  quicklime  which  has  been  slacked  as  perfectly  as 
possible:  shake  well  up,  and  add  1000  grains  measure  of  solu- 
tion green  copperas  at  30°;  cork  the  bottle  closely,  and  leave 
it  for  three  days,  frequently  shaking  it  in  the  interval.  The 
indigo  will  be  dissolved  by  this  time  ;  one  quart  of  the  clear 
solution  is  drawn  off,  shaken  up  in  a  bottle  to  oxidize  it,  acidi- 
fied with  acetic  acid,  and  the  pure  indigo  collected  upon  a  filter, 
dried,  and  weighed.  Four  times  the  weight  of  the  pure  indigo 
is  the  percentage  of  indigo  in  the  sample.  This  method  is 
tedious,  requires  great  skill  and  extreme  care,  and  even  then 
is  liable  to  failure  from  several  causes;  for  it  is  based  upon  the 
assumptions  that  all  the  indigo  is  dissolved  by  the  lime  and 
copperas,  and  that  nothing  but  pure  indigo  is  precipitated  from 
the  solution  when  oxidized  and  treated  with  acetic  acid.  Very 
careful  experiments  throw  doubt  upon  the  truth  of  either  of 
these  hypotheses,  and  tend  to  prove  that  samples  of  different 
origin  behave  quite  differently  in  the  deoxidizing  fluid. 
Another  method,  recommended  by  a  great  number  of  experi- 
menters, is  more  remarkable  for  its  simplicity  than  for  the 


INDIGO.  279 

accuracy  of  its  indications.  A  weighed  sample  is  converted 
into  sulphate  of  indigo,  which  is  dissolved  in  water  and  deco- 
lorized by  solution  of  bleaching  powder,  chlorine,  or  chlorate 
of  potash ;  according  to  the  quantity  of  decolorizing  solution 
required  so  is  the  quality  of  the  indigo.  There  are  some  diffi- 
culties in  this  method  which  render  it  untrustworthy,  for  no 
two  experimenters  can  obtain  accordant  results  by  it ;  the  pro- 
cess may  probably  be  available  for  the  comparison  of  two  or 
more  qualities  of  indigo  by  one  operator,  but  it  will  not  answer 
for  general  application. 

Of  the  indigo  sold  in  the  English  market,  fine  violet  paste 
Bengal  commands  the  highest  price;  Kishnighur  ranks  next; 
good  qualities  Kurpah  and  Madras  Bimlipotam  afterwards ; 
while  lower  qualities  of  Madras,  fig  indigo,  and  sweepings 
occupy  the  lowest  place.  For  silk  and  fine  woollen  dyeing, 
the  best  qualities  are  taken;  for  calico  dyeing,  medium  quali- 
ties are  the  most  economical ;  while  the  lower  qualities  answer 
for  coarse  woollens. 

Eefised  indigo,  obtained  by  dissolving  ordinary  indigo  with 
lime  and  copperas,  and  then  precipitating  by  acid,  is  used  for 
blueing  finished  goods ;  it  may  be  considered  as  nearly  pure 
indigo. 

Indigotine  is  chemically  pure  indigo,  obtained  by  applying 
heat  to  refined  indigo;  a  purple  vapor  rises  which  partly  con- 
denses into  needle-like  crystals  of  indigotine. 

Commercial  indigo  yields  from  10  to  80  per  cent,  of  pure 
indigotine,  the  remainder  being  earthy  matter  or  vegetable 
impurities  either  purposely  added  or  resulting  from  defective 
processes  of  manufacture. 

Pure  indigo  is  not  soluble  in  water,  nor  in  weak  acids  or 
alkalies ;  it  dissolves  to  a  very  small  extent  in  alcohol  and  tur- 
pentine, to  a  somewhat  larger  extent  in  aniline;  but  for  prac- 
tical purposes  blue  indigo  is  insoluble  in  all  liquids.  It  is 
dissolved  by  oil  of  vitriol,  but  becomes  radically  changed  during 
its  solution,  and  cannot  be  brought  back  to  its  primitive  state. 
This  is  not,  therefore,  properly  speaking,  a  case  of  solution. 
It  is  also  dissolved  by  alkalies,  when  these  are  mixed  with 
copperas,  tin,  sugar,  and  other  substances,  which  exert  a  par- 
ticular chemical  action  upon  the  indigo,  depriving  it  of  its  blue 
color  and  a  portion  of  its  oxygen.  From  this  state  of  solution 
the  indigo  can  recover  both  its  oxygen  and  its  color  by  expo- 
sure to  the  air ;  and  it  is  entirely  through  the  agency  of  alkalies 
and  these  substances  that  indigo  is  applied  as  a  dyeing  matter. 

Chemists  distinguish  two  kinds  of  indigo,  called,  respectively, 
blue  indigo  and  white  indigo.  The  white  indigo  is  obtained 
from  the  blue  by  depriving  it  of  an  atom  of  oxygen  ;  it  is  inso- 


280  INDIGO. 

luble  in  pure  water,  but  soluble  in  lime-water  and  alkaline 
liquids  generally.  If  it  comes  into  contact  with  air  or  oxygen 
gas,  it  absorbs  the  latter  and  becomes  converted  into  blue 
indigo  again.  The  yellow  colored  fluid,  which  forms  an  indigo 
vat,  contains  this  white  indigo,  dissolved  by  means  of  lime, 
soda,  potash,  or  ammonia;  the  blue  scum  on  the  surface  is  blue 
indigo,  which  has  been  formed  by  contact  with  the  air.  The 
change  from  blue  to  white,  and  back  again  to  blue,  appears 
capable  of  being  made  any  number  of  times  without  destroying 
the  indigo. 

The  multifarious  processes  for  applying  indigo,  should,  from 
the  foregoing  explanations,  be  rendered  intelligible.  Indigo 
cannot  enter  into  the  fibre  until  it  is  dissolved  ;  it  cannot  be 
dissolved  so  long  as  it  is  in  the  blue  state;  when  reduced  by 
deoxidation  to  the  white  state,  it  is  easily  dissolved,  and  can 
enter  the  pores;  upon  exposure  to  air  it  returns  to  the  blue 
state,  and,  being  insoluble,  cannot  again  be  washed  away  from 
the  fabric.  This  is  the  general  theory  of  fixing  indigo,  and 
applicable  to  all  the  particular  cases  given  below,  as  used  in 
practice. 

Applications  of  'Indigo, — The  greatest  consumption  of  indigo 
is  for  forming  the  blue  vats,  in  which  woollen  or  cotton  goods 
are  dyed  by  simply  immersing  them  in  the  solution  of  white 
indigo.  The  same  vat  is  not  equally  adapted  for  wool  and 
calico,  and,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following  details,  there  is  a 
wide  difference  in  their  composition: — 

Blue  Vat  for  Wool. — According  to  the  general  accounts,  the 
lime  and  copperas  vat  is  not  well  adapted  for  woollen  goods; 
yet,  in  the  most  recent  French  treatise  on  woollen  dyeing  (Gri- 
son's)  there  is  no  mention  of  any  other  kind  of  vat.  He  gives 
the  following  proportions  and  directions  for  setting  a  vat  for 
dark  blue : —  *  . 

1200  gallons  water, 

34  Ibs.  quicklime, 

24  Ibs.  green  copperas, 

12  Ibs.  ground  indigo, 

4  quarts  caustic  potash  at  34°. 

The  indigo  is  in  every  case  ground  excessively  fine  by  tritu- 
ration  in  properly  constructed  mills  for  several  days;  this  is  a 
point  of  the  utmost  importance.  In  the  above  receipt  the 
potash  is  mixed  with  five  gallons  of  water  in  an  iron  pan,  and 
the  indigo  added  ;  the  mixture  is  gradually  heated  to  ebulli- 
tion, and  kept  boiling  for  two  hours,  with  uninterrupted  stir- 
ring ;  this  softens  and  prepares  the  indigo  for  dissolving.  The 
lime  is  very  well  slacked,  so  as  to  have  it  very  fine,  and  passed 


INDIGO.  281 

through  a  sieve  in  the  liquid  state ;  it  is  then  mixed  with  the 
indigo  and  potash  ;  the  copperas,  previously  dissolved,  is  added 
to  the  vat,  and  well  stirred ;  then  the  mixture  of  lime,  potash, 
and  indigo,  and  the  whole  well  stirred  for  half  an  hour ;  if  the 
proportions  have  been  well  kept,  the  vat  will  be  fit  for  working 
in  twelve  hours.  If,  however,  it  looks  blue  under  the  scum, 
it  is  a  sign  that  the  indigo  is  not  wholly  dissolved,  and  more 
lime  and  copperas  must  be  added,  and  the  vat  left  for  another 
twelve  hours.  It  is  worked  at  a  temperature  of  from  70°  to 
80°.  This  is  the  common  composition  of  a  vat  for  dyeing  cot- 
ton, but  I  have  never  seen  it  before  prescribed  for  woollen. 

The  usual  blue  vats  for  wool  contain  neither  copperas  nor 
lime,  or  but  little  of  the  latter,  as  seen  in  the  following  exam- 
ples : — 

500  gallons  water, 
20  Ibs.  indigo, 
30  Ibs.  potash, 
9  Ibs.  bran, 
9  Ibs.  madder. 

The  water  is  heated  to  just  below  tire  boil;  the  potash,  bran, 
and  madder  first  introduced,  and  then  the  indigo,  previously 
very  finely  ground.  Cold  water  is  added  to  bring  the  heat 
down  to  about  90°,  and  kept  at  that  temperature  all  through ; 
the  ingredients  are  very  well  stirred  every  twelve  hours,  and 
the  vat  should  be  ready  for  use  in  forty-eight  hours  after  set- 
ting. The  vat  does  not  work  more  than  a  month,  and  is  some- 
what expensive  on  account  of  the  loss  of  potash.  Another 
vat,  called  in  France  the  German  vat,  is  much  more  managea- 
ble, and  may  be  worked  for  two  years  without  emptying,  being 
freshened  up  as  required.  It  is  put  together  as  follows:  2000 
gallons  of  water  are  heated  to  130°  F.,  20  Ibs.  of  crystals  of 
soda,  2J  pecks  of  bran,  and  12  Ibs.  of  ground  indigo  are  then 
added,  and  well  raked  up.  In  twelve  hours  a  fermentation  sets 
in,  bubbles  of  gas  arise,  the  liquid  has  a  sweetish  smell,  and  has 
become  greenish ;  2  Ibs.  slacked  lime  are  now  added,  well 
stirred,  the  vat  heated  again,  and  covered  up  for  twelve  hours, 
when  a  similar  quantity  of  bran,  indigo,  and  soda,  along  with 
a  little  lime  is  again  added.  In  about  forty-eight  hours  from 
the  setting  it  may  be  worked ;  but  as  the  reducing  powers  of 
the  bran  are  somewhat  feeble,  an  addition  of  six  pounds  of 
molasses  is  made.  If  the  fermentation  becomes  too  active,  it 
is  repressed  by  addition  of  lime ;  if  too  sluggish,  it  is  stimulated 
by  addition, of  bran  and  molasses.  Like  all  the  other  blue 
vats  for  wool,  it  is  worked  hot. 

In  the  following  vat,  which  may  be  called  a  woad  vat,  be- 
19 


282  INDIGO. 

cause  a  considerable  quantity  of  that  plant  is  employed,  there 
is  also  a  large  proportion  of  madder;  whether  the  madder  is 
useful  on  account  of  its  coloring  principles,  or  whether  it  is  the 
saccharine  and  fermentable  portion  of  it  which  is  useful,  is  not 
clearly  known.  It  is  thought  to  produce  darker  colors,  and  to 
give  them  a  violet  tint;  but  this  may  be  only  fancy,  for  it  seems 
very  improbable  that  there  can  be  any  notable  quantity  of  its 
coloring  matter  fixed  under  the  conditions  of  indigo  dyeing  in 
the  hot  vat.  The  proportions  employed  in  one  case  are: — 

1  Ib.  ground  indigo, 

4  Ibs.  madder, 

7  Ibs.  slacked  lime, 

boiled  together  with  water,  and  poured  upon  the  woad  in  the 
vat;  after  a  few  hours  fermentation  sets  in,  and  fresh  indigo  is 
added  according  to  the  depth  of  color  required  to  be  dyed. 

The  pastel  vat  is  set  with  a  variety  of  woad,  which  grows 
in  France,  and  which  is  richer  in  coloring  matter  than  the  plant 
commonly  called  woad.  Its  coloring  matter  no  doubt  adds  to 
the  effect,  but  it  is  probably  only  used  as  the  remnant  of  a 
prejudice  and  because  it  furnishes  fermentescible  matters  useful 
in  promoting  the  solution  of  the  indigo. 

The  rationale  of  these  vats,  so  far  as  chemistry  can  perceive 
any,  rests  upon  the  fact  that  fermentation  is  in  many  cases 
accompanied  by  the  formation  of  nascent  hydrogen,  which 
either  hydrogenizes  the  indigo,  as  M.Dumas  has  it,  or  deoxidizes 
it,  according  to  the  most  usual  view.  Bran  is  one  of  the  agents 
which  is  most  active  in  setting  up  this  species  of  fermentation, 
but  it  takes  place  in  other  substances  as  well,  especially  nitro- 
genized  substances.  In  the  case  of  madder,  sugar,  and  molas- 
ses, the  reducing  action  is  no  doubt  on  similar  principles  to 
that  which  is  taken  advantage  of  in  some  cases  of  calico  print- 
ing, where  glucose  or  grape  sugar  is  employed  as  the  reducing 
agent. 

The  method  of  dyeing  is  very  simple.  The  wool,  tho- 
roughly wetted  out,  is  suspended  on  frames  and  dipped  in  the 
vat  for  an  hour  and  a  half  or  two  hours,  being  agitated  all 
the  time  to  insure  regularity.  The  pieces  are  then  carried  to 
water  and  washed,  and  then  treated  with  weak  muriatic  or  sul- 
phuric acid  sours  to  remove  the  alkali  retained  by  them. 

Blue  Vat  for  Cotton  Dyeing. — In  some  exceptional  cases  the 
same  kind  of  vat  described  as  the  German  vat  is  used  for  cotton 
piece  dyeing,  that  is  the  one  containing  carbonate  of  soda,  bran, 
and  indigo,  sometimes  with  madder  and  molasses.  This  is  prin- 
cipally for  thick  and  heavy  goods,  into  which  the  cold  lime  and 
copperas  vat  would  not  penetrate  sufficiently  well.  But,  gene- 


INDIGO.  283 

rally  speaking,  all  calicoes  are  dyed  blue  by  means  of  the  cold 
lime  and  copperas  vat,  especially  those  in  which  any  design 
enters  by  way  of  resist.  The  materials  used  are  lime,  green 
copperas  or  sulphate  of  iron,  indigo  and  water.  The  chemical 
action  consists  in  the  formation  of  sulphate  of  lime  and  prot- 
oxide of  iron  in  the  first  instance — the  latter  body,  having  a 
considerable  affinity  for  oxygen,  removes  an  atom  of  it  from 
the  blue  indigo,  converting  it  into  white,  which  dissolves  in  the 
excess  of  lime  and  is  ready  for  dyeing.  The  proportions  are 
about  as  follows: — 

Strong  Vat. 

900  gallons  water, 

60  Ibs.  green  copperas, 

36  Ibs.  ground  indigo, 

80  to  90  Ibs.  dry  slacked  lime, 

stirred  up  every  half  hour  for  three  or  four  hours,  then  left 
twelve  hours  to  settle;  well  raked  up  again  and  as  soon  as 
settled  it  is  ready  for  dyeing  in.  It  is  usual  to  work  vats  in 
sets  of  8  or  10 ;  in  such  a  set  this  vat  would  be  the  best  or 
strongest,  and  the  pieces  would  get  their  last  dip  in  it;  after 
one  day's  use  it  would  become  the  second  best — anotherone  being 
freshly  set  as  best  vat ;  in  two  days  it  would  be  third  best,  and 
so  on  until  it  became  the  eighth  or  tenth,  at  which  stage  it  is 
supposed  to  have  lost  34  out  of  the  36  Ibs.  of  indigo  with  which 
it  was  set,  only  retaining  two  pounds,  and  only  capable  of  dye- 
ing up  very  light  shades,  little  more  in  fact  than  wetting  out 
the  pieces ;  after  a  day  or  two's  use  it  is  run  off,  and,  being 
again  fresh  set,  becomes  once  more  the  best  vat.  It  is  recom- 
mended to  add  the  copperas  first  in  a  dissolved  state,  then  the 
indigo,  and  lastly  the  lime;  but  the  order  of  adding  the  mate- 
rials is  not  absolute  and  is  frequently  varied,  neither  are  the 
qualities  fixed  but  actually  differ  very  much  in  different  works, 
and  as  an  illustration  I  give  four  other  receipts: — 

No.l     No.  2     No.  3     No.  4 

Water,  gallons         .       .  1000      1000      1000      1000 
Indigo  ft    .       .       45          34         12          2J 

Green  copperas,  ft    ..       38          80         22  7 

Quicklime,  ft  .  .  45  90  34  12 
Nos.  1  and  2  are  for  dyeing  dark  blues,  No.  3  medium,  and  No. 
4  only  for  light  grounds.  The  proportions  of  ingredients  it 
will  be  seen  are  without  any  rule;  but,  unless  we  knew  the  per- 
centage of  pure  indigo  in  the  samples,  we  could  not  tell  with 
what  reason  these  differences  had  in  their  origin.  The  high 
price  of  indigo  will,  of  course,  stimulate  watchfulness  that  none 
is  lost,  and  each  dyer  or  manager  flatters  himself  that  he  is 


284  INDIGO. 

working  closest  and  exhausting  his  vats  best;  but  I  have 
known  instances  of  extraordinary  loss  of  indigo  through  want 
of  skill  and  knowledge.  As  far  as  the  effect  of  the  vat  upon 
the  whole  body  of  the  indigo  is  concerned,  it  appears  that  if 
the  quality  in  use  contained  50  per  cent,  of  pure  color,  the 
whole  of  it  should  be  dissolved,  except  a  portion  retained  by 
some  kind  of  attraction  by  the  bottoms,  that  out  of  the  remaining 
50  per  cent,  of  impurity  scarcely  a  trace  dissolved — in  ordinary 
qualities  it  remaining  with  the  bottoms,  so  that  an  impure 
indigo  dyes  up  as  pure  shades  as  pure  indigo  would.  In  cer- 
tain contingencies,  which  are  but  imperfectly  understood,  there 
is  formation  of  an  insoluble  compound  of  white  indigo  and 
lime,  which  goes  with  the  bottoms,  and  is  lost  to  the  dyer;  it  is 
important  to  prevent  this ;  all  that  is  known,  however,  is  that 
the  formation  of  this  compound  appears  to  be  owing  to  the 
presence  of  too  much  lime. 

Dyeing  Dip  Blue  or  Navy  Blue. — The  method  of  dyeing  is 
simple;  the  only  skill  required  being  in  the  management  of 
the  vats,  which  sometimes  get  out  of  order,  and  require  addi- 
tions of  lime  or  copperas,  or  both.  Practical  men  can  discern 
the  state  of  a  vat  by  its  external  appearance,  or  experience  has 
taught  them,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  how  to  apply  the  proper 
remedy.  The  pieces  to  be  dyed  are  stretched  on  frames,  and 
either  at  once  plunged  into  the  first  weak  vat  or  into  water,  or, 
if  the  cloth  contains  strong  resists,  into  lime  water,  to  fix  them. 
The  piece  is  gently  moved  to  detach  air  bubbles,  and  left  in 
about  seven  minutes  and  a  half,  then  the  frame  raised,  and  the 
pieces  left  exposed  to  the  air  for  the  same  length  of  time,  to 
take  green  off  them,  that  is,  to  oxidize  the  white  indigo  into 
blue ;  then  plunged  in  again,  but  this  time  into  the  next 
stronger  vat,  for  seven  minutes  and  a  half,  oxidized  for  another 
seven  minutes  and  a  half,  and  so  on  until  the  eighth  vat,  requir- 
ing two  hours,  of  which  one  hour  has  been  spent  in  the  dye, 
and  the  other  hour  in  the  air.  This  length  of  time  is  sufficient 
to  give  the  darkest  shades.  When  lighter  shades  are  required 
less  time  suffices,  or  the  process  called  "skying"  is  had  recourse 
to.  This  term,  derived  from  "sky  blue,"  expresses  a  method 
of  dyeing  somewhat  different  from  dipping.  The  indigo  is 
dissolved  by  means  of  the  same  ingredients,  but  in  a  vat 
provided  with  a  double  system  of  rollers,  by  which  a  piece  of 
cloth  is  made  to  traverse  through  the  liquid,  nearly  the  same 
as  in  the  cleansing  dolly  of  a  madder  dyehouse.  It  acquires 
sufficient  indigo  in  its  passage  to  be  dyed  a  light  sky  blue. 

The  pieces  after  the  last  dip,  are  washed  over  rollers,  by  the 
process  known  as  "bowling,"  then  passed  into  weak  sours,  aud 
finally  washed  by  the  fly  wince. 


INDIGO.  285 

By  preparing  the  pieces  before  dyeing  with  sulphate  of 
copper  the  time  of  dyeing  is  lessened  and  a  higher  color  is 
obtained,  along,  it  is  supposed,  with  some  slight  economy  of 
indigo,  but  this  is  very  doubtful.  This  preparation  may  be 

made  as  follows: — 

i 

10  gallons  water, 

1J  Ib.  sulphate  copper, 

3  Ibs.  starch,  boiled  well,  and  mixed  with 

1  gallon  of  glue  size. 

The  piece  is  padded  in  this,  dried,  and  dipped  in  lime  before 
dyeing.  Very  little,  if  any,  advantage  attends  the  use  of  this 
prepare,  and  it  is  seldom  employed.  Sulphate  of  manganese 
has  the  same  effect. 

The  bottoms  of  spent  vats  still  contain  some  indigo,  which, 
in  well-conducted  establishments,  is  extracted.  The  lime  water 
is  neutralized  so  as  to  precipitate  any  indigo  in  solution,  the 
bottoms  collected  and  treated  with  caustic  soda  and  orpiment, 
which  dissolves  out  the  indigo;  the  solution  is  mixed  with 
water,  and  allowed  to  precipitate  in  large  sunk  cisterns,  which 
will  hold  a  week's  collection,  from  which  it  is  collected  and 
used  over  again. 

Dip  Blue  Styles. — I  give  here  some  receipts,  etc.,  used  in 
combination  with  the  vat  dyeing,  with  brief  accounts  of  the 
processes  in  use  in  obtaining  some  of  the  styles  of  work  pre- 
pared for  the  market. 

Light  Resist  for  Azure  Style. 

3  gallons  water, 

16  Ibs.  British  gum, 

4  Ibs.  soft  soap, 

10  Ibs.  sulphate  of  zino, 
1^  pint  nitrate  of  copper. 

The  white  design  being  printed  with  this  resist,  the  color  is 
obtained  by  the  "  sky  vat,"  the  rate  of  passing  through  is  regu- 
lated by  the  shade  required :  after  skying,  the  pieces  are  winced 
or  bowled,  then  soured  and  washed  off.  The  principal  diffi- 
culty in  this  style  results  from  a  dragging  of  the  resist  from 
the  design  on  to  the  cloth,  disfiguring  the  pattern ;  this  acci- 
dent is  known  technically  as  "  tailing,"  and  is  owing  to  the 
piece  being  too  tight  on  the  rollers,  and  the  rollers  not  moving 
with  equal  velocity. 


286  INDIGO. 

Strong  Resist  for  Navy  Blue. 

10  gallons  water, 

38  Ibs.  flour, 

3  Ibs.  British  gum, 

36  Ibs.  sulphate  of  copper, 

8  Ibs.  brown  sugar  of  lead. 

This  is  a  very  thick,  rough  paste,  and  must  be  printed  with 
deeply  engraved  rollers.  It  will  stand  an  hour's  dipping,  or 
sufficient  to  dye  up  the  darkest  usual  colors,  but  is  only  safe 
for  rather  small  masses  of  white.  The  following  stronger 
resist  is  adapted  for  bold  designs  : — 

Strong  Resist  for  Stripes,  etc. 

8  gallons  water, 

21  Ibs.  flour, 

7  Ibs.  calcined  farina, 

32  Ibs.  sulphate  of  copper, 

7  Ibs.  brown  sugar  of  lead, 

10  Ibs.  sulphate  of  lead  pulp. 

Both  these  resists  contain  sulphate  of  lead  and  mixed  acetate 
and  sulphur  of  copper  ;  the  resist  acts  partly  chemically  and 
partly  mechanically ;  the  copper  salts  oxidize  the  indigo  and 
prevent  its  deposition  on  the  fibre,  and  the  sulphate  of  lead 
and  paste  form  a  ground  to  receive  any  indigo  which  is  not 
rendered  inactive  by  the  copper.  For  excessively  large  de- 
signs the  pieces  are  dipped  first  in  lime  to  fix  the  lead  and 
copper ;  but  usually  an  extra  dip  in  the  entering  vat  suffices, 
especially  if  the  vats  are  strong  in  lime,  or,  as  the  dyers  techni- 
cally term  it,  "  very  hard." 

Besides  the  ingredients  mentioned  in  the  above  receipts  we 
find  lard,  oil,  and  pipeclay  as  being  occasionally  used.  The 
receipts  admit  of  trifling  modifications,  but  do  not  depart  widely 
from  the  above  examples. 

Blue,  Orange,  and  White  Styles. — In  this  style  the  orange 
color  is  chromate  of  lead,  the  lead  basis  being  printed  on  with 
the  white  resist,  and  going  through  all  the  dyeing,  and  after- 
wards raised  in  chrome.  It  is  evident  that  in  this  style  there 
must  be  no  lead  in  the  white  resist,  or  it  will  become  yellow  or 
orange  when  passed  in  chrome.  The  following  are  receipts 
suitable  for  this  style  of  work  : — 


IXDIGO.  287 

Orange  Paste. 

6  gallons  water, 

21  Ibs.  flour, 

8  Ibs.  calcined  farina, 

50  Ibs.  sulphate  lead  pulp, 

28  Ibs.  nitrate  of  lead, 

80  Ibs.  sulphate  of  copper. 

This  is  a  very  strong  color,  and  requires  great  care  in  printing 
and  drying,  on  account  of  its  dusty  and  friable  nature.  The 
copper  is  put  in  to  help  it  as  a  resist.  It  is  evident  that  the 
whole  of  the  lead  of  the  nitrate  of  lead  is  converted  into  sul- 
phate, so  that  there  is  no  soluble  lead  salt  in  the  resist;  by  the 
dipping  in  lime,  which  precedes  the  dyeing  of  this  style  of  work, 
the  sulphate  of  lead  is  enabled  to  adhere  to  the  fibre  in  some 
curious  way. 

White  Resists  for  Chrome  Styles. 
8  gallons  of  water, 
11  Ibs.  flour, 
2  Ibs.  British  gum, 
13  Ibs.  sulphate  of  copper, 
2  Ibs.  sulphate  of  zinc, 
1  Ib.  acetate  of  copper, 
1  pint  nitrate  or  copper,  at  80°. 

This  is  not  a  very  strong  resist,  on  account  of  the  absence  of 
solid  mechanical  matter  like  pipeclay,  but  it  resists  well  enough 
for  the  depth  of  color  required. 

After  the  pieces  have  been  dipped  in  the  usual  way  they  are 
winced  and  soured  as  usual,  then  well  washed,  and  the  orange 
color  raised  in  neutral  chromate  of  potash  mixed  with  lime  and 
kept  at  the  boil.  It  would  not  answer  to  use  bichromate  of 
potash,  on  account  of  the  injurious  action  of  this  salt  upon  the 
indigo  blue ;  consequently,  the  orange  is  raised  at  one  opera- 
tion. A  standard  chrome  liquor  may  be  made  by  taking  90  Ibs. 
of  chromate  of  soda  or  chrome  salts,  dissolving  them  in  50  gal- 
lons of  water,  and  adding  30  Ibs.  of  slacked  lime:  the  raising 
vat  is  made  to  stand  at  4°  Tw.,  and  freshened  up  every  six 
pieces. 

If  the  chrome  liquor  be  only  neutral,  and  not  alkaline,  a 
yellow  is  produced  instead  of  orange ;  but  the  preferable  way 
of  obtaining  a  pure  yellow  is  to  first  raise  the  orange  and  then 
cut  it  down  to  yellow  with  a  wince  in  weak  nitric  acid  sours; 
the  acid  and  the  liberated  chromic  acid  act  upon  any  blue 
which  may  be  mixed  with  the  orange  and  destroy  it,  so  puri- 
fying the  hue  of  the  resulting  yellow. 


288  INDIGO. 

Two  Blues  and  Green. — Dye  a  light  blue  by  skying,  print  on 
a  white  resist  for  pale  blue  and  an  orange  resist  for  green  ;  dye 
up  as  usual;  wash  sour  and  chrome,  then  pass  through  very 
weak  nitric  acid.  The  white  resist  keeps  the  sky  blue  from 
becoming  any  darker ;  the  orange  paste  gives  the  lead  basis 
from  the  chrome  yellow,  which,  upon  the  blue  ground,  shows 
as  green.  Unless  the  nitric  acid  be  very  dilute  there  will  be  a 
risk  of  discharging  the  blue  and  obtaining  only  a  yellow. 

Besides  the  styles  indicated  above  a  variety  of  others  are  in 
existence,  produced  by  modified  treatments  and  by  combina- 
tion of  others  with  the  blue.  Besides  the  colors  which  maybe 
blocked  in,  mordants  for  madder,  garancine,  and  other  dye 
woods  may  be  blocked  or  machined  ;  indigo  being  almost  the 
only  coloring  matter  which  will  stand  a  madder  dye. 

All  the  styles  of  work  produced  by  dipping  are  cheap  and 
low  class  ;  the  blue  thus  fixed  possesses  extraordinary  stability, 
but  very  little  brilliancy  ;  its  chief  consumption  is  consequently 
among  the  poorer  classes,  and  it  never  enters  into  high  class 
work.  Some  of  tbe  indigo  colors  in  the  following  processes 
have  a  lighter  and  more  pleasant  appearance ;  but  it  is  re- 
markable that  no  attempts  to  communicate  brightness  to  indigo 
colors  have  yet  t^een  successful : — 

Methods  of  Fixing  Indigo  by  Printing. — There  are  several  very 
ingenious  methods  of  preparing  indigo,  by  which  it  can  be 
printed  in  designs  upon  white  calico  without  the  necessity  of 
having  recourse  to  the  expensive  and  clumsy  system  of  resists, 
which  is,  in  fact,  only  tolerated  in  any  style  because  of  the  want 
of  a  method  of  directly  applying  indigo  which  will  yield  the 
deepest  shades.  The  chief  methods  of  printing  indigo  are  here 
enumerated. 

China  Blue. — This  blue  derives  its  name  from  having  a  re- 
semblance to  the  shade  of  color  upon  old  china  ware.  It  is  pro- 
duced by  a  process  which  is  so  extraordinary  in  its  results  that 
it  is  impossible  to  conceive  how  it  originated.  The  indigo  in 
its  natural  state  is  very  finely  ground,  and  mixed  with  deoxid- 
izing bodies,  such  as  sulphate  of  iron,  acetate  of  iron,  orpiment, 
and  protochloride  of  tin.  In  old  receipts  a  great  number  of 
apparently  useless  substances  are  prescribed.  Good  results 
can  be  obtained  by  the  addition  of  sulphate  of  iron  alone  to 
the  indigo.  As  thus  applied  to  the  cloth,  the  indigo  could  be 
removed  by  washing,  because  the  deoxidizing  agents  are  in  the 
inactive  state,  and  the  indigo  is  not  brought  into  solution.  It 
is  necessary  that  it  should  be  deoxidized  or  dissolved  in  order 
to  contract  an  intimate  union  with  the  fibre  ;  for  this  purpose 
it  undergoes  a  treatment  somewhat  analogous  to  that  employed 
in  dyeing  from  the  same  coloring  matter. 


INDIGO.  289 

After  printing  and  ageing,  to  bring  the  color  into  a  proper 
condition,  the  piece  is  first  dipped  in  clear  lime  water ;  this 
serves  to  wet  it  out  and  to  form  an  insoluble  or  difficultly 
soluble  compound  of  the  gum,  paste,  or  starch  of  the  thickening 
with  the  lime.  Since  my  experiments  have  convinced  me  of 
the  existence  of  such  a  compound,  the  researches  of  M.  Kuhl- 
mann,  of  Lille,  have  demonstrated  that  such  compounds  are 
always  formed  under  proper  circumstances  between  starch  and 
the  similarly  formed  bodies  and  the  alkaline  earths.  It  is  to 
the  existence  of  this  coating,  pervious  to  water,  but  holding 
like  a  fine  net  the  indigo  particles  in  their  place,  that  the  first 
portion  of  the  fixation  of  the  china  blue  is  owing.  The  piece 
is  next  placed  in  the  copperas  vat  for  ten  minutes ;  the  lime 
water  which  adheres  to  the  cloth  precipitates  a  little  oxide  of 
iron  over  its  whole  surface,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  the 
slightest  dissolution  or  deoxidation  takes  place.  The  piece  is 
now  moved  to  the  lime  vat  which  has  been  raked  up,  and  being 
plunged  in  is  moved  about  with  a  gentle  motion.  What  takes 
place  here  is  at  first  a  precipitation  of  all  the  oxide  of  iron  of 
the  copperas  upon  the  cloth,  along  with  sulphate  of  lime 
together  forming  a  thicker  coat  of  slime ;  as  soon  as  the  whole 
of  the  iron  is  precipitated,  the  excess  of  lime  begins  to  act  (in 
conjunction  with  the  protoxide  of  iron)  to  deoxidize  and  dis- 
solve the  indigo.  The  dissolved  indigo  has  no  tendency  to 
spread  beyond  the  design,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  surrounded 
with  fibres  saturated  with  water,  containing  also  a  species  of 
coagulum  of  gum  and  lime,  and  everywhere  filled  up  with  the 
slime  of  gypsum  and  oxide  of  iron — no  distant  capillary  motion 
is  possible,  and  it  is  absorbed  by  the  fibres  in  close  contact 
with  it;  another  reason  is  that  an  excess  of  lime  prevents  the 
solubility  of  the  indigo  to  a  great  extent,  and  as  an  excess  is 
present,  the  dissolved  indigo  cannot  pass  away  from  the  spot 
where  it  was  formed ;  in  addition  to  this,  there  is  the  positive 
attraction  of  the  vegetable  fibre,  which  is  strong  enough  to  take 
away  indigo  from  lime,  and  keep  it  intact  even  in  the  pre- 
sence of  the  agents  which  could  dissolve  free  indigo  if  presented 
to  them.  These  considerations  are,  I  believe,  amply  sufficient 
to  account  for  the  retention  of  the  dissolved  indigo  on  the  spot 
where  the  undissolved  blue  indigo  was  placed  in  the  printing. 
To  complete  the  process,  the  piece  is  again  dipped  into  the 
copperas,  and  again  into  the  lime  several  times,  the  num- 
ber of  dips  depending  upon  the  depth  of  the  color,  the  last  dip 
is  a  long  one  in  the  lime.  The  pieces  at  the  end  of  the  process 
are  covered  with  slime  to  the  thickness  of  nearly  half  an  inch  ; 
this  is  partly  removed  by  a  wincing  in  water,  and  then  the 
pieces  are  turned  over  into  sours,  and  left  for  several  hours,  so 


290  INDIGO. 

that  all  the  irons  may  be  removed  from  the  cloth ;  they  are 
then  washed  ^,nd  cleared  in  weak  soap  and  warm  sours. 

Very  dark  shades  cannot  be  obtained  by  the  China  blue 
process.  It  is  a  fast  color,  but  expensive  on  account  of  the 
time  and  labor  it  requires.  In  the  old  process  of  dipping  on 
frames,  which  gives  the  best  results,  it  takes  about  two  hours 
to  accomplish  the  dipping  for  the  light  shades,  and  twice  that 
time  for  the  darker  colors.  One  man  can  only  dip  two  long 
pieces  at  a  time,  or  four  short  ones,  so  that  it  is  one  of  the 
most  tedious  and  costly  processes  in  use.  A  more  modern 
method  of  raising  is  carried  out  in  many  places,  in  which  the 
lime  and  copperas  vats  are  supplied  with  rollers  and  the  pieces 
passed  through  quickly;  time  is  saved,  but  it  is  at  the  expense 
of  quality. 

A  good  quality  of  indigo  should  be  used  for  a  China  blue, 
because  in  inferior  qualities  the  resinous  matters  interfere  with 
the  regularity  of  the  shade,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  a 
first-rate  quality.  t 

Dark  China  Blue  Color. 

24  Ibs.  indigo, 

5  gallons  iron  liquor, 
24  Ibs.  green  copperas, 

6  Ibs.  orpiment. 

The  indigo  and  iron  liquor  are  ground  together  for  three  days 
in  an  indigo  mill,  and  then  the  copperas  and  orpiment  added 
and  the  grinding  continued  for  three  days  more,  and  then 
three  gallons  of  gum  water  added  and  the  grinding  continued 
until  perfect  mixture  is  accomplished.  This  gives  the  dark 
color;  the  lighter  shades  are  obtained  by  reducing  with  gum 
water. 

Another  China  Blue — Dark. 

2  quarts  water, 
2  quarts  honey, 
4  Ibs.  green  copperas, 
2  Ibs.  starch. 

Other  receipts  include  nothing  but  muriate  of  iron,  indigo,  and 
gum  water.  Protoxide  of  iron  appears  to  be  the  only  really 
necessary  agent  in  addition  to  the  indigo ;  but  the  other  sub- 
stances used  may  be  useful  under  particular  circumstances. 
The  copperas  vat  is  made  to  stand  between  1  and  2°  Tw.,  and 
is  freshened  up  with  5  Ibs.  copperas  after  every  piece  dipped  ; 
the  lime  vat  is  set  with  about  2  cwt.  of  lime,  and  freshened  up 
with  a  gallon  or  two  of  thick  milk  of  lirne  every  piece  or  two 


INDTGO.  291 

pieces  dipped.  For  light  patterns  the  following  is  the  time 
and  order  of  the  dippings : — 

First  dip  in  clear  lime  water  ....  15  min. 

Second  dip  in  copperas  vat     ....  15  " 

Third  dip  in  clear  lime  water      ...  10  " 

Fourth  dip  in  copperas  vat     ....  5  " 

Fifth  dip  in  lime  vat,  well  raked  up     .  .  10  " 

Sixth  dip  in  copperas  vat 5  " 

Seventh  dip  in  lime  vat,  well  raked  up  10  " 

Eighth  dip  in  copperas  vat     ....  10  " 

Final  dip  in  lime  vat,  well  raked  up    .  25  " 

Dark  patterns  require  about  twice  the  time  in  each  vat.  A 
resist  for  China  blue  can  be  obtained  by  thickening  a  mixture 
of  sulphate  of  copper,  acetate  of  lead,  and  nitrate  of  copper, 
and  adding  lime  juice.  The  following  proportions  may  be 
employed: — 

Resist  for  China  Blue. 

1  gallon  water, 

2  Ibs.  sulphate  copper, 
2  Ibs.  sugar  lead, 

2|  Ibs.  8our;  boil,  and  when  nearly  cool,  add 
5  Ibs.  nitrate  copper  crystals, 
1  quart  strong  lime  juice. 

Pencil  Blue. — This  blue  receives  its  name  from  the  manner 
in  which  it  was  formerly  applied  to  the  cloth,  viz.,  by  means 
of  a  fibrous  matter  like  an  artist's  pencil.  It  is  a  tolerably  old 
color,  and  no  improvements  have  been  made  upon  its  prepa- 
ration since  the  earliest  account  we  possess  of  it;  it  is  subject 
to  the  same  difficulties  in  the  application  and  requires  the  same 
precautions.  Pencil  blue  consists  of  indigo  in  the  deoxidized 
and  dissolved  state.  It  is  made  by  heating  a  mixture  of  finely 
ground  indigo,  orpiment,  and  potash.  The  orpiment  and  pot- 
ash together  form  a  powerful  deoxidizing  mixture,  which 
speedily  reduces  and  dissolves  the  indigo.  In  a  short  time 
after  mixing,  the  blue  of  the  indigo  will  have  disappeared,  and 
given  way  to  a  yellow  color,  except  at  the  surface,  where  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  continually  revives  the  indigo,  and  causes  it 
to  assume  a  coppery  blue  color.  The  avidity  of  this  mixture 
for  oxygen,  which  restores  the  indigo  to  its  blue  insoluble 
state,  is  so  great  that  it  cannot  be  exposed  a  moment  to  the 
air  without  being  covered  with  a  scum  or  pellicle  of  blue 
indigo.  It  is  this  property  which  makes  it  so  difficult  to 
apply  pencil  blue  in  a  regular  and  satisfactory  manner.  As 
soon  as  the  block  or  roller  leaves  the  color  and  enters  the  air 


292  INDIGO. 

the  surface  of  the  color  is  covered  with  a  scum  of  indigo, 
which,  being  insoluble  itself,  cannot  enter  into  the  fibre  of  the 
cloth,  and,  being  on  the  top  of  the  soluble  color,  is  a  hindrance 
to  its  entering  into  the  fibre.  Peculiar  arrangements  have  to 
be  made  in  applying  this  color  to  prevent  contact  with  the 
air;  they  are  all  more  or  less  defective,  and  the  results  are 
seldom  regular.  In  the  old  method  of  applying  it  with  a 
pencil  the  pressure  upon  the  fibres  of  the  pencil  containing 
the  blue  could  drive  the  film  of  the  indigo  aside  at  the  very 
moment  when  the  pure  color  beneath  could  enter  into  the 
cloth  and  unite  with  the  fibre;  but,  in  either  block  or  roller 
printing,  the  cloth  and  design  are  perpendicular  to  each  other, 
and  the  oxidized  face  of  the  color  comes  in  flat  contact  with 
the  cloth ;  the  insoluble  particles  being  deposited  first  hinder 
and  prevent  the  fixation  of  the  others.  Many  ingenious  con- 
structions of  reservoirs  and  sieves  for  block-printing  have  been 
made  specially  for  this  color,  and,  with  the  exercise  of  great 
care,  it  has  been  possible  to  print  with  some  of  them  and 
obtain  tolerable  uniform  results;  but  they  have  not  admitted 
of  general  application.  The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  roller 
printing  are  greater;  and,  though  it  is  possible  to  print  it  like 
any  other  color,  and  obtain  fast  blues,  it  can  only  serve  for 
styles  of  work  where  there  is  no  particular  demand  for  uni- 
formity of  shade.  It  is  not  possible  to  print  five  pieces  of  one 
shade  in  such  a  manner ;  and  generally  a  single  piece  will  be 
found  to  have  two  or  three  shades  in  it — an  irregularity  which 
would  utterly  condemn  it  for  trade  purposes. 

The  following  receipts  are  adapted  for  pencil  blue,  for  roller 
or  block : — 

Dark  Pencil  Blue. 

2  Ibs.  ground  indigo, 
2  Ibs.  orpiment, 

1  gallon  caustic  potash  at  36°  Tw., 

2  Ibs.  gum  Senegal.  , 

The  orpiment,  indigo,  and  potash  are  boiled  together  in  an 
iron  pan  (a  copper  pan  would  be  rapidly  destroyed  by  the 
sulphur),  until  the  blue  of  the  indigo  has  entirely  disappeared; 
the  gum  is  then  added. 

Light  Pencil  Blue. 

1  Ib.  indigo, 

1  Ib.  orpiment, 

1  gallon  caustic  potash  at  26°  Tw., 

2|  Ibs.  gum  Senegal. 


INDIGO.  293 

Treated  as  above.  Lighter  shades  can  be  obtained  by  diluting 
with  gum  water  mixed  with  caustic  potash. 

Another  Dark  Pencil  Blue. 
8  gallons  water, 
6  Ibs.  carbonate  of  potash. 
5  Ibs.  quick  lime, 

5  Ibs.  indigo, 

6  Ibs.  orpiment. 

This  mixture  kept  hot  two  hours  until  all  the  blue  color  has 
gone,  then  allowed  to  settle,  the  liquor  drawn  off  the  sediment 
and  thickened  with  gum. 

Another  Pencil  Blue. 

1  Ib.  ground  indigo, 

2  Ibs.  granulated  tin, 

1  gallon  caustic  potash  at  30° ;  boil 

for  two  hours,  strain,  and  add 
2J  Ibs.  gum. 

Another  Pencil  Blue. 

1  Ib.  grape  sugar  or  glucose, 

1  Ib.  ground  indigo, 

1  gallon  caustic  potash  at  26°. 

Heat  to  120°,  and  allow  it  to  stand  for  a  few  days  in  a  warm 
place  until  ready,  then  thicken  with  2J  Ibs.  gum. 

Gas  Blue. — The  economical  advantages  of  being  able  to 
apply  a  good  dark  blue  by  the  roller  are  so  apparent,  that  it 
is  not  surprising  that  many  efforts  have  been  made  to  over- 
come the  difficulties  and  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  pencil 
blue.  One  of  the  most  ingenious  was  made  by  Woodcroft, 
and  patented  in  1846  (June  22);  acting  under  the  knowledge 
that  it  was  the  oxygen  of  the  air  which,  both  on  the  roller  and 
on  the  color,  was  the  obstacle  to  its  neat  and  proper  printing, 
he  proposed  to  construct  covered  apparatus  to  surround  the 
color  box  and  roller,  and  to  receive  the  piece  when  printed ; 
and  in  all  these  spaces  where  the  air  was  in  contact  with  the 
color,  he  proposed  to  expel  it  by  introducing  common  coal 
gas  from  the  gaspipe — this  gas,  not  containing  any  oxygen, 
could  not  act  upon  the  color,  which  it  was  supposed  would 
then  have  a  fair  chance  of  entering  the  cloth.  The  idea  was 
good,  but,  as  may  be  imagined,  the  application -was  difficult  in 
the  extreme.  Large  sums  of  money  were  expended  in  giving 
it  a  trial,  and  all  the  resources  of  an  extensive  concern,  com- 
bined with  the  best  chemical  information,  brought  to  bear 


294:  INDIGO. 

upon  it,  but  without  avail.  The  exact  point  where  it  failed 
is  not  known,  but  it  was  deficient  in  many  respects.  It  neces- 
sitated expensive  alterations,  and  prevented  the  machine  prin- 
ter having  that  constant  eye  upon  the  color,  roller,  and  cloth, 
so  necessary  to  success;  a  large  escape  of  gas  into  the  machine 
room  was  unavoidable,  it  annoyed  the  workmen,  and  rendered 
them  either  unable  or  unwilling  to  pay  close  attention  to  the 
printing;  it  was  necessary  to  wind  the  pieces  on  a  roll  soon 
after  leaving  the  roller,  and  in  a  vessel  filled  with  gas.  It  was 
extremely  difficult  to  prevent  them  marking  off  upon  one  ano- 
ther. Beyond  these  difficulties,  which  seem  only  to  be  of  a 
practical  nature  and  surmountable  by  perseverance,  there  were 
others  which  were  more  discouraging  because  they  were  unac- 
countable. The  shades  given  by  the  same  color  at  the  same 
printing  were  irregular;  one  piece  would  be  several  shades 
lighter  than  another,  and  the  same  piece  a  good  color  at  one 
end  and  bad  at  the  other ;  there  were  streaks  and  cloudy  work 
from  bad  cleaning  of  the  roller  by  the  doctor,  and  so  many 
mishaps,  that  it  was  dropped  in  despair,  and  has  never  since 
been  worked. 

Glucose  Blue. — A  new  method  of  applying  indigo  was  pat- 
ented, December  8,  1857,  by  Ward.  The  idea,  in  this  method, 
is  to  accomplish  a  kind  of  China  blue  dyeing  without  the  vats. 
The  indigo  in  the  blue  insoluble  state  is  mixed  with  a  deox- 
idizing matter  (preferably,  the  substance  known  to  chemists 
as  grape-sugar  or  glucose)  and  alkali,  as  soda  and  lime.  Here 
are  all  the  elements  necessary  to  the  deoxidation  and  solution 
of  the  indigo,  but  heat  is  required  to  bring  them  into  operation. 
The  color  is  applied  cold  to  the  cloth,  and  as  soon  as  the  piece 
leaves  the  printing  machine,  and  without  drying,  it  is  passed 
into  steam  for  about  a  minute.  The  heat  of  the  steam  causes 
the  chemical  action  to  take  place  ;  the  indigo  is  deoxidized  and 
dissolved,  and  enters  the  fibre  of  the  cloth.  It  then  requires 
washing  and  oxidizing  to  bring  up  the  blue  color.  The  plan 
has  been  put  in  practice  in  two  or  three  print  works,  but  it 
has  not  been  successful.  The  only  use  to  which  it  can  be  ad- 
vantageously applied  is  when  it  is  desired  to  combine  madder, 
or  other  dye  colors,  with  the  blue.  It  might  enter  into  com- 
petition with  the  dip  blue  in  resist  styles,  having  a  possible 
advantage  in  saving  the  cost  of  the  resist  and  the  printing. 
I  have  seen  dark  blues  from  this  process,  but  they  are  of 
a  rather  coarse  nature,  resembling  dip  blue  more  than  any 
other  style.  I  am  informed  that  there  are  great  practical 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  applying  other  colors  and  mordants 
at  the  same  time  as  the  blue,  and  the  steaming  of  the  pieces 
before  they  are  dry  leaves  them  open  to  many  serious  accidents. 


INDIGO.  295 

The  published  process  will  have  to  be  much  modified  before  it 
can  be  expected  to  take  its  place  as  a  regular  plan  in  calico 
printing. 

Fast  Blue  or  Precipitated  Blue. — Under  the  name  of  fast 
blue,  a  color  is  obtained  from  indigo  upon  principles  differing 
from  any  of  the  previously  given  processes.  The  indigo  is 
applied  upon  the  cloth  in  the  white  deoxidized  state,  but  not 
in  the  soluble  state.  It  differs  from  China  blue  by  the  indigo 
being  deoxidized,  and  from  pencil  blue  by  its  being  insoluble. 
It  is  prepared  in  several  manners:  indigo,  soda,  and  granu- 
lated tin  are  boiled  together  until  all  the  blue  of  the  indigo 
has  disappeared ;  or  ground  indigo  is  mixed  up  with  crystals 
of  tin  and  soda  in  the  same  manner  until  it  is  all  dissolved. 
When  all  dissolved,  it  is  precipitated  by  the  addition  of  an 
acid  or  a  salt  of  tin  ;  the  white  indigo  settles  down,  mixed 
with  oxide  of  tin,  as  a  grayish  pulp.  This  is  thickened  and 
printed.  The  pieces  are  then  passed  through  ash  (either  potash 
or  soda);  it  requires  the  ash  vat  to  be  strong  in  order  to  get 
good  results.  The  alkali  of  the  ash  vat  renders  the  white 
indigo  momentarily  soluble,  in  which  state  it  is  absorbed  by 
the  fibre,  and  constitutes  the  blue  color  when  oxidized  by  winc- 
ing in  clear  water.  Although  custom  has  given  the  title  of 
fast  to  this  color,  it  is  really  the  loosest  of  all  the  indigo 
colors.  This  may  be  owing  to  the  shortness  of  time  given  it  to 
enter  the  fibre,  and  the  excessive  alkalinity  of  the  fluid,  in 
presence  of  which  the  indigo  becomes  soluble,  and  has  to  con- 
tract its  adhesion  to  the  fibre.  The  depth  of  color  which  can 
be  applied  in  this  way  is  limited.  It  is  principally  used  in 
chintzes  and  furnitures  as  an  addition  to  the  other  colors.  If 
the  other  colors  are  liable  to  be  affected  by  the  alkaline  nature 
of  the  vat  they  have  to  be  protected  by  a  paste ;  but,  as  the 
fast  blue  is  mostly  used  as  a  cover,  the  same  paste  which  resists 
the  blue  will  resist  for  a  sufficiently  long  time  the  action  of 
the  alkaline  raising  vat. 

The  following  receipts  illustrate  this  application  of  indigo 
in  printing:  — 

Precipitate  or  Fast  Blue. 

1  gallon  caustic  potash  at  20°, 
1^  Ib.  indigo, 

1J  Ib.  crystals  of  tin, 

J  gallon  water;  boil  down  to  one  gallon,  and  add 

2  gallons  thick  gurn-water, 

i  gallon  muriate  of  tin  at  120°, 
1  quart  muriatic  acid. 


296  INDIGO   SULPHATE. 

Another  Method. 

4  Ibs.  ground  indigo, 

8  Ibs.  copperas, 

12  Ibs.  lime,  . 

30  gallons  water. 

These  materials  are  put  together  as  a  blue  vat,  stirred  every 
half  hour  for  twelve  hours,  then  allowed  to  settle  for  twelve 
hours.  Fifteen  gallons  of  the  clear  liquor  are  drawn  off  and 
precipitated  by  addition  of  two  quarts  of  muriate  of  tin  at 
120°,  the  precipitate  drained  to  a  pulp,  one  part  of  this  mixed 
with  two  part  of  thick  gum-water,  and  2  oz.  of  crystals  of  tin 
per  gallon  added. 

Pencil  blue,  if  precipitated  by  muriate  of  tin,  will  also  answer 
for  this  style, 

IndlgO  Sulphate,  Extract  of  Indigo,  Saxony  Blue,  Soluble 
Indigo,  &c. — This  substance  is  obtained  by  treating  ground 
indigo  with  strong  sulphuric  acid  ;  a  chemical  action  takes 
place  which  entirely  alters  the  constitution  of  the  indigo,  but 
without  destroying  its  color ;  the  sulphuric  acid  or  its  elements, 
or  some  of  them,  combine  with  the  indigo  and  form  compounds, 
which  are  soluble  in  water.  The  coloring  matter  so  produced 
has  affinity  for  woollen  and  silk,  with  or  without  mordant,  but 
none  for  cotton  ;  it  is  chiefly  used  in  woollen  dyeing  and  print- 
ing as  the  most  convenient  blue  part  for  all  compound  shades. 
It  does  not  produce  fast  colors  like  indigo;  in  fact,  though 
directly  derived  from  indigo,  it  is  as  different  from  it  as  any 
other  coloring  matter  can  be,  nor  can  it  by  any  known  means 
be  restored  to  its  original  state  of  indigo.  There  are  many 
modifications  in  the  method  of  preparing  it,  but  the  following 
receipts  will  be  sufficiently  illustrative : — 

Extract  of  Indigo. 

10  Ibs.  of  rectified  oil  of  vitriol, 
2  Ibs.  of  ground  indigo. 

Place  the  oil  of  vitriol,  which  must  be  the  very  strongest,  in  a 
mug  provided  with  a  close  cover,  and  add  the  indigo  about  two 
ounces  at  a  time,  stirring  well  up  at  every  addition  until  the 
whole  is  added,  then  put  the  mug  in  a  warm  place ;  if  the  heat 
is  about  80°  it  will  require  48  hours  or  thereabouts  to  effect 
the  action,  but  if  kept  at  150°  it  will  be  accomplished  in  12 
hours.  Practically,  the  completion  of  the  operation  is  ascer- 
tained by  rubbing  a  little  of  the  paste  upon  a  piece  of  glass 
and  viewing  it  by  transmitted  light ;  if  all  is  dissolved  and  the 
color  is  transparent,  the  action  is  over  and  the  solution  made. 


IODINE— IRON.  297 

The  liquid  or  paste  thus  produced  is  intensely  acid,  and  not 
generally  applicable  in  dyeing  until  the  excess  of  acid  is  re- 
moved ;  this  is  best  done  for  common  purposes  by  diluting 
with  three  or  four  gallons  of  water  and  adding  common  salt; 
the  blue  at  first  dissolved  is  precipitated  by  the  salt,  the  whole 
thrown  upon  a  woollen  filter  and  drained  to  a  paste;  if  again 
dissolved,  and  again  precipitated  and  filtered,  it  is  obtained 
still  more  neutral.  To  purify  it  still  further  it  is  customary 
to  filter  it  before  adding  the  salt,  by  which  the  impurities  con- 
tained in  the  indigo  are  removed.  In  woollen  dyeing  exces- 
sively acid  liquors  are  sometimes  used,  and  but  little  attention 
paid  to  purifying  the  preparation;  but  for  printing  and  the 
fine-dyed  colors  a  more  careful  preparation  is  required,  which 
is  called  refined  extract,  neutral  extract,  or  carmine  of  indigo. 
This  can  be  prepared  by  the  method  given  under  ACETATE  OF 
INDIGO,  and  the  solution  can  be  still  further  refined  by  the 
process  given  under  BLUE,  DISTILLED.  The  preparation  of  the 
sulphate  of  indigo  admits  of  many  variations  in  the  quantities 
and  methods  employed  ;  but  the  differences  are  more  apparent 
than  real.  The  following  method,  considered  as  yielding  a 
very  suitable  extract  for  combining  with  the  bark  or  weld 
yellow  to  produce  a  green  is  taken  from  Persoz  iii.  395,  and 
has  some  peculiarities.  One  pound  of  Nordhausen  or  smoking 
oil  of  vitriol  is  placed  in  an  earthenware  pot  and  heated  by 
being  placed  in  boiling  water  twenty  minutes  ;  half  a  pound  of 
finely  ground  indigo  is  then  mixed  with  it  and  carefully  stirred 
for  ten  minu'tes,  so  as  to  thoroughly  incorporate  it;  then  three 
quarts  of  boiling  water  are  carefully  added  in  small  portions, 
the  stirring  being  continued,  and  lastly  three  pounds  of  acetate 
of  lead-  are  added,  by  which  sulphate  of  lead  is  formed  and 
the  product,  called  acetate  of  indigo,  remains  in  solution. 

Within  a  short  time  Bolley  has  proposed  the  manufacture  of 
a  species  of  sulphate  of  indigo,  by  fusing  bisulphate  of  soda  with 
ground  indigo  instead  of  using  sulphuric  acid,  and  patented 
the  process.  From  some  specimens  I  have  seen,  it  appears 
very  well  adapted  for  woollens. 

Iodine. — This  is  one  of  the  chemical  elements  which,  though 
capable   of   producing  several    colored    compounds,    has    not 
received  any  application  in  printing  or  dyeing  on  account  of 
the  excessive  sensibility  of  its  combinations  to  the  actions  of  ' 
air  and  light. 

Iron.— Iron  is  extensively  employed  in  printing  and  dyeing 
for  purposes  in  which  it  comes  into  contact  with  many  chemical 
substances.  The  pure  metal  has  no  action  upon  most  ordinary 
materials,  but  it  is  easily  oxidized,  and  then  it  becomes  chem- 
ically active,  producing  well-marked  phenomena.  The  use  o£ 
20 


298  IRON. 

iron  vessels  for  dyeing  was  long  considered  impossible,  but  it 
is  now  known  to  be  the  best  material  in  all  cases  where  no 
acid  liquors  are  employed.  Alkaline  fluids  have  no  action 
upon  clean  iron,  but  acids,  even  in  a  very  diluted  state,  attack 
and  dissolve  it.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  iron  vessels  can- 
not be  safely  employed  in  any  operation  which  requires  the 
use  of  acids,  or  acid  salts,  which  term  may  be  taken  as  includ- 
ing all  the  salts  of  the  metals  proper.  Iron  vessels  cannot  be 
safely  used  in  color-mixing,  or  for  storing  colors,  not  even  iron 
mordants  ;  but  iron  pans  can  be  employed  for  alkaline  colors, 
such  as  pencil  blue  or  alurninate  of  potash.  Wrought  iron  is 
with  difficulty  kept  from  rusting,  on  account  of  its  lamellar 
structure ;  cast  iron  is  easily  kept  from  rusting  because  of  its 
homogeneity,  and  is  to  be  preferred  for  the  making  of  dye- 
becks  and  similar  vessels.  But  cast  iron  soon  rusts  in  the  state 
in  which  it  leaves  the  foundry.  To  prepare  it  for  the  purposes 
of  the  dyer  the  surface  must  be  covered  with  some  kind  of  pro- 
tective coating.  Ordinary  paint  would  not  answer  well.  Ex- 
perience has  shown  that  the  best  method  of  giving  this  pro- 
tective coat  is  to  boil  water,  containing  some  organic  substance, 
in  the  iron  vessels.  Cow-dung  is  most  generally  employed. 
Madder,  logwood,  and  other  coloring  matters  answer  the  same 
purpose.  The  effect  seems  to  be  that  a  combination  between 
the  firmly  attached  oxide  and  some  of  the  principles  of  the 
organic  substance  employed  is  formed,  which  effectually  cuts 
off  any  further  action  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  of  course 
any  possibility  of  rusting.  When,  through  long  disuse  an  iron 
beck  has  become  rusty,  it  is  necessary  to  scrape  it  well,  and 
boil  it  for  some  time  with  cow-dung  or  madder;  by  so  doing 
any  free  oxide  is  combined,  and  prevented  from  acting  injuri- 
ously upon  the  subsequent  materials  used.  Cast-iron  vessels 
used  in  bleaching  are  not  considered  safe  unless  the  metal  is 
covered  with  a  film  of  lime  or  carbonate  of  lime  ;  this  is  readily 
accomplished,  in  most  cases,  by  scraping  the  metal  and  painting 
it  over  with  milk  of  lime.  The  contact  of  cotton  goods  with 
rusting  iron  causes  iron-moulds,  or  stains,  resulting  from  the 
partial  fixing  of  the  oxide  of  iron.  A  drop  of  strong  hydro- 
chloric acid  suffices  to  remove  a  single  spot  of  iron  mould, 
and  may  be  applied  to  the  cloth  without  injury  to  its  strength. 
Iron  combines  with  oxygen  in  two  proportions  to  form  sali- 
fiable  oxides ;  the  one  called  protoxide,  the  other  peroxide  of 
iron.  There  are,  consequently,  two  series  of  salts  of  iron, 
which  differ  from  each  other  so  much  in  their  properties  that 
they  might  be  salts  of  different  metals.  For  the  sake  of  brevity, 
the  salts  are  called  respectively  proto  and  persalts  of  iron. 
Sulphate  of  iron,  or  green  copperas,  is  a  proto-salt;  and  com- 


IRON.  290 

mercial  nitrate  of  iron  is  a  per-salt;  by  using  dilute  solutions 
of  these  two  salts  the  most  conspicuous  characters  of  the  two 
classes  of  iron  compounds  may  be  studied.  Yellow  prussiate 
gives  a  light  blue  precipitate  with  the  sulphate  of  iron,  but  a 
dark  blue  with  the  nitrate;  the  red  prussiate  of  potash  gives 
a  dark  blue  precipitate  with  the  sulphate,  but  no  precipitate 
with  the  nitrate.  Caustic  soda  produces  a  greenish  olive  pre- 
cipitate with  the  sulphate,  but  a  red  precipitate  with  the  nitrate. 
These  are  the  respective  oxides  of  iron.  But  the  protoxide, 
when  precipitated  under  favorable  circumstances,  is  white;  it 
readily  combines  with  more  oxygen,  changing  to  green,  olive, 
and  eventually  to  the  well-known  rust  colored  oxide.  When 
the  buff  color  from  acetate  or  sulphate  of  iron  is  being  raised 
in  lime  the  protoxide  is  precipitated,  and  the  cloth  has  only  a 
greenish  color,  but  by  exposing  to  the  air,  or  acting  upon  it 
with  oxidizing  agents,  it  absorbs  oxygen,  and  becomes  the  buff 
peroxide.  The  protosalts  have  a  continual  tendency  to  pass 
into  the  state  of  persalts,  absorbing  the  necessary  oxygen  from 
the  air  or  other  substances ;  and  there  are  cases,  on  the  other 
.  hand,  where  the  persalts  pass,  by  losing  oxygen,  into  the  state 
of  protosalts,  but  this  is  less  usual  than  the  contrary.  The  use 
of  sulphate  of  iron  in  indigo  dipping,  and  in  China  blues,  de- 
pends upon  the  affinity  of  its  oxide  for  more  oxygen  ;  it  deprives 
the  indigo  of  oxygen,  thus  altering  it,  and  putting  it  into  a 
state  favorable  for  solution.  M.  Kuhlmann  has  drawn  atten- 
tion to  some  cases  of  what  he  considers  the  oxidizing  effects 
of  the  peroxide  upon  calico.  A  rust  spot  is  generally  observed, 
upon  dissolving  the  iron  out,  to  be  greatly  weaker  and  thinner 
than  the  rest  of  the  cloth.  Calico  strongly  impregnated  with 
buff  is,  upon  the  oxide  of  iron  being  removed,  found  to  be 
more  tender  than  is  usual.  These  effects  are  attributed  to  an 
oxidation  or  slow  combustion  of  the  cloth,  the  oxide  of  iron 
acting  as  a  carrier  of  oxygen  to  the  organic  matter.  These 
points  are  of  much  importance  in  dyeing  and  printing,  and 
deserve  every  attention. 

Sulphate  of  Iron. — This  salt  has  been  used  in  dyeing  from  very 
early  times,  under  the  names  of  vrtriol,  green  vitriol,  and  green 
copperas.  It  is  a  plentiful  secondary  product  in  some  chemical 
manufactories;  it  is  cheap,  and  not  liable  to  be  adulterated. 
It  may  contain  salts  of  alumina. and  salts  of  copper  to  a  limited 
extent,  which  would  probably  be  prejudicial  in  some  of  its 
applications.  A  simple  inspection  is  usually  sufficient  to  know 
if  a  sample  is  good  or  not.  It  should  not  be  wet  or  dirty ;  if 
dry,  and  with  signs  of  rust,  it  is  usually  esteemed  good,  because 
such  appearances  indicate  an  old-made  and  well  saturated  cop- 
peras ;  but  it  is  also  possible  for  that  character  to  be  fraudu- 


300  IRON. 

lently  given  to  it.  Practical  dyers  form  opinions  from  other 
appearances  of  the  fitness  of  copperas  for  their  uses,  but  it  is 
doubtful  if  they  are  of  any  value.  The  points  to  be  attended 
to  in  a  chemical  analysis  are  the  acidity,  which  may  be  too 
great ;  the  amount  of  water  which  it  contains ;  and  the  absence 
or  otherwise  of  alumina  salts,  which  are  liable  to  injure  certain 
colors  for  which  copperas  is  used.  Copperas  is  much  used  in 
the  dip  blue  and  China  blue  styles,  in  dyeing  black  on  cotton 
goods,  and  for  numerous  shades  of  gray,  drab,  and  olive  upon 
heavy  cotton  goods.  It  may  be  used  for  the  preparation  of 
acetate  of  iron  by  double  decomposition.  In  calico  printing 
it  is  very  little  used.  Some  receipts  prescribed  "calcined  cop- 
peras," that  is,  sulphate  of  iron  dried  in  an  iron  pan,  and  heated 
pretty  strongly,  with  occasional  stirring  of  the  mass.  If  sul- 
phate of  iron  be  calcined  at  a  very  strong  heat,  only  peroxide 
of  iron  remains.  A  gallon  of  cold  water  can  dissolve  about 
four  pounds  of  sulphate  of  iron,  and  it  is  much  more  soluble 
in  boiling  water. 

Muriate  of  Iron. — A  solution  of  iron  in  muriatic  acid,  marking 
about  80°,  is  sold  under  this  name.  It  can  be  made  by  dissolv- 
ing iron  in  hydrochloric  acid  in  a  mug,  or  similar  vessel,  having 
an  excess  of  the  metal  present.  When  the  solution  is  concen- 
trated by  boiling,  it  deposits  crystals  of  chloride  of  iron,  re- 
sembling the  sulphate  in  appearance,  but  much  more  oxidizable. 
The  crystals  are  sometimes  preferred  to  the  solution,  they  are 
likely  to  be  purer  and  more  neutral.  Muriate  of  iron  is  only 
sparingly  used  in  printing  and  dyeing;  it  serves  to  obtain  some 
shades  of  slate  and  drab  by  means  of  catechu  for  madder  and 
garancine  dyeing,  and  is  used  in  a  few  combinations  with  salts 
of  manganese. 

Nitrate  of  Iron. — There  is  a  nitrate  of  the  protoxide  of  iron, 
but  the  commercial  nitrate  of  iron  is  always  a  persalt.  It  is 
made  by  dissolving  old  iron  hoops,  or  smithy  scales,  in  mode- 
rately strong  nitric  acid.  It  requires  some  experience  to  make 
nitrate  of  iron  successfully  ;  if  too  much  iron  be  added  at  once, 
if  the  liquid  becomes  heated,  if  the  acid  be  too  strong  or  not 
strong  enough,  there  are  a  number  of  bye  products  formed, 
and  sometimes  the  whole  spoiled.  The  chief  points  are  gradual 
addition  of  the  metal  in  tolerably  sized  pieces,  not  to  work 
upon  more  than  a  carboy  of  a,cid  at  once,  and  to  have  it  so 
situated  as  to  keep  cool.  Nitrate  of  iron  is  a  dark  red  liquid, 
marking  about  90°  Tw.  When  diluted  with  water,  it  should 
remain  clear  without  any  addition,  and  should  not  give  a  blue 
precipitate  with  red  prussiate  of  potash ;  if  the  nitrate  of  iron 
is  over  saturated  it  becomes  turbid  upon  dilution,  some  oxide 
or  basic  nitrate  falling  out,  which  may  cause  irregularity  in 


ISATIS   TINCTORIA— ISOPURPURIC   ACID.  301 

dyeing ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  too  acid,  it  does  not  yield  up 
its  base  in  sufficient  quantity  or  sufficiently  rapid ;  the  addition 
of  a  little  acid  to  the  water  in  the  first  case,  and  some  alkali  in 
the  second,  will  prove  of  advantage.  Nitrate  of  iron  is  exten- 
sively used  in  dyeing  and  printing;  in  the  former  it  is  the  pre- 
ferable iron  mordant  for  all  varieties  of  Prussian  blue,  and  is 
used  as  the  basis  for  black  and  gray.  In  calico  and  delaine 
printing  it  is  used  in  a  few  steam  and  spirit  colors.  The  only 
adulteration  in  nitrate  of  iron  likely  to  occur  is  the  substitu- 
tion of  hydrochloric  acid  for  a  portion  of  nitric  acid.  All 
samples  that  I  have  tested  contain  some  chloride,  but  not  more 
than  five  per  cent,  of  the  iron  in  solution  should  be  allowed  to 
be  in  this  state.  The  perchloride  of  iron,  is  not  decomposable 
by  fibrous  matters  to  nearly  the  same  extent  as  the  pernitrate, 
and  is  consequently  not  worth  so  much. 

Alkaline  Solutions  of  Iron. — There  are  some  compounds  of 
iron  soluble  in  alkalies;  they  have  been  proposed  as  mordants 
and  said  to  answer  that  purpose.  I  have  tried  them  all,  but 
found  no  good  practical  result.  I  believe  they  are  not  in  use. 
The  pyrophosphate  of  iron,  formed  by  mixing  a  very  neutral 
persalt  of  iron  with  pyrophosphate  of  soda,  is  a  white  powder, 
insoluble  in  water  but  soluble  in  ammonia,  forming  a  feeble 
mordant.  M.  Persoz  states  that  this  mordant  will  dye  up  colors 
in  a  bath  of  madder  spent  to  ordinary  mordants.  I  did  not 
succeed  in  obtaining  so  desirable  a  result.  Some  arseniates  of 
iron  are  soluble  in  alkalies,  but  do  not  yield  anything  of  value 
as  a  mordant.  Concentrated  solutions  of  commercial  nitrate  of 
iron  and  carbonate  of  potash,  when  mixed,  give  a  precipitate 
which  re  dissolves  in  excess  of  the  alkali,  forming  a  clear  dark 
red  solution..  This  property  of  nitrate  of  iron  was  known  to 
Scheele,  and  has  been  used  in  medicine,  but  not  yet  applied  to 
dyeing  or  printing;  it  is  a  curious  and  unexplained  reaction. 
.  Ferric  Acid. — Under  certain  circumstances  iron  assumes  a 
superior  degree  of  oxidation,  and  seems  to  act  the  part  of  an 
acid,  forming  highly-colored  compounds  with  alkalies.  Ferric 
acid  has  not  yet  been  isolated ;  it  is  easily  decomposed,  and 
does  not  seem  likely  to  have  any  application  at  present. 

Iron  Liquor. — See  ACETATE  OF  IRON. 

Isatis  Tinctoria. — The  botanical  name  of  the  woad  plant. 
(See  WOAD.) 

Isopurpuric  Acid. — An  interesting  result  of  the  action  of 
cyanide  of  potassium  upon  picric  acid,  by  which  a  brown  or 
chocolate  coloring  matter  is  produced  of  considerable  tinctorial 
power — dyeing  wool  and  silk  in  deep  rich  colors  without  the 
aid  of  any  mordant.  The  colors  are,  however  very  fugitive, 
and  do  not  resist  the  action  of  steam.  They  have  not  yet  been 
applied. 


302  IVORY  BLACK — KERMES. 

Ivory  Black,  Bone  Black,  Animal  Charcoal. — This  sub- 
stance is  distinguished  by  its  powers  of  withdrawing  coloring 
matter  from  solutions;  and  though  not  directly  used  in  dyeing, 
it  receives  some  applications  in  the  arts  which  may  probably 
be  capable  of  extension.  • 

Jamaica  Wood. — A  name  for  logwood,  a  portion  of  which 
comes,  or  did  at  one  time  come,  from  Jamaica. 

Juice,  Lime. — See  CITRIC  ACID,  page  148. 


K. 

Kermes. — This  ancient  coloring  matter  is  so  little  known 
at  present  in  England  that  when  some  parcels  of  it  were  re- 
ceived in  London  a  short  time  ago,  not  one  of  the  brokers 
recognized  it.  It  is  more  interesting,  therefore,  in  an  historical 
than  in  a  practical  point  of  view ;  although  it  appears  to  be 
much  more  extensively  used  in  France  than  was  supposed, 
since  in  1856  about  twenty  tons  of  it  were  imported.  Its 
coloring  matter  is  similar,  if  not  identical,  with  that  of  the 
cochineal  insect;  but  it  is  poorer  in  tinctorial  power,  requiring 
twelve  times  as  much  to  produce  shades  of  equal  fulness.  Its 
principal  employment  appears  to  be  in  dyeing  the  turbans  or 
fez  of  the  Persians,  and  other  oriental  people;  it  produces  a 
crimson,  with  a  rich  purplish  hue,  very  much  admired:  the 
color  is  more  stable  than  that  obtained  from  cochineal,  not 
being  so  readily  stained  or  faded. 

No  coloring  substance,  or  other  material  used  in  dyeing, 
possesses  so  great  an  antiquity,  or  has  so  many  scriptural,  clas- 
sical, and  historical  associations  as  kermes.  It  is  proved  to 
have  been  known  in  the  time  of  Moses,  and  mentioned  by  its 
Hebrew  name  of  tola  in  the  Pentateuch  :  its  name,  coccus,  fre- 
quently occurs  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers ;  and  from  the 
use  of  this  material  in  dyeing  the  imperial  purple,  the  adjective 
cocemvs,  or  coccineus,  arose,  applied  to  those  who  were  entitled 
to  wear  such  colors.  From  the  ancient  Greek  and  Latin  ver- 
sions of  the  New  Testament,  it  appears  evident  that  the  robe  in 
which  the  soldiers  clothed  and  mocked  our  Lord  was  one  dyed 
with  kermes.  Kermes,  like  cochineal,  were  supposed  to  be 
berries  or  grains,  and  colors  dyed  with  them  were  said  to  be 
grained,  or  engrained ;  and,  as  the  kermes  colors  were  fast  and 
durable  colors,  the  term  grained  expanded  in  its  signification, 
and  meant  a  fast  color  whether  dyed  with  kermes  or  not,  and 
is  even  used  in  that  'signification  to  this  day.  But  kermes  are 
insects,  and  the  word  is  Arabic,  signifying  "  little  worm;"  and 
in  the  middle  ages  they  were  called  vermiculi,  and  the  cloth 
dyed  with  them,  vermiculata,  whence,  through  the  French,  we 


KNQPPERN— LAC-DYE.  303 

have  vermilion,  which  is  now  employed  as  the  name  for  one  of 
the  compounds  of  sulphur  and  mercury.  The  term  crimson  is 
also  derived  from  kermes,  through  the  Italian  and  French. 

Knoppern,  Valonia  Nuts?— An  excrescence  upon  the  oak, 
something  similar  to  gall-nuts,  but  more  irregular  in  shape. 
They  are  used  in  Germany  as  a  substitute  for  galls  and  sumac 
in  saddened  colors: 'they  have  also  been  tried  in  England,  but 
have  not  met  with  general  approval.  They  contain  some  as- 
tringent matter,  but  appear  more  suitable  for  tanning  than  for 
dyeing  purposes. 


Lac-Dye,  Lac-Lake,  Lac. — This  is  an  East  Indian  product, 
prepared  from  a  resinous  substance,  which  covers  the  branches 
of  certain  trees  and  shrubs.  It  is  derived  from  a  variety  of  the 
cochineal  insect,  which  settles  upon  the  branches  in  such  num- 
bers as  to  entirely  cover  them  ;  a  resinous  exudation  from  the 
tree  is  excited  by  their  punctures  of  the  bark,  and  cements 
them  to  the  branch  and  to  one  another,  when  having  performed 
the  functions  of  their  existence,  they  die,  and  become  so  incor- 
porated with  the  resin,  that  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
distinguish  the  insect.  This  resinous  substance  is  called  stick- 
luc,  and  it  is  from  stick-lac  that  the  lac-lake  is  obtained  by 
dissolving  out  the  coloring  matter  with  water  and  alum,  and 
precipitating  it  by  alkalies.  There  appears  to  be  a  considerable 
difference  in  the  value  of  lac-dye  as  imported,  some  qualities 
being  worth  at  least  twice  as  much  as  others;  the  higher 
priced  varieties  are  taken  for  home  consumption — the  conti- 
nental consumers  believe  that  the  medium  and  lower  priced 
sorts  are  for  their  prices  more  economical  in  use. 

Lac-dye  is 'only  employed  in  woollen  and  silk  dyeing;  it 
yields  the  same  colors  as  cochineal,  for  its  pure  coloring  matter 
is  chemically  identical  with  that  of  cochineal ;  but  on  account 
of  the  various  processes  to  which  it  is  subjected  in  extraction, 
the  colors  it  gives  are  not  quite  so  brilliant  as  cochineal,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  they  appear  somewhat  more  durable  and 
better  fitted  for  rough  usage.  Its  tinctorial  power  is  variable, 
according  to  quality,  but  the  better  qualities  are  from  one-half 
to  one  third  as  strong  as  cochineal.  On  account  of  the  coloring 
matter  being  in  a  state  of  combination  with  alumina  in  the  lac- 
dye,  it  is  not  available  for  dyeing  without  some  preparation, 
which  essentially  consists  in  acting  upon  it  by  an  acid  or  a 
strongly  acid  salt,  which  attacks  the  alumina,  and  thus  isolates 
the  coloring  matter,  and  renders  it  capable  of  combining  with 
the  mordanted  goods.  Sulphuric  acid  is  used  for  this  purpose, 


304  LACTARIXE. 

i 

but  more  generally  muriate  of  tin,  containing  an  excess  of  acid, 
is  employed. 

The  method  of  applying  lac-dye  in  practice  is  as  follows: — 

Preparation  of  the  Lac. — It  is  ground  in  a  coffee  mill  or 
pounded  in  a  mortalr,  and  passed  through  a  fine  sieve;  then, 
for  every  10  Ibs.  of  it,  one  gallon  of  water,  and  one  gallon  of 
oxymuriate  of  tin  are  added,  and  the  whole  carefully  and  com- 
pletely incorporated  into  a  homogeneous  mass.  The  mixture 
should  stand  not  less  than  24  hours,  but  preferably  should 
remain  for  a  week  before  using,  and  should  not  be  kept  longer 
than  a  fortnight.  Instead  of  the  above  process,  about  a  gallon 
and  a  half  of  water  and  half  a  gallon  of  sulphuric  acid  may  be 
employed;  or  muriatic  acid  may  be  employed  at  full  strength. 
The  only  object  of  this  treatment  is,  as  before  stated,  to  liberate 
the  coloring  matter  from  its  combination  with  alumina,  and 
though  tin  salts  are  chiefly  in  use,  the  simple  acids  are  quite 
sufficient  for  the  purpose.  After  a  sufficiently  long  digestion, 
the  pasty  mass  is  mixed  with  hot  water,  and  the  clear  liquor 
used  in  dyeing. 

Dyeing  with  Lac-dye. — The  mordanting  is  exactly  the  same 
as  for  cochineal  scarlet,  taking  for  a  piece  of  merino  of  10  Ibs. 
about  1|  Ib.  of  tartar  and  1J  Ib.  of  oxymuriate  of  tin  or  lac 
spirits;  the  piece  is  worked  in  this  for  half  an  hour,  and  then 
a  quantity  of  prepared  lac  liquor,  equivalent  to  1J  Ib.  of  lac- 
dye,  added  to  the  dye,  the  piece  again  entered  and  kept  near 
the  boil  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  The  cloth  is  afterwards 
carefully  treated  with  warm  water  to  remove  from  it  any  ad- 
hering particles  of  resin. 

Practically,  lac-dye  is  scarcely  ever  used  singly  for  bright 
colors,  but  generally  in  combination  with  cochineal.  The  cloth, 
after  being  dyed  as  above  in  lac,  is  "topped"  with  cochineal, 
by  giving  it  a  few  minutes  in  a  fresh  beck,  or  by  adding 
cochineal  to  the  same  dye  beck.  Scarlets,  scarcely  inferior  to 
those  obtained  from  pure  cochineal,  may  be  thus  obtained  at  a 
reduced  expenditure. 

Although  some  attempts  have  been  made  to  prepare  lac  in  a 
condition  suitable  for  the  use  of  the  printer,  I  am  not  aware 
that  they  have  been  successful ;  some  of  these  preparations, 
under  the  name  of  "cochineal  substitutes,"  have  been  examined 
by  me.  I  found  them  unfit  for  the  best  work,  the  shade  being 
considerably  inferior  to  cochineal,  and  not  presenting  any  con- 
siderable advantage  in  cost  for  lower  styles. 

Lactarine. — This  is  the  name  employed  in  England  to 
designate  the  curd  of  milk  prepared  in  the  dry  state  for  the 
use  of  the  calico  printer.  It  was  introduced  by  Pattison,  and 
patented  November  2,  1848,  and  is  now  extensively  used  for 
fixing  pigment  and  aniline  colors,  as  a  substitute  for  albumen. 


LAKE.  305 

Lactarine  is  dissolved  by  means  of  ammonia  or  other  weak 
alkalies,  but  preferably  ammonia;  the  coloring  matter  or  pig- 
raent  is  mixed  with  it,  printed,  and  fixed  by  steaming.  There 
are  some  points  in  the  application  of  lactarine  which  do  not 
appear  to  be  very  well  understood,  so  that  most  contradictory 
reports  of  its  fitness  as  a  vehicle  have  been  made.  It  does  not 
appear  to  be  equal  to  albumen  under  the  best  circumstances, 
and  is  particularly  liable  to  coagulation  when  dissolved,  by 
which  the  color  made  with  it  is  rendered  completely  useless. 
For  fixing  the  new  aniline  colors,  it  appears  to  be  not  only 
cheaper,  but  better  than  albumen,  working  more  easily,  and 
finishing*  off  softer,  but  not  fastening  them  so  completely.  In 
order  to  preserve  the  dissolved  lactarine  fit  .for  use  it  should  be 
kept  as  cool  as  possible,  the  mug  containing  it  being-placed  in 
cold  water.  A  friend  of  mine,  employed  on  a  print  works  in 
a  warm  climate,  was  much  embarrassed  by  the  spontaneous 
coagulation  of  his  lactarine  solution  when  standing  in  the  color 
shop,  but  completely  remedied  this  defect  by  keeping  it  in  a 
box  packed  with  ice.  However,  even  with  this  assistance,  it 
is  not  advisable  to  dissolve  more  at  once  than  is  required  for 
the  day. 

Cheese  which  does  not  contain  much  fat,  when  digested  with 
ammonia,  produces  a  solution  capable  of  replacing  lactarine, 
and  is  employed  in  some  print  works  as  a  substitute. 

Lake. — A  lake  is  a  colored  body  produced  by  the  combina- 
tion of  a  coloring  matter  with  an  earthy  or  metallic  basis.  The 
only  ordinary  bases  of  lakes  are  alumina  and  tin ;  but  some 
lakes  have  an  iron  basis,  and  others  may  have  the  oxides  of 
lead,  zinc,  antimony,  etc.,  as  bases.  Although  nearly  all  steam 
and  spirit  colors  actually  consist  of  lakes  of  tin  and  alumina 
diffused,  suspended,  or  temporarily  dissolved  in  the  thickened 
color,  the  separate  manufacture  of  lakes  for  calico-printing 
purposes  has  not  yet  met  with  much  success.  For  paper 
hangings,  where  penetration  of  the  color  is  not  an  object,  pre- 
pared lakes  are  extensively  employed  ;  but  for  printing  fabrics, 
where  the  coloring  body  must  be  in  so  finely  a  divided  state  as 
to  easily  penetrate  the  fibres,  the  application  of  ready-made 
lakes  presents  considerable  difficulty,  on  account  of  the  impos- 
sibility of  diffusing  them  with  sufficient  uniformity  through 
the  thickening.  When  tin  crystals  or  alum  are  stirred  into  a 
thickened  extract  of  logwood,  cochineal,  or  other  coloring 
matter,  the  tin  or  alumina  do  undoubtedly  form  a  lake  with 
the  coloring  matter,  but  of  such  excessive  tenuity  or  fineness 
as  to  differ  very  little  from  a  solution,  and  the  colored  com- 
pound is  readily  absorbed  by  the  fibres  of  the  cloth.  Coe'z 
obtained  a  patent,  March  23,  1854,  for  the  preparation  of  lakes 
for  the  use  of  printers.  His  process  of  manufacture  is  under- 


306  LAKE. 

stood  to  consist  in  adding  alumina  in  the  gelatinous  state  to  a 
decoction  of  the  dyewood,  and  keeping  warm  until  a  combina- 
tion has  taken  place  between  the  coloring  matter  and  alumina; 
the  lake  produced,  settling  out,  drained,  and  kept  in  a  state  of 
pulp.  For  use  as  colors,  these  lakes  simply  required  mixing 
with  gum  water  and  tartaric  acid,  oxalic  acid,  or  crystals  of 
tin,  the  object  of  these  additions  being  to  act  upon  the  alumi'na 
and  partly  dissolve  it,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  further  division  or 
perhaps  solution  of  the  lake;  for  the  rest,  the  colors  were 
treated  just  as  ordinary  steam  colors.  I  have  seen  and  em- 
ployed the  prepared  lakes  of  M.  Coez,  and  obtained  fair  results, 
but  nothing  that  seemed  to  render  them  preferable  to  the  ordi- 
nary methods  of  color  mixing,  while  they  were  not  so  regular, 
nor  so  much  under  control,  as  colors  prepared  on  the  spot. 
It  is  very  doubtful  if,  under  ordinary  circumstances  of  care 
and  skill  in  the  color  house  of  a  print  works,. there  would  be 
any  "pecuniary  advantage  in  the  use  of  prepared  lakes ;  it 
should  be  always  cheaper  to  employ  the  raw  material  at  first 
hand. 

The  most  ordinary  method  of  preparing  lakes  consists  in 
adding  alum  to  the  solution  of  coloring  matter,  and  then  adding 
crystals  of  soda  and  heating;  the  alumina  is  precipitated  and 
combines  with  the  coloring  matter.  By  boiling  a  decoction  of 
coloring  matter  with  acetate  of  alumina  a  lake  is  also  produced. 
The  tin  lakes  are  prepared  by  using  tin  salts  instead  of  alumina 
or  the  gelatinous  oxide  of  tin.  Some  of  the  lakes  I  have  had 
occasion  to  employ  in  my  experience  are  the  following  : — 

Sapan  Wood  Lake  or  Pulp. 
56  Ibs.  rasped  sapan  wood, 
10  gallons  water  boiled  three  times, 
2^  Ibs.  alum, 
1  Ib.  sulphate  of  copper. 

The  clear  decoction  of  sapan  wood  being  mixed  with  the  salts 
and  heated,  precipitated  a  lake  which  contained  both  copper 
and  alumina.  It  was  used  in  the  preparation  of  a  brown  color 
for  delaine. 

Logwood  Lake. 

10  gallons  logwood  liquor  at  9°, 
1J  Ib.  sulphate  of  copper  \ 
1  gallon  hot  water,  j 

J  Ib.  bichromate  of  potash, 
|  Ib.  crystals  of  soda, 
1  gallon  water, 

Mixed  together,  and  the  resulting  pulp  drained  until  it  measured 


LAMP  BLACK — LAVENDER  COLORS.          307 

four  gallons.     This  was  used  as  an  ingredient  in  preparing  a 
black  color  for  delaine. 

Fustic  Lake  for  Brown. 

56  Ibs.  fustic  made  into  decoction, 

2|  Ibs.  alum, 

1  Ib.  acetate  of  lead. 

The  alum  dissolved  first,  then  the  acetate  of  lead  added  and 
heated,  the  pulp  drained  and  kept  for  use. 

Lamp  Black. — This  pigment  is  the  soot  obtained  from  the 
imperfect  combustion  of  resinous  or  oily  bodies  ;  finer  qualities 
are  obtained  by  burning  turpentine,  and  it  is  said  that  the  black 
used  in  the  preparation  of  artists'  Indian  ink  is  derived  from 
the  combustion  of  camphor.  Spanish  black,  drop  black,  and 
some  other  kinds  used  as  pigments,  are  obtained  by  burning 
peculiar  substances,  not  for  the  smoke,  but  for  the  charcoal 
they  leave.  Lamp  black  intended  for  printing  purposes  requires 
a  preparatory  treatment  to  remove  certain  gritty  particles  it 
contains,  and  which  would  produce  abrasions  of  the  doctor  and 
scratches  on  the  roller.  In  the  first  place,  it  must  be  calcined 
at  a  moderate  red  heat  in  close  vessels,  to  destroy  any  volatile 
matter  present.  When  cool,  it  is  mixed  with  strong  sulphuric 
acid  till  it  forms  a  thin  paste,  left  in  contact  with  the  acid  for 
twenty-four  hours  or  longer,  then  mixed  with  water,  and  well 
washed  until  the  acid  is  removed.  This  treatment  leaves  the 
black  soft  and  fine ;  it  gives  a  good  black  color  with  drying 
oils ;  but  in  calico  printing  it  is  used  with  albumen  for  shades 
of  gray  and  drab,  which  are  very  pretty  in  combination  with 
other  pigment  colors.  It  is  best  adapted  for  furniture  styles, 
hangings,  etc.;  it  does  not  resist  washing  very  well,  but  never 
fades  in  the  light,  a  desirable  quality  for  certain  classes  of 
colors. 

Lawsonia  Inermis. — The  botanical  name  for  a  plant,  the 
leaves  of  which  have  been  used  from  the  most  ancient  times 
amongst  the  oriental  nations  for  the  purpose  of  dyeing  the 
finger  nails  of  a  reddish  color:  it  is  the  Henna  of  the  Arabians. 
A  French  chemist  has  recently  taken  out  a  patent  for  the 
application  of  this  substance  in  dyeing  blacks;  but,  from  all  the 
experiments  with  which  I  am  acquainted,  it  is  not  likely  to  be 
much  used  for  that  purpose  on  account  of  its  price,  and  from 
the  want  of  my  distinct  advantage  in  the  color  it  produces. 
The  turks  have  long  employed  this  substance  for  dyeing  horse  ' 
hair  and  leather. 

Lavender  Colors. — The  color  of  the  flowers  of  the  lavender 
plant — a  bluish  lilac.  This  shade  is  obtained  on  cotton  goods 
by  mixing  blue  with  the  lilac  color  from  logwood.  On  silk, 
lavender  shades  are  obtained  from  archil  and  cudbear,  as  well 


308  LEAD. 

as  from  logwood.  By  dyeing  a  safflower  pink  on  the  top  of  a 
Prussian  blue,  very  agreeable  lilac  and  lavender  shades  are 
obtainable — the  hue  depending  upon  the  relative  depths  of  the 
blue  and  red  employed.  The  lilac,  or  light  purple  colors,  are 
taken  as  standards  from  which  to  obtain  lavender  colors. 

Lead, — Lead,  as  a  metal,  is  mote  indifferent  to  the  action  of 
chemical  materials  than  copper ;  but,  owing  to  its  softness,  it 
cannot  be  applied  well  except  as  a  stationary  fixed  apparatus. 
It  is  well  adapted  for  hot  acids,  holding  tight,  and  lasting  for 
years,  where  wood  and  stone  have  both  yielded.  It  must  be 
well  supported  on  account  of  its  softness,  and,  of  course,  with- 
out solder,  the  different  joints  being  made  by  fusion,  or  burning, 
as  it  is  technically  termed.  It  does  not  withstand  the  action  of 
aquafortis,  but  both  vitriol  and  spirits  of  salts  are  without  action 
upon  it. 

Lead  has  three  combinations  with  oxygen,  but  only  one  of 
these  forms  salts,  and  this  the  protoxide,  composed  of  single 
atoms  of  lead  and  oxygen.  When  pure  it  is  white  ;  with  some 
little  impurity,  it  exists  in  litharge,  as  a  commercial  article. 
Litharge  has  some  few  applications  in  dyeing  and  printing.  In 
dyeing  it  is  used  for  obtaining  chrome  oranges:  in  printing,  it 
serves  to  purify  caustic  potash  from  sulphur,  and  to  prepare 
basic  acetate  of  lead. 

Nitrate  of  Lead  is  made  by  dissolving  litharge  in  hot  aqua- 
fortis to  saturation  :  it  is  not  easily  prepared,  except  on  a  large 
scale,  in  a  state  of  purity.  It  forms  white  crystals,  very  soluble 
in  water,  in  which  they  should  dissolve  without  leaving  any 
residue.  They  are  very  pure  as  sold  by  respectable  drysalters, 
and,  not  as  far  as  I  am  aware,  subject  to  any  regular  adultera- 
tion. Nitrate  of  lead  is  employed  as  a  mordant  for  chrome 
yellow  and  orange ;  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  a  number  of 
soluble  nitrates  from  their  sulphates,  and  in  mixing  of  the 
murexide  purple,  etc. 

Sulphate  of  Lead  is  an  insoluble  salt,  and  precipitates  when- 
ever nitrate  of  lead  or  sugar  of  lead  is  mixed  with  any  liquor 
containing  sulphuric  acid.  It  forms  the  bottoms  from  the 
making  of  red  liquor  when  the  acetates  of  lead  are  used,  and 
from  buff  liquor  in  the  same  way.  It  is  because  the  sulphate 
of  lead  is  insoluble  in  water  that  sulphuric  acid  is  used  to  pass 
pieces  in,  which  are  mordanted  for  chrome  orange ;  the  lead 
does  not  then  wash  off,  and  the  pieces  can  be  entered  clean  and 
free  from  gum,  etc.,  into  the  chrome  liquor.  Sulphate  of  soda 
is  sometimes  used,  but  this  is  when  there  is  some  other  color 
on  the  cloth  that  the  acidity  of  the  vitriol  would  injure;  the 
effect  produced  is  the  same,  viz.,  the  formation  of  a  sulphate  of 
lead.  Although  sulphate  of  lead  is  insoluble  in  wa'ter,  it  is  a 
remarkable  fact  that,  if  the  pulp  be  applied  to  calico,  it  enters 


LEAD.  309 

into  an  intimate  connection  with  the  fibre,  and  after  drying  and 
hanging  some  time  it  cannot  be  removed  by  washing  in  water. 
Good  solid  chrome  oranges  can  be  raised  in  such  a  manner.  It 
is  used  extensively  as  a  resist  in  indigo  dipping. 

Chromates  of  Lead. — There  are  two  chromates  of  lead — the 
dichromate,  or  basic  chromate,  which  is  of  an  orange  red,  and 
the  mono-chromate,  which  is  yellow.  The  latter  can  be  trans- 
formed into  the  former  by  heating  it  with  an  alkali,  when  it 
loses  chromic  acid.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  that  chromate  of 
lead  which  is  the  most  highly  colored  contains  the  least  amount 
of  the  coloring  acid,  and  that  the  nature  of  the  shades  are  ex- 
actly opposed  to  those  of  the  chromates  of  potash.  Both  salts 
are  in  extensive  use  as  pigments ;  the  red  chromate  is  a  good 
deal  used  as  a  dye,  while  the  yellow  has  not  much  use,  but  is 
frequently  required,  especially  in  printed  indigo  styles.  In 
dyeing  chrome  orange  the  yellow  chromate  is  generally  pro- 
duced first,  by  passing  the  mordanted  cloth  through  bichromate, 
until  it  has  well  taken  up  the  chromic  acid  ;  it  is  then  changed 
into  orange,  by  adding  a  proper  amount  of  caustic  soda  to  the 
liquor,  and  keeping  in  the  pieces  till  they  have  taken  the  right 
shade.  The  orange  could  be  as  easily  produced  at  once,  and 
very  frequently  it  is  done  so,  by  using  yellow  chrome  salts,  or 
converting  the  red  chromate  into  the  yellow,  by  adding  a  suf- 
ficient amount  of  caustic  alkali.  Or  the  yellow  chromate  of 
lead,  instead  of  being  changed  into  the  orange  in  the. same  beck 
it  is  dyed  in,  is  taken  out,  washed,  and  passed  into  boiling  lime 
water,  which  changes  it.  In  the  case  of  employing  caustic,  care 
must  be  taken  that  no  excess  is  used,  for  if  there  is  more  than 
necessary  it  robs  the  color,  and  if  the  excess  is  considerable  it 
discharges  the  color  altogether.  The  action  of  the  lime  water 
and  soda  are  similar  ;  they  deprive  the  yellow  chromate  of  lead 
of  part  of  the  chromic  acid,  reducing  it  to  a  compound  contain- 
ing less  chromic  acid  in  proportion  to  the  lead;  and  if  the 
action  is  carried  too  far  the  alkali  will  remove  the  whole  of  the 
chromic  acid,  leaving  upon  the  cloth  only  oxide  of  lead,  which 
is  white.  It  depends  upon  practical  considerations  whether  it 
is  better  to  use  the  one  or  the  other  method  of  obtaining  the 
chrome  orange,  whether  the  orange  should  be  obtained  at  once 
or  by  conversion  of  the  yellow  ;  in  piece  dyeing  the  former  is 
the  usual  plan,  while  in  calico  printing  the  latter  is  the  method 
usually  followed. 

Red  Lead  is  a  mixed  oxide  of  lead.  Though  a  bright-looking 
color,  it  is  not  fit  for  printing  on  cloth;  probably,  if  there  was 
any  means  of  forming  or  producing  it  on  the  fibre  of  the  cloth 
it  might  be  valuable,  but  at  present  the  only  method  known 


310  LEIOCOME — LICHENS. 

of  making  is  to  roast  the  litharge  at  high  temperatures  ;  it  can- 
not be  made  in  the  wet  way. 

The  Peroxide  of  Lead  has  a  deep  puce  or  chocolate  color,  and 
can  be  fixed  on  cotton  fibre.  The  process  consists  in  mordant- 
ing in  acetate  of  lead,  fixing  in  lime  water,  and  then  passing  in 
chloride  of  lime  or  soda  until  the  color  is  raised.  This  color 
is  never  worked  now,  because  similar  shades  are  more  easily 
and  economically  obtained  by  garancine. 

Lead  Acetate. — See  ACETATE  OF  LEAD. 

The  oxides  of  lead  have  at  various  times  been  tried  as  mor- 
dants, but  they  appear  unfitted  for  the  purpose.  Messrs.  Per- 
kin  and  Gray  patented,  May  21,  1859,  a  process  for  fixing  the 
aniline  purple  upon  a  lead  mordant,  obtained  by  printing 
acetate  of  lead,  and  fixing  in  a  mixture  of  soda  crystals  and 
ammonia;  the  shades  obtained  are  good,  but  the  process  as  a 
whole  was  not  successful.  All  colors  which  contain  lead  as  a 
constituent  part  are  liable  to  injury  from  sulphurous  gases  in 
the  air;  the  browning  or  blackening  of  chrome  yellows  and 
oranges  at  the  edges  of  the  piece  is  due  to  this  cause ;  the  whites 
of  indfgo  styles,  from  which  the  lead  has  not  been  wholly 
removed,  are  frequently  discolored  from  the  same  cause,  which 
operates  continually  against  the  use  of  lead  in  printing. 

Leiocome. — A  species  of  gum  substitute  of  French  origin. 
It  is  analogous  to  the  soluble  gum  of  the  British  printers,  being 
made  by  the  action  of  heat  and  acids  upon  farinaceous  matters. 

Lemon  Juice,  Lime  Juice. — The  uses  of  this  article  depend 
upon  the  citric  acid  which  it  contains.  (See  CITRIC  ACID, 
page  148.) 

Libi-Davi,  Livi-Dibi,  Divi-Davi. — An  astringent  substance, 
suggested  as  a  substitute  for  sumac  and  gall  nuts  in  dyeing, 
but  found  to  be  too  poor  in  tannic  acid.  It  is  used  in  tanning. 

Lichens. — The  tinctorial  lichens  are  very  widely  diffused 
over  the  surface  of  the  globe ;  the  greater  portion  of  those  used 
in  England  are  collected  in  the  Canary  Islands,  on  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean,  or  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  Spain 
and  France.  Until  within  the  last  few  years  the  methods  of 
obtaining  color  from  them  were  rude  and  but  little  understood ; 
already  some  successful  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve 
both  the  hue  and  fastness  of  the  colors  yielded  by  lichens, 
and  it  may  be  hoped  that,  with  the  aid  of  science,  some  con- 
siderable improvements  will  yet  be  made.  It  is  remarkable 
that  there  is  no  coloring  matter  ready  formed  in  the  lichens, 
but  it  is  produced  by  the  combined  action  of  air  and  ammonia 
upon  some  colorless  principles  contained  in  them.  Archil, 
cudbear,  and  litmus,  are  the  coloring  substances  obtained  from 
the  lichens. 


LIGHT.  311 

Light.— Light  seems  to  be  a  chemically  active  agent,  induc- 
ing decompositions  and  changes  in  salts  and  neutral  substances. 
It  either  acts  itself,  or  its  presence  is  the  cause  of  action  in 
numerous  cases  interesting  to  the  dyer.  I  do  not  know  what 
credit  should  be  given  to  the  assumed  importance  of  bright 
light  in  dyeing  colors  of  the  finest  quality.  It  is  pretended 
that  if  all  other  things  are  equal,  the  brightness  or  dulness  of 
the  daylight  influences  the  product  of  the  dyeing.  It  is  well 
known  that  plants  which  grow  in  dark  places  are  pale  colored, 
and  that  the  most  sunny  climates  produce  the  brightest  colors 
in  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdom.  But  there  is  nothing 
in  the  case  of  a  growing  plant  or  animal  comparable  to  dyeing. 
In  the  one  case  the  color  is  being  formed,  in  the  other  it  is  only 
being  transferred.  It  is  within  the  bounds  of  possibility  that 
a  formation  of  coloring  matter  may  take  place  sometimes  in 
dyeing,  but  I  know  of  no  case  where  this  is  effected  by  light. 
In  nearly  all  coloring  matters  used  in  the  arts,  the  color  is  fully 
developed  before  the  dyer  uses  it,  and  it  is  interesting  to  con- 
sider in  how  many  cases  without  the  access  of  light ;  the  heart 
of  logwood  cannot  be  supposed  to  have  been  influenced-directly 
by  the  rays  of  light;  we  know  that  the  color  of  indigo  is  only 
developed  after  the  death  of  the  plant;  and  in  madder  root  the 
coloring  matter  must  have  been  formed  in  perfect  darkness. 
Yet  practical  dyers  insist  that  the  finest  colors  can  only  be  pro- 
duced in  good  clear  weather ;  the  most  beautiful  dyed  silks  and 
velvets  of  France  are,  I  am  told,  produced  by  small  dyers,  who 
perform  the  final  operations  in  clear  bright  weather  and  out  of 
doors,  turning  the  goods  over  and  over  in  the  dye,  lifting  them 
to  meet  the  sun's  rays,  and,  regardless  of  prescribed  times  and 
quantities  of  material,  handling  them  till  they  find  them  finished. 

Whatever  doubts  may  be  entertained  upon  the  beneficial 
effect  of  light  in  certain  circumstances,  there  can  be  none  as  to 
its  destructive  action  upon  coloring  matters,  under  almost  any 
circumstances,  when  prolonged  beyond  a  short  time.  In  most 
cases 'of  rapidly  fading  colors,  such  as  safflower  pink  on  cotton, 
or  archil  and  cudbear  shades  upon  silk,  it  is  the  light  and  not 
the  air  which  destroys  them,  or  at  least  the  light  is  the  more 
rapidly  destructive  of  the  two ;  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  being 
the  most  concentrated  form  of  light,  are  the  most  active,  but  a 
bright  diffused  light  is  very  energetic.  A  safflower  pink  on 
muslin  may  become  nearly  white  in  three  or  four  hours' sun- 
shine, and  a  peach-colored  silk  ribbon,  dyed  with  archil,  is 
destroyed  in  about  the  same  length  of  time.  That  it  is  the 
light,  is  demonstrated  by  the  preservation  of  the  color  in  the 
folds,  or  protected  parts  of  knots  and  bows  formed  by  the  mate- 
rial; the  air  could  have  access  to  these  almost  as  readily  as  to 


312  LIGHT. 

the  exterior  portions,  but  they  are  nearly  uninjured.  Light  is 
an  imponderable  body,  and  as  such,  leaves  no  marks  behind  it 
detectable  by  the  balance.  It  is  not  clear  whether  these  trans- 
formations are  simply  a  change  in  the  chemical  or  molecular 
structure  of  the  coloring  matter,  or  whether  the  light  induces 
an  oxidation  or  deoxidation  of  the  coloring  principles.  The 
first  view  seems  the  most  probable,  from  the  knowledge  we 
have  of  the  action  of  light  upon  chemical  substances,  though 
the  second  is  not  without  probability.  The  action  of  light  upon 
substances  in  general  may  be  profitably  studied  by  the  colorist ; 
it  seems  probable  that  some  means  of  protecting  the  easily 
alterable  colors  may  be  devised  from  a  knowledge  of  the  laws 
and  properties  of  light.  The  action  of  light  upon  the  salts  of 
gold  and  silver  is  the  foundation  of  photographical  art;  and 
many  curious  particulars  have  been  discovered  in  it  with 
regard  to  sensitivizing,  and,  if  the  expression  is  allowable, 
desensitivizing,  the  layer  of  silver  salt.  The  deposited  iodide 
or  chloride  of  silver  is  so  easily  acted  upon  by  light,  as  to  neces- 
sitate the  greatest  precautions  in  keeping  out  a  single  ray  from 
the  closet  in  which  the  processes  are  conducted;  but  if  the 
light  be  made  to  pass  through  a  yellow  medium,  such  as  stained 
glass,  it  loses  all  its  active  chemical  properties,  and  the  prepared 
plates  may  be  exposed  to  it  and  handled  with  the  greatest  ease 
and  safety.  There  are  other  cases  in  which  an  additional  film 
of  another  material  renders  the  sensitive  one  insensible  to  the 
action  of  light.  It  is  possible  that  the  very  delicate  and  fugi- 
tive vegetable  colors  may,  by  some  practical  process,  be  simi- 
larly desensitivized.  This  is  a  line  of  research  very  difficult, 
no  doubt,  but  in  which  there  is  both  hope  of  success  and  rich 
reward. 

Photography  has  not  yet  any  application  in  calico  printing; 
but  it  may  be  interesting  to  know,  that  it  is  possible  to  print 
pictures  by  photography  and  dye  them  up  in  madder  and  other 
dyewoods.  I  have  done  this  several  times  and  in  several  ways 
with  iron  salts.  Calico  may  be  prepared  with  the  ammonia- 
citrate  of  iron,  dried  in  the  shade,  and  then  covered  with  the 
object  or  picture,  and  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  in  a  pho- 
tographer's copying  press;  the  iron  is  partially  fixed  upon 
those  parts  exposed  to  light,  the  calico  may  then  be  passed  in 
yellow  prussiate,  which  forms  Prussian  blue  with  the  iron  fixed; 
this  can  be  decomposed  by  dilute  caustic  alkali,  leaving  the 
oxide  of  iron,  which,  by  boiling  in  cow  dung,  becomes  fit  for 
taking  up  dyes,  and  with  madder  gives  a  lilac  or  purple.  The 
bichromate  of  potash  is  decomposed  by  light  in  contact  with 
calico,  washing  in  water  removes  the  unchanged  bichromate, 
the  remainder  may  be  fixed  by  dilute  alkali,  and  forms  a  weak 


LILAC  COLOK.  313 

mordant  for  several  dyewoods.  Indigo  blues,  padded  in  bichro- 
mate of  potash  for  discharging  with  acid,  must  be  kept  from 
strong  direct  light,  on  account  of  its  decomposing  action  upon 
the  bichromate. 

Lilac  Color.— The  color  of  the  flower  of  the  purple  lilac; 
lilac  is  understood  in  printing  and  dyeing  as  being  a  low  toned 
purple;  violet  is  nearly  if  not  quite  synonymous,  but  scarcely 
ever  used  in  the  English  trade. 

The  lilac  generally  employed  in  delaine  and  calico  printing 
is  the  one  given  p.  189  as  a  constituent  of  dahlia  color,  and  con- 
sists essentially  of  a  solution  of  the  coloring  matter  of  logwood 
in  red  liquor  made  by  digesting  rasped  logwood  for  24  hours 
in  that  liquid  in  the  cold.  Other  receipts  are  as  follows: — 

Dark  Lilac  Delaine. 

4  gallons  logwood  liquor  at  11°, 
3J  Ibs.  alum, 

12  Ibs.  gum. 

This  color  is  reduced  by  addition  of  gum  water. 

Lilac  for  Wool. 

1  quart  ammoniacal  cochineal  liquor, 
1  quart  vinegar, 

5  oz.  alum, 

4  oz.  oxalic  acid, 
1  Ib.  bichloride  of  tin, 
3  oz.  extract  of  indigo, 
1  gallon  of  gum  water. 

This  lilac  is  a  direct  mixture  of  the  red  and  blue  parts  repre- 
sented in  this  case  by  sulphate  of  indigo  and  cochineal. 

In  woollen  dyeing  various  shades  of  lilac  are  obtained  by 
first  mordanting  in  alum  and  tartar,  and  then  dyeing  in  log- 
wood, with  addition  of  sulphate  of  indigo.  Logwood  alone 
gives  a  reddish  lilac,  which  can  be  brought  to  the  blue  shade, 
in  any  required  degree,  by  properly  apportioning  the  sulphate 
of  indigo. 

Lilacs  on  wool  are  also  obtained  by  dyeing  in  a  mixture  of 
ammoniacal  cochineal  and  sulphate  of  indigo. 

Archil  in  combination  with  sulphate  of  indigo,  also  yields 
rich  shades  of  lilac.  The  mauve  color  from  aniline  is  also  a 
species  of  lilac. 

Alkanet,  with  alumina  mordants,  gives  lilac  colors ;  they  are 
difficult  to  work  and  very  fugitive. 

For  madder  lilac,  see  MADDER. 
21 


314  LIMA  WOOD— LIME. 

Lima  Wood. — One  of  the  woods  yielding  red  colors ; — 
similar,  or  identical  with  BRAZIL  WOOD,  which  see. 

Lime. — Quick  lime,  prepared  by  expelling  the  carbonic 
acid  from  the  carbonate  of  lime,  is  the  oxide  of  the  metal 
calcium.  Its  uses  in  bleaching  and  dyeing  are  dependent  upon 
its  alkaline  properties.  Presenting  some  analogy  with  potash 
and  soda,  it  differs  from  them  in  being  much  less  soluble  in 
water,  and  consequently  in  many  cases  much  less  energetic  in 
its  action ;  but  there  are  conditions  under  which  it  may  act 
with  even  greater  power  than  the  more  soluble  alkalies. 

Slacked  lime  is  a  combination  of  water  with  lime;  very  con- 
siderable heat  is  evolved  in  the  combining  of  water  with  lime. 
Two  cases  have  come  under  my  notice  where  the  accidental 
admission  of  water  to  lime  in  wooden  vessels  has  caused  suffi- 
cient heat  to  set  fire  to  the  wood.  Lime  is  often  kept  in  old 
hogsheads  on  print  and  dye  works,  and  care  should  be  taken 
of  the  possible  occurrence  of  such  an  accident.  Lime,  mixed 
with  an  additional  quantity  of  water,  forms  what  is  known  as 
milk  of  lime ;  it  consists  of  particles  of  hydrate  of  lime  sus- 
pended in  lime  water.  When  milk  of  lime  is  allowed  to  stand 
quietly,  the  particles  of  lime  subside,  and  a  clear  liquid  is  left, 
which  is  lime  water.  Lime  water  has  alkaline  characters,  but 
very  weak  on  account  of  the  small  quantity  of  the  lime  it  con- 
tains :  a  gallon  of  lime  water  will  not  contain  more  than  a 
quarter  of  an  ounce  of  lime,  nor  can  the  strength  be  increased 
by  concentration  of  the  liquid.  Hot  water  dissolves  less  lime 
than  cold  water,  which  is  contrary  to  the  usual  law  of  solution; 
the  most  reliable  experiments  show  that  it  would  require  a 
gallon  and  a  half  of  boiling  water  to  dissolve  as  much  lime  as 
a  gallon  of  cold  water.  The  first  water  obtained  from  lime  is 
usually  stronger  than  the  subsequent  ones ;  this  arises  from  a 
minute  quantity  of  the  alkalies,  potash  and  soda,  being  present 
and  being  all  dissolved  at  once:  the  second  and  third  waters 
from  the  lime  are  pure  lime  water.  It  is  a  question  how 
many  waters  can  be  obtained  from  lime  bottoms.  That  de- 
pends upon  the  quality  of  the  water  used.  Pure  water  would 
continue  to  dissolve  lime  and  yield  good  lime  water  many 
times;  but  water  containing  bicarbonate  of  lime  will  not  yield 
above  three  or  four  good  lime  waters,  and  that  only  with  active 
stirring  and  raking  up  of  the  lime  bottoms.  Water  containing 
organic  matters  does  not  yield  many  lime  waters ;  in  both 
cases  the  lime  is  coated  with  a  pellicle  of  insoluble  precipitated 
matters  which  prevent  the  access  of  the  water  to  it.  The  fact 
that  cold  water  is  a  better  solvent  of  lime  than  boiling  water 
has  induced  some  scientific  men  to  advise  that  it  should  be 
always  used  cold,  as  then  a  greater  quantity  of  the  active  ma- 


LIME.  315 

terial  is  in  solution.  But  this  advice  is  not  founded  on  sci- 
entific principles,  for  it  is  well  known  that  heat  gives  an  energy 
to  the  action  of  chemical  substances,  the  absence  of  whicn 
could  not  be  compensated  for  by  the  use  of  a  tenfold  quantity 
of  the  material.  In  the  general  applications  of  lime  in  dyeing 
and  bleaching,  it  is  used  in  the  milky  state,  that  is,  containing 
undissolved  lime;  and  though  it  is  contrary  to  theory  to  sup- 
pose that  the  undissolved  lime  is  chemically  active,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that,  besides  acting  as  a  reserve  for  maintaining 
the  water  saturated  with  lime,  the  finely  divided  particles  have 
an  action  which  is  at  present  not  to  be  distinguished  from  what 
is  considered  purely  chemical.  It  is  known  that  lime  can  dis- 
organize vegetable  textures,  and  that  some  cases  of  tender 
cloth  in  bleaching  are  attributable  to  the  action  of  milk  of  lime 
while  it  cannot  be  shown  that  clear  lime  water  produces  such 
effects.  Lime  combines  with  all  acids,  neutralizing  them  and 
forming  salts  of  lime  or  calcium ;  the  film  or  crust  which 
forms  upon  lime  water  exposed  to  the  air  is  carbonate  of  lime, 
the  carbonic  acid  being  derived  from  the  air.  Lime  is  a  power- 
ful base,  and  can  displace  the  oxides  of  the  rnetals  proper  from 
their  combinations,  itself  combining  with  their  acids.  Upon 
this  property  depend  the  uses  of  lime  in  raising  colors,  in 
indigo  dyeing,  or  other  cases.  In  raising  or  fixing  the  buff 
from  salts  of  iron,  for  example,  the  cloth  containing  acetate  or 
sulphate  of  oxide  of  iron  in  its  pores  is  passed  into  milk  of 
lime,  the  lime  combines  with  the  acid,  forming  acetate  or  sul- 
phate of  lime,  while  the  oxide  of  iron,  deprived  of  the  aoids 
which  made  it  soluble  in  water,  rests  upon  the  fibre.  The 
action  of  lime  in  bleaching  depends  also  upon  its  powerful 
basic  properties. 

Carbonate  of  Lime. — The  only  form  of  carbonate  of  lime 
familiar  to  the  dyer  and  printer  is  chalk,  which,  being  ground, 
is  used  in  some  few  cases  as  an  anti-acid.  It  is  very  suitable 
for  this  purpose,  especially  when  an  excess  of  alkali  would  be 
injurious.  Chalk  does  not  completely  neutralize  diluted  acid 
liquors.  A  beck  or  cistern  of  dye  liquor  can  have  an  acid  re- 
action to  test  paper,  though  an  excess  of  chalk  be  present ; 
and  this  acidity,  though  small,  would  be  too  much  for  some 
styles.  In  such  cases  carbonate,  or  bicarbonate  of  soda,  may 
be  employed,  or  even  lime  water,  if  cautiously  used.  Ground 
chalk,  though  cheap,  is  liable  to  adulteration  with  sand;  I 
have  found  ten  per  cent,  of  coarse  sand  in  ground  chalk ;  it 
could  not  be  observed  by  inspection,  but  was  easily  shown  by 
treating  the  chalk  with  muriatic  acid,  which  left  the  sand  un- 
dissolved. The  quality  of  chalk  is  liable  to  variation,  and  all 
kinds  are  not  equally  suitable  for  the  calico  printer's  use;  some 


316  LIME. 

varieties  contain  magnesian  salts,  others  a  good  deal  of  silicates. 
Chalk  is  frequently  used  in  madder  dyeing,  and  care  should 
be  taken  that  it  is  tolerably  pure.  The  lighter  variety  appears 
better  adapted  for  general  use  than  that  which  is  dense  and 
heavy  ;  good  qualities  do  not  contain  more  than  five  per  cent, 
of  moisture.  Carbonate  of  lime  is  insoluble  in  water,  but 
forms  a  soluble  combination  with  another  atom  of  carbonic 
acid,  which  exists  in  many  natural  waters.  The  extra  atom  of 
carbonic  acid  is  so  loosely  held,  that  it  escapes  by  simple  agi- 
tation of  the  liquid,  or  exposure  to  the  air,  leaving  the  ordinary 
carbonate  of  lime  in  the  insoluble  form.  Some  spring  waters 
are  so  saturated  with  this  solution  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  let 
it  fall  out  so  easily,  that  it  collects  in  stony  masses  about  the 
source,  deposits  in  boilers  fed  with  it,  forming  incrustations, 
and  is  productive  of  many  inconveniences  in  application.  Some 
idea  of  the  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime  dissolved  in  water 
may  be  formed  from  the  statement  of  Bischof,  that  a  single 
small  stream  in  Germany  carries  away  each  year  as  much  of 
this  salt  as  would  be  equal  to  a  cube  of  building  limestone  of 
one  hundred  feet,  in  lateral  dimensions. 

Sulphate  of  Lime. — This  salt  is  an  abundant  natural  pro- 
duct. It  is  known  as  gypsum,  and  when  deprived  of  its  water 
by  roasting  or  calcining,  forms  plaster  of  Paris.  It  exists  in 
most  spring  and  river  waters,  and  affects  the  dyeing 'of  certain 
colors,  as  alluded  to.  It  is  only  slightly  soluble  in  water;  it  is 
produced  when  sulphuric  acid  and  a  soluble  salt  of  lime  are 
mixed  together,  and  is  the  precipitate  which  forms  when  sul- 
phate of  alumina  or  alum  is  mixed  with  acetate  of  lime  in  the 
making  of  red  liquor.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  finishing  to 
give  the  appearance  of  body  to  inferior  qualities  of  calico. 

The  Nitrate  and  Muriate  of  Lime  are  not  generally  known  in 
trade.  They  are  both  deliquescent  salts,  and  have  been  some- 
times used  in  color  mixing  on  account  of  that  property. 

Phosphate  of  Lime. — It  was  long  ago  known  that  the  bones 
of  animals  which  ate  madder  were  tinged  red  ;  the  conclusion 
that  it  was  the  phosphate  of  lime  which  attracted  the  color  was 
too  hasty  ;  it  now  seems  probable  that  some  of  the  animal 
matters  also  present  in  the  bones  had  more  to  do  with  it  than 
the  mineral  matter.  Nevertheless,  phosphate  of  lime  has  some 
attraction  for  coloring  matters.  If  an  excess  of  ivory  black  or 
calcined  bones  be  digested  with  citric  acid,  phosphate  of  lime 
is  dissolved,  which  being  properly  applied  to  calico,  can  be 
shown  to  form  an  intimate  connection  with  it,  and  to  have  also 
an  affinity  for  coloring  matters.  It  does  not  attract  so  much 
coloring  matter  as  to  be  of  value  as  a  mordant,  for  the  shades 
it  yields  are  poor  in  depth  and  of  a  dry  absorbent  character. 


LITMUS— LOGWOOD.  317 

In  repeating  this  experiment  care  must  be  taken  that  there  is 
no  iron  dissolved  by  the  acid,  or  this  will  entirely  change  the 
nature  of  the  colors  produced ;  if  iron  exists  in  the  liquor,  it 
can  only  be  precipitated  by  the  prussiate  of  potash. 

The  best  test  for  lime  in  solution  is  oxalate  of  ammonia, 
which  gives  a  white  precipitate  provided  the  solution  be 
neutral;  in  moderately  strong  solutions  sulphuric  acid  gives  a 
bulky  precipitate  of  sulphate  of  lime. 

Litmus. — This  is  a  coloring  matter  similar  to  archil  and 
cudbear,  and  capable  of  yielding  blue  and  violet  colors  upon 
silks,  but  the  colors  are  so  excessively  fugitive  that  they  are 
never  employed  except  in  the  extreme  fancy  styles. 

Litre. — The  standard  French  liquid  measure;  is  equal  to  a 
kilogramme  of  water,  that  is  nearly  2£  Ibs.  English.  An 
English  imperial  quart  contains  2  J  Ibs.  of  water,  and  is  there- 
fore nearly  equivalent  to  a  litre.  The  two  measures  may  con- 
sequently in  many  cases  be  reckoned  as  equal,  but  in  particular 
cases  the  difference  would  lead  to  considerable  errors  ;  for  the 
exact  relation  of  the  litre  and  parts  of  a  litre  (taken  in  decimal 
parts)  the  following  table  may  be  consulted.  The  equivalents 
are  given  in  ounces  of  water,  and  as  color  mixers  are  provided 
with  ounce  measures,  they  will  be  enabled  to  follow  as  closely 
as  necessary  the  receipts  given  by  French  authorities. 

Table  showing  the  Value  of  a  Litre  and  Decimal  Parts  of  a  Litre, 
in  measure  ounces.     (Pint  equals  20  ounces.) 

Litre.  Ounces.  Litre.  Ounces. 

1       ...         35 
0.9     ... 

28' 


0.8 
0.7 
0.6 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 
0.2 


24f 
21 


14 
lOi 

7 


.    .     .     0.1 

.     .     .    .    3£ 

.    .    .    0.09 

....    3 

.    .    .     0.08 

.    .    .    .     2£ 

.    .     .    00.7 

.    .    .    .     2£ 

.     .    .     0.06 

....    2 

.     .     .    0.05 

....     If 

.     .     .    004 

.     .     .    0.03 

'.'.'.'.  i 

.     .    .    002 

....    i 

The  weights  are  w  thin  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  the  exact 
equivalent,  which  could  not  be  given  without  employing  larger 
fractions.  As  a  good  many  color  mixers  are  not  familiar  with 
decimals,  I  may  explain  that  such  a  figure  as  0.9  is  the  same 
in  meaning  as  T90,  and  indicates  nine-tenths  of  a  litre,  0.5  equals 
five-tenths,  0.09  is  the  same  as  TgD,  and  means  nine-hundredths 
of  a  litre,  and  so  on  with  the  remainder. 

Logwood,    Campeachy. — Logwood   is  the  wood  of  a  tree 
flourishing  chiefly  in  Mexico  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  America 


318  LOGWOOD. 

It  arrives  in  Europe  in  large  pieces,  and  is  rasped  by  machinery 
into  small  fragments  fit  for  dyeing  or  extracting  the  color  from. 
The  coloring  matter  requires  a  large  quantity  of  water  to  dis- 
solve it,  but  when  dissolved,  can  be  concentrated  or  boiled  down 
to  any  degree  of  concentration.  During  the  boiling  down  of 
logwood  extracts,  and  especially  during  the  cooling,  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  tarry  matter  is  deposited,  the  nature  of  which 
is  not  well  known — probably  it  is  similar  to  the  resinous  sub- 
stances which  exist  in  many  species  of  woods.  A  weak  solu- 
tion of  logwood  in  pure  water  has  a  yellow  color;  when  strong 
it  has  a  reddish  color,  a  sweetish  astringent  taste,  and  a  peculiar 
odor.  Chemists  consider  it  contains  either  two  coloring  matters, 
or  one  coloring  matter  in  two  distinct  states  of  oxidation.  Like 
indigo,  it  is  supposed  to  contain  a  colorless  body  which,  by  the 
absorption  of  air  or  ammonia,  becomes  colored  ;  but  this  state- 
ment is  by  no  means  so  well  proved  as  to  be  taken  for  a  fact. 
The  wood  is  very  hard  and  dense,  and  as  before  stated  does  not 
yield  its  color  quickly  to  water.  The  rasped  logwood  is  usually 
damped  and  kept  in  that  state  for  some  weeks  before  it  is  used, 
being  turned  over  when  it  shows  any  inclination  to  heat. 
Instead  of  degging  it  with  pure  water,  sometimes  lant  or  stale 
urine  is  used,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  water  or  lime,  and 
sometimes  soda  is  dissolved  in  the  water.  It  is  considered  that 
logwood  is  improved  in  dyeing  power  to  the  extent  of  fifty  per 
cent,  by  this  process ;  or  that  ten  parts  of  it  thus  treated  are 
equal  to  fifteen  taken  in  the  dry  state  from  the  rasping  mill. 
It  has  been  attempted  to  prove  that  some  chemical  change  takes 
place  in  the  coloring  matter  of  the  logwood;  that  the  colorless 
principle,  supposed  to  exist  in  the  wood,  absorbs  oxygen  and 
ammonia,  and  becomes  colored,  and  thus  its  dyeing  power  is 
increased.  I  consider  that  there  is  no  real  foundation  for  this 
belief,  and  that  the  action  of  steeping  and  ageing  logwood  may 
be  simply  and  sufficiently  explained  on  physical  grounds.  The 
water  may  be  supposed  to  soak  gradually  into  the  hard  fibres, 
swell  them  out,  soften  the  mass,  and  render  the  coloring  par- 
ticles accessible  to  the  action  of  liquids,  and  so  readily  soluble 
in  them.  The  change  of  color  from  the  dusty  yellow  rasped 
wood  to  the  reddish  hue  of  damped  wood  may  be  due  to  the 
simple  effect  of  water  dissolving  the  coloring  matter,  and  cover- 
ing the  fibrous  part  with  it;  but  water  always  heightens  the 
hue  of  coloring  matters.  The  use  of  uriue— if  it  has  really  any 
use  upon  the  wood  beyond  that  of  increasing  its  depth  of 
color — may  be  looked  for  in  the  action  of  the  ammonia  it  con- 
tains upon  the  resinous  matters  of  the  wool ;  it  would  dissolve 
them  in  part,  and  set  at  liberty  the  coloring  matters  which  it 
may  be  supposed  they  would  otherwise  prevent  from  coming 


LOGWOOD.  319 

into  contact  with  the  water.  Solution  of  Dogwood  has  an  incli- 
nation to  form  blue  compounds  with  mineral  substances,  such 
as  lime,  baryta,  copper,  alumina,  iron,  etc.,  but  if  in  large 
quantity  the  blue  becomes  so  intense  as  to  be  considered  a 
black.  No  good  blues  can  be  obtained  from  logwood,  the  best 
of  them  are  dull  and  absorbent,  and  inclined  to  go  brown  or 
black  ;  it  is  principally  employed  in  dark  colors,  black,  choco- 
late, etc.  The  pure  coloring  matters  which  may  be  extracted 
from  it  have  received  the  names  of  hematoxyline,  hematine,  and 
hema&ine. 

Logwood  is  very  extensively  used  in  the  black  dye  for  silk, 
woollen,  and  calico ;  its  cost  comes  considerably  under  that  of 
galls,  which  give  the  best  and  firmest  colors.  Upon  calico  the 
mordant  may  be  either  alumina  alone — but  that  gives  a  black 
too  much  on  the  purplish  side— or  iron  alone,  but  the  black 
from  this  will  be  too  brown  and  dull.  Perhaps  the  best  mor- 
dant is  a  mixture  of  the  two,  in  which  the  alumina  predomi- 
nates ;  other  dyewoods  are  used  to  modify  the  shade  of  the 
black,  according  to  the  requirements  of  trade.  Wool  is  dyed 
black  in  various  ways,  mostly  with  a  blue  foundation,  which, 
for  fast  colors,  is  from  the  hot  vat,  but  more  frequently  from 
the  sulphate  of  indigo.  Logwood  black  withstands  washings 
pretty  well,  and  is  not  much  injured  by  a  moderate  soaping ; 
it  does  not  withstand  the  action  of  the  air  and  light,  but  soon 
loses  its  lustre,  becoming  brown  and  faded.  This  change  takes 
place  more  quickly  upon  cotton  than  upon  silk,  and  sooner  upon 
silk  than  upon  wool.  A  logwood  black  can  be  discovered  by 
the  action  of  weak  spirits  of  salts  upon  it ;  a  drop  turns  it  to  a 
bright  red.  If  the  black  be  from  galls,  it  changes  the  color, 
but  does  not  give  a  red.  The  substitution  of  logwood  for  the 
astringent  substances  in  dyeing  black  has  been  injurious  to  the 
general  character  of  the  black  dye.  For  printing  blacks  on 
calico  or  wool  the  logwood  is  mixed  with  nitrate  of  iron.  Log- 
wood liquor  is  much  employed  in  steam  and  spirit  colors,  for 
other  colors  besides  black.  With  tin  mordants  it  yields  shades 
of  purple,  lilac,  and  violet;  mixed  with  other  colored  extracts 
it  helps  to  produce  chocolates  and  similar  colors.  Logwood 
produces  an  intense  black  with  chromate  of  potash  under  cer- 
tain circumstances,  and  this  salt,  is  occasionally  employed  in 
logwood  colors,  but  it  has  several  difficulties  attending  it.  It 
coagulates  the  solution,  and  then  it  is  impossible  to  work  it ; 
the  only  way  in  which,  at  present,  it  can  be  used  is  to  pass  the 
pieces  printed  with  logwood  color  through  it.  It  gives  a  harsh- 
ness to  the  pieces,  and  is  seldom  employed  ;  but  it  deserves  the 
attention  of  dyers,  because  the  blacks  thus  made  seem  faster 
than  blacks  produced  from  iron  and  alumina  mordants. 


320  LUSTRES — MADDER. 

Logwood  is  a  very -rich  coloring  matter,  and  under  chemical 
treatment  can  be  made  to  assume  several  different  and  valuable 
shades  of  color;  but  they  are  very  unstable,  and  peculiarly 
susceptible  to  the  destructive  action  of  air  and  light,  while 
they  withstand  washing  with  tolerable  firmness.  Chemistry 
does  not  at  present  give  the  slightest  clue  to  the  reason  why 
one  coloring  matter  is  fast  and  another  fugitive,  why  one  can 
resist  the  detergent  action  of  soap  and  the  other  cannot,  why 
one  is  not  particularly  affected  by  exposure  to  the  air  and 
another  is  almost  destroyed.  There  is,  doubtless,  some  general 
law  governing  these  things.  It  may  reasonably  be  expected 
that,  when  the  principles  of  the  fixation  of  coloring  matters 
are  better  understood,  something  may  be  done  to  communicate 
to  the  fugitive  coloring  matters  some  of  that  permanency  which 
distinguishes  the  majority  of  the  substances  employed  by  the 
dyer  and  printer.  Logwood  seems  to  be  one  of  those  sub- 
stances most  likely  to  reward  the  labor  which  may  be  spent 
upon  it  in  the  endeavor  to  improve  its  permanency. 

The  coloring  matter  of  logwood  is  distinguished  from  that 
of  the  red  woods  of  the  caesalpinia  tribe  by  giving  blue-colored 
precipitates  with  the  alkaline  earths  and  several  metallic  solu- 
tions, while  the  red  woods  give  precipitates  of  a  crimson  hue. 
The  fixed  alkalies,  in  contact  with  air,  appear  to  have  the 
power  of  developing  a  red  color  from  the  yellow  hematoxy- 
line;  this  property  is  possessed  by  lime  water,  and  also  by  bi- 
carbonate of  lime. 

Lustres. — This  is  a  trade  term  which  was  applied  a  few 
years  ago  to  a  style  of  delaine  work  in  which  the  delaine  was 
dyed  before  printing,  but  so  dyed  that  the  woollen  threads  were 
of  a  different  color  from  the  cotton  threads,  an  effect  being 
produced  something  like  that  seen  in  shot  silks.  (See  MIXED 
FABRICS.) 

Luteoline. — The  chemical  name  of  the  pure  coloring  mat- 
ter of  weld,  or  dyers'  weed. 


Madder. — The  madder  plant  grows  in  many  parts  of  the 
world,  and  seems  to  yield  a  nearly  equal  product  in  very  vari- 
ous climates  and  situations.  It  is  not  cultivated  for  commer- 
cial purposes  in  this  country,  but  is  largely  grown  in  France 
and  Holland,  whence  the  bulk  of  that  used  in  England  is 
obtained.  Madder  roots  in  the  unground  state  are  imported 
from  the  Levant,  and  called  Turkey  roots  ;  small  quantities  are 
obtained  from  other  countries  in  Europe,  and  some  from  the 


MADDER.  321 

East  Indies,  generally  known  as  Bombay  roots.  The  madders 
from  these  places  are  very  similar  in  chemical  and  tinctorial 
characters — their  differences  do  not  appear  to  be  of  an  essen- 
tial nature.  Some  are  preferred  for  one  style  of  work  and 
some  for  another,  while  some  are  not  so  rich  in  coloring  matter 
as  others.  The  market  price  is  a  correct  evidence  of  the  good- 
ness of  a  known  kind  of  madder ;  the  tests  of  its  quality  being 
perfectly  practical  in  their  nature,  are  for  existing  methods  of 
using  this  coloring  matter  unmistakable,  and  the  true  commer- 
cial value  of  a  madder  is  soon  ascertained.  The  French  mad- 
ders are  in  a  state  of  very  fine  powder,  packed  tight  in  large 
casks,  where,  owing  to  a  gelatinous  or  gummy  substance  which 
all  madder  contains,  the  whole  powder  is  sometimes  firmly 
cemented  together,  requiring  to  be  cut  wilh  a  pickaxe ;  when 
placed  in  water  the  gummy  matter  immediately  dissolves,  and 
the  madder  falls  to  powder.  The  roots  which  are  imported  are 
generally  ground  by  the  consumer.  I  have  made  many  experi- 
ments as  to  the  fineness  to  which  madder  should  be  ground,  so 
as  to  give.out  all  its  available  color  ;  and  working  upon  Turkey 
roots,  I  have  found,  as  a  general  result,  that  there  is  no  advan- 
tage in  bringing  it  to  an  exclusively  fine  powder;  if  it  passes 
through  a  sieve  of  about  twelve  wires  to  the  inch,  it  is  fine 
enough.  The  French  cask  madder,  when  dry,  will  pass  through 
a  sieve  of  eighty  wires  to  the  inch.  That  degree  of  fineness  is 
perhaps  necessary  to  make  it  a  commercially  saleable  article ; 
but  for  a  manufacturer  to  grind  his  own  roots  so  fine  would 
be  a  great  loss  of  labor  without  any  corresponding  advantage. 
The  reason  for  this  lies  in  the  texture  of  madder;  it  is  not  like 
a  hard  wood,  enclosing  its  coloring  particles  in  walls  of  inso- 
luble ligneous  fibre,  which  must  be  torn  up  by  mechanical  force, 
in  order  to  set  them  at  liberty  in  the  dye  beck ;  it  is,  on  the 
contrary,  soft,  it  contains  one-half  its  weight  of  gum,  sugar, 
salts,  and  other  soluble  matters,  which  the  water  speedily  dis- 
solves, and  reduces  the  remainder  into  a  porous,  spongy  state, 
so  that  water  has  easy  access  to  the  coloring  matter.  The  finer 
particles  which  all  ground  madder  contains,  if  separated  by  a 
sieve  from  the  coarse  parts,  will  be  found  to  be  no  better  for 
dyeing,  but  frequently  rather  worse,  because  they  generally 
contain  the  sand,  stones,  and  dirt,  which  grind  to  dust  sooner 
than  the  tough  fibre  of  the  root. 

It  is  a  general  opinion  that  madder,  when  well  kept,  improves 
for  some  years  after  it  has  been  gathered.  A  kind  of  slow  fer- 
mentation appears  to  go  on,  the  madder  swells,  often  bulging 
out  the  casks,  and  even  bursting  them.  I  consider  that  the 
question  of  the  improvement  of  madder  by  age  is  not  a  gene- 
ral one,  it  is  confined  to  peculiar  qualities ;  the  contradictory 


322  MADDER. 

results  of  many  experiments,  and  conflicting  statements  of 
those  who  have  compared  fresh  and  old  madders,  can  only  be 
explained  or  reconciled  by  this  supposition.  With  regard  to 
Turkey  roots,  I  feel  certain  they  are  old  enough  when  they 
arrive  in  England  for  all  useful  purposes.  Madder,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  is  not  deteriorated  by  age,  nor  even 
sensibly  altered,  if  it  has  been  kept  dry  and  out  of  strong 
light.  I  have  had  an  opportunity  of  trying  madder  forty  years 
old,  which  was  very  little  different  in  its  behavior  from  fresh 
madder  of  the  same  kind.  Its  solution  in  the  beck  was  blacker 
and  of  a  different  taste  to  new  madder,  but  the  colors  it  yielded 
were  as  good  in  every  respect.  It  has  been  proposed  to  moisten 
madder  with  water,  or  expose  it  to  a  damp  atmosphere  to  absorb 
moisture,  with  a  view  to  extracting  its  coloring  matter  more 
quickly  or  in  greater  quanity.  This  method,  though  found 
useful  with  regard  to  many  dye-woods,  is  no  good  in  the  case 
of  madder.  I  have  tried  it  under  many  different  circum- 
stances. If  madder  be  exposed  to  a  thoroughly  moist  atmos- 
phere it  will  absorb  about  twenty  per  cent,  more  water  than  it 
usually  contains ;  this  will  make  it  feel  damp,  it  will  adhere 
together  when  pressed,  and  its  color  is  heightened.  If  degged 
with  water  its  gummy  character  makes  it  adhere  in  lumps,  and 
it  cannot  be  turned  over  and  exposed  to  the  air  in  the  same 
way  that  logwood  or  fustic  can.  Either  of  these  treatments 
leaves  the  madder  about  the  same  for  dyeing;  there  is  no  per- 
ceptible improvement  in  it. 

Action  of  Solvents  upon  Madder. — If  ground  madder  is  stirred 
up  with  a  large  quantity  of  cold  water,  and  strained  off  clear, 
without  standing  more  than  a-n  hour,  a  good  deal  of  the  color- 
ing matter  will  be  removed  by  the  water.  But  it  is  not 
possible  in  this  manner  to  extract  all  the  coloring  matter  from 
madder,  and  the  portion  extracted  is  mixed  up  with  so  much 
sugary  and  gummy  matters  that  it  is  inapplicable  as  an 
extract  of  coloring  matter.  If  the  madder  be  left  to  stand 
for  twenty-four  hours  before  straining,  it  will  be  found  to 
have  assumed  a  gelatinous  state,  more  or  less  apparent  ac- 
cording to  the  quantity  of  water  used,  and  if  the  liquor  be 
pressed  out  it  will  be  found  not  to  contain  any  appreciable 
quantity  of  the  coloring  matter  of  the  root.  This  is  a  very 
curious  property  of  the  coloring  matter  of  madder ;  it  will  dis- 
solve if  it  does  not  stand ;  if  it  stands  it  becomes  insoluble, 
and  only  the  soluble  and  useless  part  of  the  root  is  washed 
away.  In  this  manner  madder  is  often  treated.  It  loses  nearly 
one-half  its  weight;  when  dry  has  a  peculiar  smell,  somewhat 
resembling  sour  milk;  it  is  lighter  colored  than  before  the 
treatmentj  and  does  not  injure  the  whites  so  much  in  dyeing. 


MADDER.  323 

It  is  called  in  trade  "  Fluer  de  garance,"  or,  in  English, 
"  Flowers  of  madder."  It  is  suitable  for  some  styles  of  work, 
but  it  presents  no  advantage  on  the  score  of  economy ;  it  goes 
about  twice  as  far  as  madder,  and  is  about  twice  as  dear ;  not 
tinging  the  whites  as  much  as  the  madder,  it  saves  soap,  and 
can  even  be  cleared  without  soap,  but  in  such  case  the  colors 
are  dull. 

Hot  water,  if  poured  upon  madder  and  strained  off,  dissolves 
some  coloring  matter,  but  less  than  cold  water;  if  left  to  stand 
until  cold,  it  acts  nearly  the  same  as  cold  water.  Both  hot 
and  cold  water,  when  not  left  standing  on  madder,  injure  the  un- 
dissolved  residue  to  an  extent  which  seems  disproportioned  to  the 
amount  of  coloring  matter  to  be  found  dissolved  by  the  water. 

The  other  liquids  which  are  generally  used  as  solvents  for 
coloring  matters  do  not  make  any  satisfactory  extraction  of 
this  root.  The  coloring  principle  of  madder  is  an  anomaly  in 
its  behavior  to  different  substances.  In  some  respects  one  of 
the  strongest  of  colors,  it  is  at  other  times  injured  or  destroyed 
by  the  slighest  chemical  action.  It  appears  to  be  at  the  same 
time  soluble  and  insoluble  in  water.  How  are  these  conflict- 
ing phenomena  to  be  explained?  Either  by  supposing  that 
there  is  more  than  one  coloring  matter  in  the  root,  or  that,  if 
it  is  a  simple  principle  which  yields  all  the  shades,  it  must  be 
capable  of  assuming  different  forms  and  properties,  passing 
from  one  condition  to  another,  as  from  a  soluble  to  an  insoluble 
one,  and  so  on.  Indeed,  it  seems  probable  that  madder  does 
not  contain  a  really  isoluble  coloring  matter,  but  it  contains 
something,  or  perhaps  several  things,  which,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  water,  air,  warmth,  etc.,  become  colors.  By  several 
complicated  chemical  processes  a  substance  can  be  obtained 
from  madder,  in  small  quantity  which  is  crystallized  in  beau- 
tiful orange-red  colored  needles;  it  is  named  alizarine,  and  is 
the  reputed  pure  coloring  principle  of  madder.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  it  is  so  in  a  most  important  manner,  since  all  the 
colors  which  madder  gives  can  be  obtained  from  these  crystals, 
by  simply  dyeing  mordanted  cloth  in  them.  But  it  may  not  be 
the  only  coloring  principle  in  the  root,  or  it  may  not  be  in  the 
root  at  all,  but  produced  by  the  chemical  operations  performed 
upon  it.  That  is  of  no  practical  consequence;  it  is  either  in 
the  root,  or  something  else  which  forms  it  is  there.  It  does 
not  appear  necessary  to  look  for  other  coloring  matters  while 
this  one  is  capable  of  yielding  all  the  shades  which  madder 
itself  gives.  There  may  be,  indeed,  a  separate  principle  for 
the  red  color,  and  one  for  the  purple,  and,  if  so,  also  one  for 
the  black  and  chocolate;  but  it  is  apparent,  if  this  be  the  case, 
that  they  are  respectively  convertible,  under  the  influence  of 


324  MADDER. 

mordants,  one  into  the  other;  and  for  all  practical  comprehen- 
sion of  the  properties  of  madder,  the  assumption  that  there  is 
one  coloring  principle,  and  that  one  alizarine,  may  be  held  as 
true.  The  peculiar  behavior  of  water  upon  madder  may  be  con- 
sidered as  attributable  to  the  alizarine  existing  partly  formed 
and  partly  unformed;  the  completely  formed  portion  not  being 
sensibly  acted  upon  by  cold  water,  and  very  little  by  hot,  while 
the  unformed  alizarine  is  dissoluble  by  water,  but  has  a  constant 
tendency  to  pass  into  its  complete  state  of  alizarine,  in  which  it 
is  not  dissolved  by  water.  The  jellifying  of  the  madder  has 
probably  no  necessary  connection  with  this  alteration  of  the 
coloring  matter,  for  the  gelatinous  substance  can  be  separated, 
and  is  found  to  possess  no  dyeing  properties  at  all.  What  the 
water  takes  away  is  vegetable  extractive  matter,  partly  of  a 
gummy,  partly  of  a  saccharine  nature,  and  some  earthy  matters 
which  are  soluble  in  water;  what  it  leaves  behind  is  woolly  fibre, 
earthy  matter,  this  peculiar  jelly-like  matter,  called  by  the  chem- 
ists pectine  and  pectic  acid,  and  also  the  alizarine. 

A  question  of  the  highest  importance  is  yet  pending  with 
regard  to  the  coloring  matter  of  madder;  to  extract  it  in  a 
pure  state  from  the  other  matters  that  are  with  it  in  the  root, 
or  if  not  in  a  pure  state,  yet  sufficiently  strong  and  pure  to 
resemble  other  extracts,  as  logwood  liquor,  sapan  liquor,  etc. 
If  this  could  be  accomplished,  it  seems  probable  that  it  would 
be  more  economical  to  use  it  as  a  steam  color  than  to  dye  with; 
it  is  likely  it  would  yield  better  shades  and  more  regular 
results,  and  be  in  many  cases  extremely  preferable  to  the  mix- 
ture of  a  small  amount  of  pure  coloring  matter  and  large 
amount  of  useless  encumbering  matter  which  constitutes  mad- 
der. The  Industrial  Society  of  Mulhouse  has  at  various  times 
offered  large  premiums  and  honors  to  any  one  who  should 
resolve  this  question  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  having  regard 
to  commercial  requirements.  These  inducements,  and  the  cer- 
tainty of  otherwise  making  large  profits,  have  led  some  of  the 
ablest  colorists  in  France  and  England  to  turn  their  attention 
to  this  topic,  but  without  the  slightest  success  so  far.  Nothing, 
perhaps,  could  so  well  illustrate  the  immense  difficulty  of  deal- 
ing with  this  matter  than  the  failure  of  so  many  attempts  to 
accomplish  something,  so  well  defined  as  a  solution  of  the 
coloring  matter  of  this  root.  Solutions  and  extracts  have  been 
made,  but  they  did  not  fulfil  the  required  conditions;  they 
were  either  too  impure  and  contaminated  with  foreign  matters, 
or  else  were  too  expensive  on  account  of  the  use  of  spirits  of 
wine,  or  such  solvents,  in  extracting  the  color.  Some  of  these 
extracts  have  been  employed  on  a  small  scale,  and  pieces  done 
with  them  which,  if  not  perfect,  at  any  rate  seemed  to  indicate 


MADDER.  325 

the  strong  probability  of  success  awaiting  continued  efforts  in 
the  same  direction.  To  judge  by  the  numerous  patents  taken 
out  in  this  country  and  in  France  with  reference  to  this  sub- 
ject, one  would  be  led  to  conclude  that  not  only  was  the  matter 
not  difficult  to  accomplish,  but  that  actually  a  great  number 
of  persons  had  succeeded  in  accomplishing  it.  There  could 
not  be  a  greater  mistake ;  either  the  enrolled  specifications  of 
those  patents  are  fraudulently  deceptive  in  concealing  the  real 
method  of  accomplishing  the  end,  or  else  the  patentees  are 
most  lamentably  ignorant  of  what  has  been  done  in  the  same 
direction.  Processes  are  patented  which  are  perfectly  impos- 
sible, and  one  might  imagine  that  the  parties  did  not  actually 
know  what  madder  was,  or  had  never  worked  upon  it  for  an 
hour  in  their  lives.  Much  information  upon  the  behavior  of 
madder,  under  various  circumstances  and  with  various  chemi- 
cal re-agents,  has  been  acquired,  but  nothing  of  any  practical 
utility  has  yet  resulted  from  experiments  to  concentrate  it  by 
extraction.  It  is  a  subject  yet  inviting  to  research,  and  seems 
to  promise  great  things  to  the  discoverer.  A  necessary  con- 
dition in  preparing  an  extract  of  madder  is,  that  it  must  not, 
at  least,  give  inferior  results  to  those  at  present  obtainable  by 
dyeing.  No  facilities  of  application  would  compensate  for 
inferior  results,  and  no  extract  can  hope  to  meet  with  extended 
employment  which  does  not  enable  the  printer  or  dyer  to  pro- 
duce as  good  or  better  results  than  he  can  now  obtain.  There 
is  a  sufficient  margin  in  the  amount  of  coloring  matter,  which 
is  never  obtained  from  the  roots,  to  make  an  effective  extrac- 
tion pay  for  its  expenses,  if  these  are  not  very  heavy,  by  the 
use  of  solvents,  which  are  dear  in  themselves,  or  get  lost  in  the 
process  of  extraction. 

Madder  does  not  give  up  all  its  coloring  matter  to  water, 
however  long  it  may  be  boiled  with  it,  even  in  the  presence  of 
mordants,  which  remove  it  from  solution  as  fast  as  it  is  dis- 
solved. This  may  not  be  true  when  very  large  quantities  of 
water  are  used  for  comparatively  small  amounts  of  madder, 
but  in  all  practical  dyeing  operations  it  is  the  case.  The  spent 
madder  contains  nearly  as  much  coloring  matter  as  has  been 
extracted  from  it,  but  it  must  be  in  some  different  form,  or  else 
it  would  come  out  upon  treating  with  fresh  water.  The  only 
way  in  which  it  can  be  obtained  is  by  treating  the  spent  mad- 
der with  acids;  the  acids  liberate  the  coloring  matter,  and, 
when  they  are  washed  away  again,  the  spent  madder  is  able  to 
dye  up  almost  as  before.  (See  GARANCINE.) 

The  coloring  matter  of  madder  is  dissolved  in  alcohol  in 
larger  quantity  than  by  water,  but  it  does  not  extract  it  from 
the  root  in  a  state  of  purity,  but  mixed  with  several  other  sub- 


326  MADDER. 

stances.  It  is  soluble  also  in  acids,  when  heated,  and  generally 
falls  out  again  when  cold.  Boiling  alum  water  dissolves  it  in 
comparatively  large  quantity,  and  lets  it  settle  out  upon  cooling 
as  a  yellow-colored  sediment.  The  caustic  alkalies,  ammonia, 
potash,  and  soda,  dissolve  it  to  a  large  extent,  but  not  in  its 
integrity.  They  cause  it  to  undergo  some  change,  which  either 
injures  or  destroys  it,  and  this  is  more  especially  the  case  when 
they  are  left  in  contact  for  any  length  of  time.  Even  the 
milder  forms  of  alkali,  as  the  carbonates,  bicarbonates,  and  the 
borates,  injure  it  very  much  indeed  if  left  in  contact  with  it. 

Action  of  Heat  upon  Madder. — Madder  is  so  complex  a  sub- 
stance that  the  influence  of  any  chemical  agent  upon  it  resolves 
itself  into  the  action  of  the  agent  upon  several  matters  mixed 
together,  and  produces  results  which  defy  all  attempts  to  say 
where  the  principal  action  has  been  exerted,  and  how  far 
secondary  actions  have  influenced  the  final  result.  So  it  is 
with  heat.  Madder  is  injured  by  heating ;  if  steamed  it  is  much 
deteriorated,  and  more  by  low  pressure  than  by  high  pres- 
sure steam.  Dry  heat  above  the  boiling  point  of  water  does 
not  injure  it  nearly  so  much  as  moist  heat.  Madder  may  be 
exposed  to  a  temperature  of  800°  F.  without  being  much 
injured,  but  if  the  temperature  be  pushed  a  little  higher  it 
begins  to  be  seriously  injured,  and  at  a  roasting  point  it  is 
destroyed.  The  pure  alizarine  can  be  sublimed  by  heat  in 
crystal;  it  is  not  destroyed  by  it,  but,  as  it  exists  in  madder, 
mixed  with  many  other  substances,  it  does  not  sublime  but  is 
destroyed.  M.  Camille  Koechlin,  and  others  more  recently, 
have  proposed  a  plan  for  extracting  the  coloring  matter  from 
madder  by  heat  and  currents  of  gases,  but  it  could  not  be 
practically  applied.  Messrs.  Pincoffs  and  Schunck  have 
patented  a  process  for  submitting  washed  madder  to  the  action 
of  high  pressure  steam  in  the  production  of  a  species  of  garan- 
cine,  sold  under  the  name  of  alizarine.  If  an  acid  mixture  of 
madder  and  sulphuric  acid  be  gently  dried,  and  then  exposed 
on  an  iron  plate  to  a  heat  about  sufficient  to  brown  flour,  there 
will  be  formed  in  a  little  time  on  the  surface  a  number  of  small 
crystals  of  a  brilliant  orange  and  red  color — these  are  alizarine, 
pure  so  far  as  they  can  be  obtained  without  being  soiled  with 
the  residue  to  which  they  are  attached.  Much  alizarine  is 
destroyed  compared  with  what  is  obtained  by  this  method  ; 
but  modifications  of  this  plan  might  be  devised  by  which  the 
coloring  matter  could  be  sublimed  away  with  the  worthless 
residue. 

M.  Schlumberger  estimated  the  amount  of  pure  coloring 
matter,  or  alizarine,  in  good  qualities  of  madder  at  about  four 
per  cent. ;  inferior  qualities  only  yielded  him  from  two  to  two 


MADDER.  327 

and  a  half  per  cent.  I  have  found  good  qualities  of  Turkey 
madder  to  contain  about  sixty  per  cent,  of  attractive  matters, 
which  terra  includes  everything  removable  by  water  and  dilute 
alkalies ;  the  woody  fibre  was  therefore  about  forty  per  cent. 
I  never  could  pretend  to  say  either  by  direct  or  indirect  means 
how  much  real  available  coloring  matter  there  was  in  a  given 
quantity  of  madder.  French  madder,  upon  an  average,  contains 
also  about  forty  per  cent,  of  a  ligneous  matter.  The  amount 
of  mineral  matter  in  madder  is  tolerably  constant  at  about 
ten  per  cent. ;  that  is,  for  ground  madder  which  contains  the 
attached  mineral  matters  of  the  roots  besides  the  contained 
mineral  salts.  Madder  root  cleansed  from  all  adhering  soil 
and  sand  will  give  from  six  to  eight  per  cent,  of  residue  upon 
calcination. 

There  is  no  method  known  by  which  the  value  of  a  sample 
of  madder  can  be  determined  in  a  direct  manner  from  the 
amount  of  coloring  matter  which  it  contains.  The  only  reliable 
test  is  that  of  dyeing  either  pieces  or  fents  with  the  sample  in 
question.  A  quantity  of  madder  as  small  as  twenty  grains 
will  suffice  for  a  laboratory  experiment,  from  which  an  expe- 
rienced manipulator  can  obtain  tolerably  reliable  results.  But 
it  requires  very  great  care  in  placing  all  the  samples  under 
examination  in  perfectly  equal  circumstances;  the  precautions 
can  only  be  learned  by  experience. 

Madder  is  said  to  be  adulterated  with  mineral  matters  and 
valueless  vegetable  substances.  As  madder  admits  of  no  addi- 
tions of  this  kind,  without  an  immediate  injury  to  its  dyeing 
properties,  the  dyeing  test  will  suffice  to  point  out  the  presence 
of  such  foreign  matter.  Various  qualities  of  madder  may  be 
mixed  together,  or  even  dried  spent  madder  may  be  ground 
up  with  the  roots.  These  falsifications  will  all  show  in  the  dye- 
beck.  The  admixture  of  other  dyewoods  with  madder  for 
adulterating  purposes  would  for  the  most  part  destroy  their 
object,  by  so  injuring  the  madder  as  to  render  it  quite  unfit  for 
its  usual  applications.  The  same  is  true  of  garancine;  although 
very  few  articles  are  more  subject  to  falsification,  it  is  entirely 
in  the  addition  of  neutral  and  inert  matters  which  increase  the 
weight.  That  such  an  adulteration  should  be  possible  for 
lengthened  periods  can  only  be  owing  to  gross  ignorance  on 
the  side  of  the  purchaser,  or  a  guilty  collusion  on  the  part  of 
his  servants. 

With  regard  to  the  scientific  investigation  of  madder  I  shall 
confine  myself  to  the  published  accounts  of  Dr.  Edward 
Schunck,  who  may  be  considered  the  best  authority  upon  all 
that  concerns  the  chemical  action  of  this  root.  He  considers 
alizarine  to  be  actually  contained  in  madder,  since  it  can  be 


328  MADDER. 

obtained  from  it  without  having  recourse  to  sublimation. 
When  acted  upon  by  nitric  acid  it  gives  a  peculiar  acid,  which 
was  at  first  announced  as  a  new  acid,  but  afterwards  proved  to 
be  .identical  with  the  phthalic  acid,  which  Laurent  had  obtained 
by  the  oxidation  of  chloro-naphthalic  acid  by  nitric  acid.  Be- 
cause nitric  acid  acting  upon  two  separate  substances  has  given 
rise  to  the  same  acid,  Strecker  and  other  chemists  have  been 
led  to  believe  a  similarity  in  composition  of  the  original  bodies ; 
nothing,  however,  proves  this,  and  the  hopes  which  have  been 
raised  of  producing  alizarine  from  any  of  the  compounds  of 
naphthaline  seem  delusive.  A  French  chemist,  M.  Roussin, 
actually  announced  to  the  world,  about  a  year  ago,  that  he  had 
obtained  alizarine  by  acting  upon  a  naphthaline  compound  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  zinc ;  a  little  examination  proved  that  he 
had  allowed  himself  to  be  deceived  upon  very  insufficient 
grounds. 

Rubiacine  is  a  yellow  coloring  matter,  crystallizing  in 
greenish  yellow  needles  of  much  lustre;  it  is  believed  not  to 
be  the  only  yellow  coloring  matter  in  madder ;  when  treated 
with  perchloride  of  iron  it  is  oxidized,  and  forms  an  acid — 
Rubiacic  acid,  which  yields  crystalline  compounds.  Chloro- 
genine  or  rubichloric  acid  is  a  substance  which,  under  the  influence 
of  strong  acids,  is  converted  into  a  dark-green  powder — whence 
its  name;  it  is  supposed  to  be  this  principle  which  stains  the 
unmordanted  parts  of  calico  in  the  dye  bath,  and  which,  being 
partially  removed  and  destroyed  in  garancine  making,  permits 
this  latter  to  dye  without  staining  the  whites  so  much.  Pectic 
acid  or  pectine,  sugar,  and  gum  are  also  found  in  madder.  Mr. 
Schunck  points  out  the  existence  of  a  ferment  in  madder, 
which  he  calls  eryihrozym,  and  which,  in  confirmation  of  Hig- 
gins,  he  looks  upon  as  capable  of  transforming  some  of  the 
uncolored  principles  into  alizarine.  He  goes  further,  and  says 
that  fresh  madder  root  contains  no  red  coloring  matter  at  all, 
only  a  yellowish  color,  which  is  of  no  technical  value,  but  it 
contains  this  ferment,  which  changes  the  yellow  into  alizarine. 
tThe  principle  from  which  all  the  color  is  supposed  to  spring  is 
called  rubion.  Schunck  claims  to  have  isolated  this  principle 
in  a  pure  state,  and  to  have  satisfied  himself  that  it  is  capable 
of  producing  alizarine  by  the  action  of  the  pure  ferment  in 
madder,  and  also  by  the  influence  of  acids  and  alkalies. 

Here  is  a  list  of  some  of  the  bodies  which  are  found  to  result 
from  the  decomposition  of  rubian  by  ferments  or  acids : — 

Rubiretine,  Rubiadine, 

Verantine,  Rubiafine, 

Rubianine,  Rubiagine. 


MADDER.  329 

It  would  be  useless  to  enter  into  details  upon  the  manner  in 
which  the  discoverer  connects  these  bodies  with  one  another  and 
the  original  rubian.  He  does  not  look  upon  them  as  necessary 
to  the  reaction,  and  the  probability  is  that  they  are  accidental 
and  indefinite  mixtures  of  secondary  products.  Rubian  should 
yield  about  80  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  alizarine,  but,  owing  to 
the  formation  of  bye- products,  not  more  than  from,  ten  to 
twenty  per  cent,  can  be  obtained.  Besides  the  above-mentioned 
compounds,  Mr.  Schunck  describes  the  following,  of  which  only 
the  names  are  here  given : — 

Bubianic  acid, 

Chlororubian, 

Chlororubiadine, 

Perchlororubian, 

Purpurine. 

The  latter  named  substance  he  looks  upon  as  a  species  of 
coloring  matter,  distinct  from,  and  inferior  to,  alizarine,  which 
fixes  upon  mordants,  but  is  removed  in  the  subsequent  treat- 
ments to  which  the  better  class  of  madder  colors  are  subjected. 

Coloring  Matters  similar  to  Madder. — Besides  the  various 
qualities  of  madder  received  from  different  parts  of  the  world, 
and  possessing  general  characters  of  resemblance,  although  not 
identical,  there  are  dyeing  matters  which  come  from  plants  of  a 
similar  nature,  and  possess  some  of  the  characters  of  madder, 
while  they  are  deficient  in  others.  Several  of  these  are  known 
to  be  in  use  in  Hindostan,  and  two  or  three  of  them  have  been 
imported  in  rather  large  quantities  into  this  country.  Perhaps 
the  chief  of  them  is  the  substance  known  as  munjeet.  If  looked 
upon  as  a  species  of  madder,  it  must  be  considered  a  very  infe- 
rior one,  producing  the  same  colors  but  requiring  much  larger 
quantities,  and  not  giving  them  so  bright  or  so  fast.  The 
solubte  parts  of  madder  are  nearly  absent  in  rnunjeet.  It  is  a 
dry,  dusty,  reedy  substance,  very  different  in  general  appear- 
ance, taste,  and  character  to  madder.  It  has  been  used  in 
Lancashire  by  some  printers,  and  I  suppose  that  it  may  be 
assumed  it  was  found  as  cheap  as  madder  although  much  poorer 
in  coloring  matter.  It  seems  to  answer  best  when  made  into 
a  kind  of  garancine  ;  on  account  of  its  woody  nature  it  does  not 
lose  much  weight  in  this  process,  for  while  six  hundredweight 
of  French  madder  only  gives  about  seven  hundredweight  of 
pressed  garancine,  the  same  weight  of  munjeet  gives  about  nine 
hundredweight.  A  French  writer,  who  resided  some  time  in 
India,  M.  Gonfreville,  states  that  the  dyers  there  produce  very 
fine  reds  from  some  roots  not  known  in  Europe,  but  all  belong- 
ing to  the  same  botanical  class  as  madder;  and  MM.  Persoz  and 
22 


330  MADDER   COLORS. 

E.  Schwartz  declare  them  all  to  contain  coloring  principles 
identical  with  the  coloring  principles  of  European  madder,  and 
that  with  using  proper  precaution  in  the  dyeing  they  can  be 
made  to  yield  good  colors.  Among  others  of  this  class  of 
plants,  roots,  or  products,  occur  the  names  of  nona,  chayaver, 
ouonlcoudou  and  hnchrout.  Some  of  these  are  probably  syno- 
nymes,  and  there  may  not  be  that  number  of  separate  red 
dyeing  materials  of  the  madder  kind  which  would  appear  from 
the  list  of  names.  None  of  them  seem  to  be  so  good  as  our 
own  madders;  but  the  native  Hindoos  can  produce  dyes  from 
them  which  are  declared  superior  in  stability  and  brilliancy 
to  those  produced  in  Europe.  But  their  processes  are  long, 
tedious,  and  expensive,  and  inapplicable  to  general  calico 
printing  and  dyeing. 

Madder  Colors. — The  chief  colors  obtained  from  madder 
are  the  madder  purple  and  pink.  Turkey  red  may  also  be  con- 
sidered here  as  a  madder  color.  Madder  yields  also  a  dark 
purplish  black,  strong  reds,  and,  with  catechu,  various  shades  of 
brown.  Madder  chocolate,  obtained  from  a  mixture  of  alumina 
and  iron  mordants,  is  not  much  used. 

Madder  Purple  or  Lilac. — This  is  probably  the  most  im- 
portant color  produced  by  the  art  of  calico  printing,  always 
beautiful,  and  the  very  type  of  a  fast  and  permanent  dye ;  it 
withstands  all  the  accidents  of  wear  without  fading,  and  permits 
the  fabric  to  be  washed  an  almost  unlimited  number  of  times 
without  deteriorating  in  shade,  provided  ordinary  care  is  em- 
ployed. The  madder  styles  are  .produced  in  great  perfection 
by  many  printers  in  Lancashire,  and  especially  by  Messrs. 
Thomas  Hoyle  and  Sons,  who  have  for  two  or  three  generations 
been  looked  upon  as  the  leading  house  for  these  particular 
colors.  For  some  years  that  the  author  was  engaged  in  that 
establishment  he  had  excellent  opportunities  of  studying  this 
style  of  work.  There  is  nothing  easier  than  the  production 
of  second-class  madders ;  but  the  very  highest-class  work  re- 
quires an  infinite  number  of  precautions  in  every  step,  from 
the  singeing  or  shearing  to  the  starch  used  in  finishing,  and 
success  entirely  depends  upon  the  close  attention  and  intelligent 
observation  which  is  bestowed  upon  each  of  the  processes.  If 
any  one  or  two  of  the  processes  can  be  named  as  those  upon 
which  success  more  particularly  depends,  perhaps  the  thickening 
of  the  mordants,  and  the  soaping  after  dyeing,  might  be  selected 
as  the  most  important,  or  rather  those  in  which  the  use  of 
inferior  articles,  or  neglect  in  manipulation,  would  operate  most 
strongly  against  obtaining  the  best  result.  But,  in  fact,  the 
whole  of  the  processes  hang  together  like  a  chain,  in  which  if 
there  is  one  faulty  link  the  whole  is  bad. 


MADDER   COLORS.  831 

The  mordants  used  are  very  simple,  consisting  of  nothing 
but  commercial  iron  liquor,  suitably  thickened.  Many  addi- 
tions have  been  proposed  to  improve  the  iron  liquor,  and  are 
used  in  several  places;  but,  if  the  iron  liquor  be  of  good 
quality,  and  such  as  is  easily  obtained  in  trade,  no  addition 
that  I  know  of  will  improve  it  in  the  slightest  degree.  It  is 
customary  in  some  establishments  to  prepare  the  cloth  with 
chlorate  of  potash  before  printing.  I  presume  the  printers  who 
use  the  process  find  some  advantage  in  it  or  they  would  not 
make  the  expenditure;  but  as  work  quite  as  excellent  can  be 
produced  without  this  preparation,  either  there  is  some  differ- 
ence in  the  conditions  not  generally  known,  or  else  the  use 
of  such  prepares  is  simply  a  loss. 

The  thickening  matter  varies  according  to  styles,  etc. :  flour 
is  a  good  deal  used;  an  artificial  gum  thickening  at  from  4  to 
5  Ibs.  per  gallon,  and  known  as  "  purple  gum,"  is  also  used  very 
extensively;  other  gum  substitutes  arid  calcined  farina  are  also 
in  use.  It  is  impossible  to  say  what  thickening  is  best  without 
being  actually  on  the  spot,  and  though  it  is  so  important  a 
part  no  written  directions  can  be  expected  to  meet  particular 
cases. 

The  proportions  of  iron  liquor  to  thickening  must  also  depend 
in  some  degree  upon  the  kind  of  thickening.  One  part  of  iron 
liquor  at  28°  to  four  parts  water,  thickened  with  flour,  gives 
the  black ;  one  part  iron  liquor  to  eight  parts  of  five-pound 
gutn  water  gives  about  the  darkest  purple  of  lilac  in  use  ;  one 
part  iron  liquor  to  40  parts  gum  water  gives  light  shades;  but 
mordants  so  weak  as  one  to  60,  and  one  to  100,  are  sometimes 
employed  for  covers.  The  most  usual  colors  are  made  with 
from  14,  18,  and  20  parts  gum  water  to  one  part  iron  liquor. 

After  printing,  the  pieces  are  aged  and  dunged,  and  then 
entered  into  the  dye.  From'causes  already  stated  the  madder 
is  used  in  its  entirety,  because  no  extract  or  decoction  of  its 
coloring  matter  can  be  made.  It  is  bulky  and  gelatinous  in 
water,  so  that  a  considerable  proportion  of  this  fluid  has  to  be 
employed.  But  it  is  important  to  use  no  more  water  than  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  easy  running  of  the  pieces:  if  an 
excessive  quantity  of  water  be  employed,  a  large  portion  of  the 
coloring  matter  does  not  fix,  and  is  either  wholly  lost  or  returns 
upon  the  spent  madder.  The  amount  of  madder  will  be,  for 
economical  reasons,  apportioned  as  exactly  as  possible  to  the 
demands  of  the  design  ;  but,  if  it  were  not  so,  an  excess  could 
not  be  used  without  injury  to  the  dyed  colors  and  to  the  whites. 
To  the  colors,  because  the  brown  or  dun-colored  matter,  dis- 
solving more  readily  than  the  alizarine,  would  fill  up  the  mor- 
dants, arid  dispute  the  entrance  of  the  true  coloring  matter  ; 


332  MADDER  COLOES. 

and  to  the  whites,  because  the  free  alizarine  would  partially  fix 
upon  them,  and  would  be  difficult  to  remove. 

The  alizarine  dissolves  only  slowly,  and  in  small  quantity, 
in  water,  so  that  madder  dyeing  occupies  a  greater  length  of 
time  than  other  styles.  About  two  hours  is  required  to  obtain 
the  best  results;  a  less  time  than  an  hour  and  a  half  would 
waste  madder;  if  continued  longer  than  two  hours,  at  the  usual 
temperature,  the  colors  are  liable  to  be  injured  without  any 
corresponding  economy  of  madder.  The  mordants  commence 
taking  the  color  at  a  temperature  of  from  100°  to  120°,  but 
only  slowly  ;  at  140°  the  dyeing  proceeds  rapidly,  and  could 
be  wholly  accomplished,  but  would  not  exhaust  the  madder  ; 
at  160°  the  colors  become  nearly  saturated,  at  180°  is  as  high 
as  it  is  advisable  to  carry  the  heat  for  the  best  colors.  By 
raising  the  temperature  to  ebullition,  a  little  less  madder  will 
suffice,  but  neither  colors  nor  whites  are  at  their  best.  As  the 
dyeing  does  not  commence  until  a  temperature  of  100°  is  at- 
tained, the  goods  and  madder  may  be  entered  in  water  at  that 
heat ;  in  thirty  minutes  the  temperature  may  be  raised,  in  a 
gradual  and  regular  manner,  to  140°,  and  to  180°  in  another 
hour,  keeping  the  temperature  at  that  point  until  finished. 
Irregular  heating  is  prejudicial  to  madder  dyeing;  if  the  steam 
should  be  cut  off,  and  the  dye  fall  twenty  or  thirty  degrees  in 
the  course  of  the  round,  it  would  injure  the  colors  very  much. 
In  France  there  is  a  system  of  dyeing  madder  colors  at  twice, 
dividing  the  quantity  of  madder  into  two  unequal  portions, 
dyeing  with  the  lesser  quantity  at  a  low  temperature,  and  then 
in  fresh  water  dyeing  with  the  remainder,  using  more  elevated 
temperatures.  I  have  tested  this  plan  with  good  qualities  of 
French  and  Turkey  madder,  but  found  no  advantage  in  color, 
while  there  is  greatly  increased  risk  of  accident,  besides  labor 
and  expense;  it  might  be  useful  in  poor  qualities  of  madder. 
The  exposure  to  the  air  during  dyeing  is  by  some  authorities 
considered  of  essential  benefit  to  the  colors  ;  my  experiments 
do  not  support  this  view,  I  only  found  that  the  more  the  piece 
was  exposed  to  the  air  the  more  difficult  it  became  to  clear  the 
whites ;  for  all  that  the  air  resists,  the  dyeing  might  take  place 
in  vacuum. 

The  costliness  of  madder,  and  the  certainty  that  none  of  the 
dyeing  processes  extract  all  its  coloring  matter,  have  led  to  the 
trial  of  numerous  additions  to  it  in  dyeing,  with  a  view  of 
making  it  go  further.  The  substances  added  have  been  mostly 
of  the  mineral  nature,  and  have  been  used  often  at  random 
without  any  particular  aim  ;  at  other  times  they  were  employed 
with  some  specific  intention,  as,  for  example,  to  neutralize  some 
supposed  acid  in  the  madder,  to  counteract  the  effects  of  lime 


MADDER   COLORS.  333 

in  the  water,  to  prevent  the  fixation  of  the  brown  coloring 
matter  of  the  root,  to  make  the  real  coloring  matter  more  solu- 
ble and  so  on.  The  advantages  which  are  said  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  use  of  such  additions  to  the  dye-beck  are  more 
imaginary  than  actual.  In  the  publications  of  the  Industrial 
Society  of  Mulhouse  may  be  found  several  essays  upon  this 
subject,  some  by  anonymous  authors,  others  with  well-known 
and  respectable  names  attached  to  them ;  but  the  results  are  for 
the  most  part  quite  at  variance  with  what  can  be  obtained  in 
England,  working  upon  good  French  madder  or  Turkey  roots. 
The  most  careful  experiments  that  I  could  make  in  the  same 
direction  failed  to  give  me  the 'same  results;  the  madder  which 
yielded  such  symptoms  of  being  improved  by  certain  additions 
could  not  have  been  like  the  madder  supplied  by  respectable 
import  houses  in  Manchester.  The  "Bulletin  de  la  Societe* 
Industrielle  de  Mulhouse"  is  not  easily  accessible  to  English 
readers,  but  a  full  resume  of  these  papers  may  be  found  in  Per- 
soz,  "  Traite  de  1'  impression  des  tissus,"  ii.  504-510.  The  first 
point  is  the  addition  of  ground  chalk  in  madder  dyeing.  No 
one  familiar  with  the  literature  of  dyeing  and  printing  can  be 
ignorant  of  the  letter  M.  Hausmann  wrote  to  M.  Berthollet, 
detailing  that  he,  having  removed  from  Rouen  to  Logelbach, 
found  that  he  could  not  dye  up  the  same  colors  as  those  which 
he  had  obtained  at  Rouen  ;  how  at  length,  by  analytical  exami- 
nation, he  found  that  the  water  at  Logelbach  was  too  pure,  that 
the  Rouen  water  differed  from  it  by  containing  a  quantity  of 
lime  salt ;  and  how  he  had  the  happy  idea  of  adding  carbonate 
of  lime  or  ground  chalk  to  his  madder,  when  all  the  dyes  came 
up  well  again,  and  produced  colors  as  fast  and  brilliant  as  ever. 
Since  the  publication  of  this  letter,  French  writers  hold  it  abso- 
lutely necessary  that  chalk  should  be  in  the  water,  either  natu- 
rally or  artificially,  to  produce  good  fast  colors,  and  they 
consider  that  lime  becomes  an  essential  part  of  the  color  as 
fixed  upon  the  cloth.  The  statements  concerning  this  neces- 
sity for  lime  are  by  far  too  general,  extend  over  too  long  a 
series  of  years,  and  have  attached  to  them  too  many  of  the 
names  celebrated  in  the  annals  of  French  dyeing,  to  be  without 
some  foundation  in  fact ;  but  I  can  say,  without  fear  of  contra- 
diction, that  the  Turkey  roots  and  French  madders,  used 
through  a  series  of  years  in  the  neighborhood  of  Manchester, 
were  never  improved  by  the  addition  of  chalk,  even  when  dis- 
tilled waters  were  used  for  dyeing.  Lime  in  some  form  is 
present  in  most  samples  of  madder,  and  in  France  it  is  known 
that  some  madders  are  not  only  not  improved  but  injured  by 
adding  chalk  to  them.  The  madder  called  Paluds,  from  the 
district  which  it  grows  in,  containing  a  large  amount  of  chalk 


334:  MADDER  COLORS. 

derived  from  the  soil,  requires  no  addition;  the  Avignon  mad- 
der is  said  to  require  some  chalk  added,  and  the  Dutch  and 
Alsatian  madders  imperatively  demand  it  in  rather  large  quan- 
tities. Such  is  the  general  statement  made  by  French  writers. 
M.  Persoz  mentions  a  case  in  which  he  found  a  sample  of 
Alsatian  madder  to  dye  up  perfectly  well  without  any  addition 
of  chalk;  it  had  been  kept  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  in 
a  bottle,  and  he  assumes  that  it  had  undergone  some  change 
by  lapse  of  time.  An  anonymous  writer,  quoted  also  by  Per- 
soz, puts  down  all  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths  and  carbo- 
nates, including  chalk,  as  injurious  to  madder  dyeing.  This 
is  in  contradiction  to  the  current  statements  throughout  his 
work,  and  especially  to  the  statements  of  that  eminent  practical 
authority,  M.  Daniel  Koechlin.  The  statements  of  M.  Koech- 
lin  prove  too  much  to  sustain  the  lime  theory,  for  he  states 
that  alkalies  in  general  serve  the  same  purpose,  and  prescribes 
the  exact  quantity  of  carbonate  of  potash  and  soda  which  are 
to  replace  the  ground  chalk.  M.  Persoz  states  that  good  mad- 
der colors  contain  a  definite  amount  of  lime,  and  looks  upon  it 
as  an  essential  constituent  of  the  finished  color.  I  have  ana- 
lyzed madder  colors,  but  have  not  found  lime  as  a  regular 
constituent,  and  generally  only  found  such  traces  as  were  due 
to  the  cloth  itself.  I  cannot,  therefore,  concur  in  this  theory  of 
lime  being  necessary  in  madder  dyeing  as  a  general  rule. 
Chalk  is  used  to  some  extent  in  madder  dyeing  in  many  places. 
I  do  not  know  if  it  is  general  in  England.  To  the  extent  of 
one  pound  in  a  hundred  of  madder  it  does  no  harm,  if  it  does 
no  good ;  but  some  houses  use  at  the  rate  of  five  per  cent,  of 
ground  chalk,  and  even  more  for  pinks,  but  this  I  think  is 
quite  unnecessary,  and  even  hurtful.  I  have  proved  the  pre- 
sence of  undecomposed  carbonate  of  lime  in  spent  madder  when 
chalk  has  been  used,  at  the  same  time  the  liquors  have  had  an 
acid  reaction  to  test  paper. 

Besides  chalk,  no  other  substance  has  been  recommended 
for  general  use  in  madder  dyeing,  but  exceptional  cases  are 
not  wanting  in  which  additions  of  various  articles  to  the  dye 
have  been  thought  beneficial  or  necessary.  Bran,  for  example, 
was  long  employed  with  madder  in  producing  the  old  London 
pink.  Size  or  glue  has  been  and  is  yet  used  in  some  places, 
under  the  impression  that  it  gives  better  results,  and  enables 
the  madder  to  dye  further.  Small  quantities  of  potash  and 
soda,  as  also  oxalic  acid,  and  cream  of  tartar  are  used,  and  may 
be  beneficial  owing  to  peculiar  waters.  The  use  of  galls, 
sumac,  and  other  astringent  substances  do  not  come  under  con- 
sideration, as  these  must  be  looked  upon  as  real  coloring  mat- 
ters themselves,  and  as  such  adding  to  the  result  produced  by 


MADDER   COLOES.  335 

madder,  which  addition  may  produce  a  simple  exaltation  of  the 
color,  or  an  entirely  different  shade,  according  to  the  mordant 
in  use.  With  regard  to  these  substances  which  are  used  in 
madder  dyeing  without  ill  effects,  those  who  employ  them 
should  be  the  best  judges  of  their  utility,  and  their  opinion  is 
worth  more  than  that  of  a  person  at  a  distance  and  unacquainted 
with  the  special  and,  perhaps,  exceptional  conditions  under 
which  they  work.  Nevertheless  a  general  opinion  may  be  ex- 
pressed, founded  upon  very  numerous  experiments,  made  under 
a  variety  of  circumstances,  that  with  a  fair  quality  of  water 
and  good  madder  no  addition  is  necessary,  no  addition  is  bene- 
ficial, and  those  additions  which  do  not  injure  the  madder  onlv 
leave  it  where  it  was  as  regards  its  dyeing  powers,  and  the 
quality  of  the  colors  it  produces.  In  the  second  volume  of 
Persoz's  work,  already  cited,  copied  also  in  Muspratt's  Practical 
Chemistry,  are  a  list  of  substances  tried  as  additions  to  mad- 
der, and  before  them  figures  which  pretend  to  indicate  their 
beneficial  or  injurious  action  in  dyeing.  These  figures  (taken 
from  authors  who  have  written  anonymous  essays)  are  simply 
delusory,  and  bear  upon  the  face  of  them  evidences  of  their 
unreliable  character.  In  the  list  will  be  found  a  statement, 
among  others,  that  the  addition  of  g^th  of  sulphate  of  potash 
to  madder  causes  an  increase  in  tinctorial  power  equal  to 
twenty-five  per  cent.,  and,  further  down,  that  the  addition  of 
the  same  quantity  of  sulphate  of  soda  diminishes  the  tinctorial 
power  of  the  madder  by  twenty-one  per  cent.,  making  a  dif- 
ference between  the  two  of  forty  six  per  cent.,  or  equivalent  to 
half  the  quantity  of  madder  used.  This  hardly  needed  the 
test  of  experiment  to  be  condemned.  I  need  scarcely  say  that 
no  madder  obtainable  in  Manchester  was  improved  even  one 
per  cent,  by  the  addition  of  sulphate  of  potash  ;  and  I  am  cer- 
tain, on  the  other  hand,  that  pure  sulphate  of  soda,  used  in  the 
quantity  laid  down,  did  not  injure  it  in  any  perceptible  degree. 
The  deterioration  by  sulphate  of  soda  was  more  likely  to  be 
true  than  the  improvement  by  sulphate  of  potash;  and,  in  a 
repetition  of  the  experiment,  I  provided  an  impure  sulphate  of 
soda,  containing  sulphate  of  iron,  just  as  it  came  from  the 
makers,  and  by  using  a  quantity  of  this,  something  greater 
than  that  prescribed,  I  obtained  a  deteriorated  result,  which 
could  be  carried  to  a  perfect  suspension  of  all  dyeing  powers 
in  the  madder,  by  increasing  the  proportions.  But  it  is  evi- 
dent that  in  this  case  it  was  the  iron  salt,  and  not  the  soda  salt, 
which  was  injurious.  Something  of  this  nature  might  explain 
the  minus  result,  but  the  plus,  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  sul- 
phate of  potash,  is  inexplicable.  Other  substances  which  are 
placed  in  the  same  list  as  injurious  are  for  the  most  part  really 


336  MADDER   COLORS. 

so,  but  those  which  are  marked  as  beneficial,  and  improving 
the  results  of  dyeing,  sometimes  to  a  very  considerable  extent, 
may  be  placed  in  the  same  category  as  sulphate  of  potash.  I 
have  tried  them  almost  every  one,  viewing  the  results  practi- 
cally and  commercially  in  comparison  with  pure  madder 
colors,  and  I  have  not  found  any  improvement  in  any  case,  but 
generally  a  deterioration.  There  is  hardly  a  chemical  salt,  in 
either  practical  or  laboratory  use,  which  I  have  not  made  trial 
of  as  an  addition  to  the  madder  dye  for  lilacs,  reds,  and  blacks, 
and  there  is  not  one  which  gave  an  improved  result  which  was 
of  the  value  of  the  salt  employed,  and  nine  out  of  ten  acted 
prejudicially,  altering  the  shades,  robbing  the  madder,  staining 
the  whites,  or  stopping  the  dyeing  altogether. 

After  the  pieces  have  been  well  washed  out  of  the  dye  they 
are  boiled  with  soap.  The  use  of  soap  for  clearing  madder 
colors  appears  to  have  originated  with  the  Turkey  red  dyers : 
its  object  in  prints  is  twofold — first,  to  clear  the  colors  from  a 
dingy  red  coloring  matter  which  spoils  their  shade,  and,  se- 
condly, to  make  the  white  parts  of  the  design  bright  by  remov- 
ing any  color  which  is  attached  to  them.  It  is  considered 
least  injurious  to  enter  the  pieces  into  the  soap  solution  at  a 
boiling  temperature,  or  at  the  highest  temperature  which  it  is 
intended  to  employ  :  two  or  three  soapings  are  necessary  for 
the  best  quality  of  colors.  A  good  deal  of  coloring  matter  is 
lost  by  soaping;  I  have  made  many  attempts  to  clear  and 
brighten  colors  without  removing  a  portion  of  the  coloring 
matter,  but  with  very  little  success.  Some  eminent  French 
authorities  consider  that  the  fatty  acid  of  the  soap  enters  into 
combination  with  the  oxide  of  the  mordant,  and  contributes  to 
its  stability  and  beauty.  There  is  reason  to  doubt  this  state- 
ment in  the  ordinary  cases  of  madder  dyeing  ;  beyond  the  diffi- 
culty of  imagining  such  a  combination  as  taking  place  under 
the  circumstances,  there  is  the  certainty,  that  in  many  analyses 
no  fatty  matter  is  detected,  and  that  purples  are  produced,  of 
great  beauty  and  stability,  from  commercial  alizarine  without 
the  use  of  soap  or  fatty  matters.  No  detergent  answers  as  well 
as  soap  to  remove  the  injurious  brown  coloring  matters.  The 
alkalies,  caustic  or  carbonated,  the  borates,  phosphates,  and 
silicates,  are  all  injurious  to  the  colors.  A  final  clearing  is 
given  by  padding  in  solution  of  bleaching  powder  and  steam- 
ing, or  in  the  beck.  In  French  processes,  a  passage  in  weak 
sours,  between  the  soapings,  is  often  prescribed ;  this  gives  a 
weaker  purple,  with  less  of  the  red  tinge,  and  would  be  pre- 
ferred in  some  markets.  Madder  purples  are  distinguished 
from  all  others  by  the  magnificent  purple  color  they  produce 


MADDER   COLORS.  387 

when  treated,  first  by  sulphuric  acid,  at  sp.  gr.  1.4,  and  after 
washing,  plunging  in  lime  water. 

Madder  Pink.— The  mordant  may  be  either  red  liquor  or  the 
alkaline  aluminate  of  potash.  I  believe  the  very  best  pinks 
are  obtained  by  means  of  the  alkaline  or  ash  pink  mordant ; 
but,  nevertheless,  acetate  of  alumina  is  the  mordant  most  com- 
monly used,  and  excellent  pinks  may  be  obtained  by  it.  The 
advantage  of  the  alkaline  pink  is,  that  it  will  stand  a  hard 
drying;  but  a  red-liquor  pink  must  be  very  carefully  and 
softly  dried  on  the  machine.  The  difficulty  of  working  the 
alkaline  pink  on  the  other  hand  consists  in  evenly  fixing  the 
mordant,  and  then  cleansing  it  from  the  thickening.  To  effect 
this  it  is  necessary  to  permit  the  pieces  to  hang  in  a  moist 
place  long  enough  to  thoroughly  soften  the  colors;  stoves,  with 
steam  escaping  in,  or  the  ageing  machine,  are  best  adapted  for 
this  purpose.  After  a  sufficient  penetration  of  the  mordant 
has  taken  place,  it  is  fixed  by  passing  through  a  hot  solution 
of  muriate  of  ammonia  or  sal  ammoniac,  and  then  well  washed. 
Dung  is  frequently  used  along  with  the  sal  ammoniac ;  but, 
though  it  may  serve  to  scour  the  thickening  off  the  cloth,  it  is 
not  really  essential,  and  is  better  omitted  if  the  thickening  is  of 
a  soluble  nature.  Besides  sal  ammoniac,  muriate  or  sulphate 
of  zinc  may  be  used  as  the  fixing  agent,  but  preference  is 
usually  given  to  the  former.  It  appears,  from  my  experience, 
that  the  alumina  mordant  thus  deposited  is  more  susceptible  to 
deleterious  influences  than  the  mordant  obtained  from  red 
liquor,  and  is  much  more  easily  injured.  Thus,  an  inferiority 
in  the  water,  which  would  not  tell  upon  a  red-liquor  mordant, 
will  greatly  injure  an  alkaline  mordant.  If  the  smallest  trace 
of  iron,  for  example,  be  in  the  water,  it  is  all  fixed,  with  won- 
derful rapidity,  upon  the  alumina,  and  spoils  the  colors  far 
more  than  it  would  those  from  red  liquor  :  if  the  water  also 
should  contain  any  vegetable  matters,  they  are  attracted  by 
the  alumina,  and  the  color  injured;  and  if  the  pieces  are  left 
several  hours  between  fixing  and  dyeing,  they  are  subject  to 
irregularities.  The  care  required  is  consequently  very  great, 
and  many  printers  have  not  been  successful  in  using  the  alka- 
line mordant. 

Whether  the  alkaline  or  red-liquor  mordant  be  employed, 
the  dyeing  and  subsequent  treatments  are  the  same.  The  tem- 
perature must  not  be  pushed  so  high  as  for  purples ;  should 
not,  in  fact,  pass  160°  or  170°.  The  madder  must  be  of  good  . 
quality,  and  more  finely  ground  than  is  necessary  for  purples 
on  account  of  the  low  temperature:  the  time  of  dyeing  is  from 
two  to  three  hours.  After  washing  from  the  dye,  the  first  step 
is  to  soap,  and  this  must  be  done  at  quite  a  low  temperature — 


338  MADDER  COLORS. 

not  higher  than  140°  F.  and  last  for  twenty  minutes  ;  washed 
out  from  this,  the  colors  are  cut  or  reduced  by  passing  the 
pieces  in  warm  water  containing  very  acid  oxymuriate  of  tin. 
This  is  a  most  important  operation  in  obtaining  good  pinks, 
and  requires  some  attention  and  tact  upon  the  part  of  the  dyer. 
The  object  to  be  attained  is  to  reduce  the  dull  red  color  to  a 
bright  orange  red,  and,  as  the  colors  are  not  always  equally 
affected,  the  proportions  of  the  cutting  agent  are  not  always  the 
same,  nor  the  time  in  which  the  cutting  is  effected.  If  the 
pieces  are  kept  too  long  in  the  acid  liquor,  the  color  becomes 
impoverished  and  bare  ;  if  not  long  enough,  they  will  not  soap 
down  to  a  soft  toned  pink.  It  appears  better  to  have  the 
cutting  solution  strong,  and  perform  the  operation  quickly, 
than,  on  the  contrary,  to  have  it  weak,  and  prolong  the  time 
of  immersion.  The  pink  color  is  brought  up  by  one  or  two 
subsequent  soapings,  which  may  be  worked  at  the  boil.  The 
hue  of  color  is  improved  by  stewing  the  pieces  in  a  pan  for  an 
hour  or  two  with  soap  liquor. 

Oxymuriate  of  tin  is  sometimes  replaced  by  sulphuric  or 
nitric  acid,  as  the  cutting  agent,  but  the  result  of  general  expe- 
rience is  in  favor  of  the  oxymuriate. 

It  appears  to  be  common  amongst  the  French  printers  to  add 
tin  crystals  to  the  final  soapings  and  stewings  of  the  pinks,  and 
they  appear  to  consider  that  a  tin  soap  is  produced  which  takes 
some  part  in  the  color.  I  would  not  recommend  any  such 
addition  to  good  soap;  it  may  be  useful  to  a  bad  or  alkaline 
soap,  but  how  it  could  do  anything  but  injure  a  good  quality 
of  soap  is  not  easily  understood. 

The  chief  essentials  to  success  in  madder  pinks  are  plenty 
of  madder,  a  low  temperature  in  dyeing,  and  plenty  of  good 
soap. 

Madder  Red. — The  ordinary  madder  red  is  'dyed  upon  a 
strong  acetate  of  alumina  mordant,  generally  with  addition  of 
some  tin  crystals  to  give  brightness  to  the  color,  and  throw  off 
any  iron  that  might  come  into  contact  with  it.  Blotch  reds 
are  now  nearly  all  confined  to  garancine  styles,  on  account  of 
the  greater  certainty  and  less  cost  with  which  they  can  be  ob- 
tained. 

Turkey  Red. — This  beautiful  and  remarkable  color  differs 
from  a  common  madder  red  by  containing  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  some  oily  compound  in  its  composition,  the  nature 
of  which  is  not  at  all  understood  by  chemists.  The  methods 
of  obtaining  this  red  are  very  complicated,  and  differ  very  much 
in  different  establishment*?.  The  following  process  is  one  fol- 
lowed by  a  house  producing  very  good  work,  and  may  serve 
as  a  general  illustration  : — 


MADDER  COLORS.  339 

The  pieces  are  not  bleached  white  as  for  printing  only,  being 
well  bottomed  by  liming  and  bowking.  The  dry  pieces  are 
padded  in  a  mixture  of  Gallipoli  oil  and  pearl  ash,  containing 
about  200  Ibs.  oil,  40  Ibs.  pearl  ash,  and  100  gallons  water. 
This  quantity  is  about  sufficient  for  4000  yards  of  calico.  The 
pieces  are  exposed  to  the  air  in  summer,  and  to  the  heat  of  a 
stove  in  cold  weather,  for  twenty-four  hours;  then  padded 
again  in  a  mixture  of  oil,  ash,  and  water,  and  again  dried  and 
exposed  ;  and  so  on  for  as  m&ny  as  eight  different  treatments 
for  dark  colors.  The  excess  of  oil,  or  that  oil  which  has  not 
changed  its  character  by  oxidation  and  alkali,  is  now  removed 
by  steeping,  and  the  pieces  well  washed.  This  completes  the 
oiling,  the  utility  of  which  is  unquestionable,  but  the  principles 
upon  which  its  efficacy  depends  are  at  present  hidden. 

The  next  process  is  the  galling  and  aluming,  which  are  some- 
times separate  treatments,  but  in  this  process  go  together :  60 
Ibs.  of  ground  gall-nuts  are  dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  120  Ibs. 
of  alum,  and  10  Ibs.  of  sugar  of  lead  added  to  the  liquor,  which 
is  made  up  into  120  gallons.  The  pieces  are  padded  in  this 
liquor,  dried,  and  aged  three  days,  then  fixed  by  passing  in 
warm  water  containing  ground  chalk;  being  washed  out  of 
this,  they  are  ready  for  dyeing.  The  dyeing  is  in  madder, 
mixed  with  a  little  sumac  and  with  blood.  For  dark  colors, 
the  pieces  undergo  another  galling  and  aluming  after  dyeing, 
aged,  fixed,  and  dyed  a  second  time.  They  are  now  of  a  very 
heavy  brownish-red  color,  and  are  brightened  by  two  or  three 
soapings,  or  a  passage  in  acid. 

In  other  processes  sheep's  dung  and  cow  dung  are  mixed 
with  the  oil,  and  other  minor  modifications  introduced. 

Garancine  is  now  largely  employed  in  Turkey  red  dyeing, 
and  the  operations  of  clearing  and  brightening  much  shortened. 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  shorten  the  processes  in 
the  preparation  for  Turkey  red,  but  it  does  not  appear  with 
much  success;  or,  if  any  considerable  change  has  taken  place, 
it  is  kept  secret  by  the  discoverers. 

The  use  of  the  oil  in  Turkey  reds  is,  as  before  stated,  en- 
veloped in  obscurity.  Some  chemists  consider  that  the  oil 
forms  a  true  mordant,  and  have  gone  to  the  length  of  asserting 
that  alumina  is  not  at  all  necessary.  What  grounds  there  exist 
for  so  strange  a  statement  are,  as  far  as  I  know,  utterly  insuffi- 
cient for  this  conclusion,  and  the  result  of  my  own  numerous 
experiments  are  quite  opposed  to  it.  That  oil  does  form  a 
species  of  mordant  is  certain,  but  it  is  of  so  weak  a  nature  as 
never  to  dye  up  more  than  a  simple  stain.  The  probability  is 
that  the  oil,  or  whatever  the  oil  is  changed  into,  forms  an  ex- 
cellent basis  for  the  alumina  and  coloring  matter,  besides  which 


340  MADDER  COLORS. 

the  semi-transparency  communicated  to  the  cloth  by  the  oil  is 
of  value  in  increasing  the  lustre  of  the  color,  and  adding  to  its 
stability. 

The  use  of  galls  or  sumac  appears  evidently  to  be  due  to  the 
increased  affinity  they  give  the  cloth  for  the  aluminous  mor- 
dant. It  appears,  from  the  statements  of  several  good  authori- 
ties, that  these  astringent  substances  may  be  dispensed  with, 
provided  that,  instead  of  using  alum  with  a  little  alkali  or 
acetate  of  lead,  the  ordinary  acetate  of  alumina  be  employed. 

Madder.  Browns. — The  browns  worked  with  madder  colors 
are  all  derived  from  catechu,  and  very  similar  to  those  given 
for  Garancine,  page  241,  and  under  catechu,  page  129.  The 
following  two  receipts  will  consequently  suffice  to  complete  the 
illustration: — 

Madder  Brown. 

70  gallons  water, 

350  Ibs.  catechu  ;  boil  ten  hours,  and  add 

100  Ibs.  sal  ammoniac, 

9  gallons  acetic  acid;  thicken  with  ground  gum 
Senegal.  The  color  is  made  from  the  above  stan- 
dard by  taking 

2  gallons  above, 

1  pint  acetic  acid, 

2  pints  acetate  of  copper  (page  45). 

Medium  Madder  Brown. 

If  Ib.  catechu, 

3  oz.  sal  ammoniac, 

1  pint  water;  boil  and  dissolve,  and  add 
6  oz.  nitrate  of  copper  at  80°, 

4  oz.  acetate  of  copper, 
1  quart  gum  water. 

This  color  will  resist  light  covers  of  purple.  The  following 
will  resist  heavier  covers,  but  it  does  not  work  well  even  with 
composition  doctors  :— 

Resist  Madder  Brown. 

1  Ib.  catechu, 

8  oz.  sal  ammoniac, 

1  quart  of  lime  juice  at  8°, 

5  oz.  nitrate  of  copper  at  80°, 
3  oz.  acetate  of  copper, 

2  Ibs.  gum  Senegal. 

Magenta. — This  is  the  name  given  to  a  red  color  obtained 
from  aniline.  There  are  several  methods  of  obtaining  it,  but 


MAGNESIA — MAHOGANY   TREE   BARK.  341 

the  best  product  appears  to  be  obtained  by  means  of  Medlock's 
patent,  that  is  boiling  the  aniline  with  arsenic  acid.  It  is  sup- 
plied to  consumers  in  the  liquid  state.  The  method  of  its 
application  to  silk  and  woollen  dyeing  is  very  simple.  See 
ANILINE,  page  64.  The  most  usual  method  of  applying  it  in 
calico  and  delaine  printing  is  by  means  of  lactarine  for  the 
light  or  pink  shades,  and  mixed  lactarine  and  tannic  acid  for 
the  crimson  shades.  For  various  methods  of  fixing  see 
ANILINE  COLORS.  It  is  a  very  fugitive  color  upon  cotton. 

Magnesia. — Magnesia  has  an  alkaline  reaction,  but  feebler 
than  lime;  it  is  very  sparingly  soluble  in  water;  it  is  expen- 
sive, and  but  little  used  in  calico  printing.  Such  uses  as  have 
been  found  for  it  depend  upon  its  power  of  neutralizing  acids, 
and  exerting  a  slight  alkaline  reaction.  It  has  been  used  with 
archil  in  Broquette's  patented  method  ;  in  the  mixing  of  the 
color  from  the  modified  archil  colors  of  Guinon,  and  as  form- 
ing a  discharge  for  indigo  colors  in  combination  with  red 
prussiate  of  potash.  Caustic  magnesia  has  a  powerfully  in- 
jurious action  upon  dyed  colors.  If  pieces  of  various  colors 
from  madder,  indigo,  logwood,  or  garancine,  be  boiled  in 
water  containing  magnesia  in  suspension,  they  are  in  a  short 
time  surprisingly  deteriorated  and  permanently  injured.  The 
cause  of  this  action  is  riot  clear;  probably  the  magnesia  may 
displace  some  of  the  mordant  of  the  colors,  and  not  being  itself 
able  to  yield  bright  lakes  with  coloring  matters  spoils  the 
shades.  Magnesia  added  to  dyewoods,  or  to  the  water  used  in 
dyeing,  is  extremely  detrimental;  one  per  cent,  of  the  weight 
added  to  a  madder  dye  will  entirely  stop  the  dyeing,  and  a  less 
quantity  is  very  injurious.  Magnesian  salts  are  present  in 
many  waters,  and  may  be  the  cause  of  failures  in  dyeing.  The 
neutral  salts  of  magnesia  are  not  injurious  to  dyeing,  it  is  only 
calcined  magnesia  and  the  carbonate  which  act  in  the  manner 
described;  a  water  containing  magnesia  may  be  corrected  by 
the  addition  of  a  minute  quantity  of  oxalic  acid  or  a  larger 
quantity  of  sal  ammoniac. 

Sulphate  of  Magnesia,  or  Epsom  Satis,  is  used  in  calico  print- 
ing to  fix  the  lead  mordant  on  chrome  orange  styles  where 
colors  are  worked  in  combination,  which  would  be  injured  by 
sulphuric  acid.  Sulphate  of  soda  being  cheaper,  is  generally 
used  instead  of  Epsom  salts.  The  remaining  salts  of  magnesia 
are  of  no  interest  in  a  practical  point  of  view. 

Mahogany  Tree  Bark. — This  bark  contains  coloring 
matters  which  are  capable  of  being  communicated  to  mordanted 
•cloth,  but  they  are  of  so  dull  a  nature,  and  present  in  so  small 
a  quantity,  as  to  render  this  bark  much  inferior  to  other  dye- 


342          MAHOGANY  COLOR — MANGANESE. 

ing  matters ;    it  is    consequently    not   in  use   among   British 
dyers. 

Mahogany  Color. — A  reddish-brown  color.  The  color 
distinctively  called  mahogany  or  acajou  is  produced  upon 
calico  by  mordanting  in  a  mixture  of  red  and  iron  liquors ; 
ageing,  dunging,  and  dyeing  in  a  mixture  of  equal  weights  of 
madder  and  quercitron  bark,  with  addition  of  bone  size. 

Maize  Color. — A  low  toned  yellow  orange.  The  method 
of  obtaining  this  color  requires  no  particular  description,  being 
the  same  as  for  orange.  On  wool,  cochineal  and  fustic  are 
used. 

Mallow,  or  Mallows  Color. — A  plant,  same  as  the  French 
Mauve,  yielding  a  bluish  purple  flower,  gives  the  name  of  this 
color.  There  are,  however,  different  colored  mallow  flowers, 
some  of  which  are  reddish  purple,  hence  the  name  is  not  very 
precise  in  signification.  The  ordinary  "mallows  red"  is  exactly 
the  same  as  dark  crimson. 

Manganese. — The  metal  manganese  is  obtained  with  diffi- 
culty,  and  is  little  known.  In  the  state  of  black  oxide  of  man- 
ganese it  is  an  abundant  natural  product.  There  are  two 
principal  oxides  of  manganese,  but  only  one  of  them  forms 
compounds  with  acids  in  the  general  way,  and  that  is  the  pro- 
toxide,'forrned  of  single  atoms  of  the  rnetal  manganese  and 
oxygen.  It  is  this  oxide  which  exists  in  all  the  commercial 
salts  of  manganese,  and  which  is  produced  when  caustic  alkali 
is  added  to  solutions  of  them.  It  is  white  at  first,  but  soon  un- 
dergoes a  change  from  the  absorption  of  oxygen  ;  it  assumes 
a  reddish  color,  which  finally  passes  into  brown,  and  in  that 
state  it  is  no  longer  protoxide,  but  either  peroxide  or  a  mix- 
ture of  both  oxides.  The  other  oxide  of  manganese  is  the  one 
found  native,  and  which  is  extensively  employed  by  chemical 
manufacturers  in  the  preparation  of  bleaching  powder;  it  is 
never  employed  in  dyeing  or  printing,  and  does  not  call  for 
any  further  special  notice. 

Sulphate  of  Manganese. — This  substance  can  be  prepared  by 
heating  the  natural  peroxide  along  with  strong  sulphuric  acid. 
On  the  large  scale  this  is  done  in  reverberatory  furnaces  ;  on 
the  small  scale,  it  can  be  done  in  any  vessel  that  will  stand  the 
heat  and  the  acid.  It  requires  a  subsequent  purification  to 
free  it  from  earthy  matters  and  iron.  It  is  not  much  used  in 
dyeing  or  printing  at  present,  although  proved  capable  of 
several  applications.  It  serves  to  prepare  the  other  salts  of 
manganese  from,  as  the  acetate,  muriate,  and  nitrate.  It  can 
be  used  as  the  bronze  liquor,  for  producing  manganese  browns,, 
but  it  is  generally  the  muriate  of  manganese  which  serves  for 
this  purpose ;  it  receives  an  application,  in  some  places,  for 


MANGROVE   TREE.  343 

preparing  cloth  for  indigo  dipping,  by  which  darker  colors  are 
obtained  in  shorter  time  than  without.  It  has  been  recently 
patented  as  a  substitute  for  sulphate  of  copper  or  blue  stone, 
for  resisting  the  indigo  vat;  but,  I  am  informed,  there  are 
great  difficulties  in  the  way  of  its  application,  and  it  is  not  in 
use  at  present. 

Muriate  of  Manganese  (Bronze  Liquor}. — This  compound  is  a 
secondary  product  in  the  manufacture  of  bleaching  powder  It 
is  produced  in  very  large  quantities,  so  much  greater  than 
there  is  any  demand  for  that  it  becomes  a  difficulty  with  some 
manufacturers  how  to  dispose  of  it ;  but  if  a  recent  plan  for 
converting  it  into  the  peroxide  is  commercially  successful,  this 
will  be  no  longer  the  case.  It  can  be  made  tolerably  pure 
from  the  sulphate  of  manganese,  by  means  of  muriate  of  lime. 
As  usually  sold  it  is  in  a  liquid  of  a  slightly  pink  color,  not 
likely  to  contain  impurities,  nor  require  any  other  test  than 
the  hydrometer.  It  is  used  for  obtaining  the  manganese  brown 
or  bronze,  by  impregnating  the  cloth  with  it  at  a  certain 
strength,  and  then  passing  in  lime  or  ash.  Like  the  iron  buff, 
it  must  be  well  exposed  to  the  air,  in  order  to  raise  the  color, 
or  else  to  some  oxidizing  agent,  as  the  chloride  of  lime.  The 
first  action  is  that  the  lime  throws  down  the  protoxide  upon 
the  cloth,  and  the  second,  that  this  absorbs  oxygen  from  the 
air,  changes  its  color,  until  it  has  absorbed  all  the  oxygen  it 
can,  when  it  is  in  the  state  of  peroxide,  or  thereabouts. 

When  the  oxides  of  manganese  are  heated  with  alkalies  in  a 
manner  favorable  to  oxidation,  they  absorb  more  oxygen,  and 
form  compounds  with  them,  called  manganates  and  permanga- 
nates. These  compounds  have  rich  colors,  which,  however, 
are  easily  destroyed  by  any  substance  which  can  take  oxygen 
from  them.  A  piece  of  calico  dipped  in  a  clear  solution  of 
permanganate  of  potash  soon  decolorizes  it,  while  it  gets  per- 
manently impregnated  with  the  oxide  of  manganese.  Deep  and 
full  shades  of  brown  may  be  thus  obtained,  and  are  actually  so 
produced  upon  silk  and  woollen;  but  as  these  fabrics  must  be 
oxidized  in  the  process,  it  would  be  interesting  to  know 
whether  there  is  not  a  deterioration  of  their  strength.  The 
permanganate  of  potash  has  been  employed  to  mark  calico,  but 
it  will  not  resist  acid  treatments.  Since  the  permanganate  is 
reduced  by  all  the  vegetable  thickenings,  it  can  only  be  ap- 
plied as  a  topical  color  by  being  thickened  with  pipeclay,  or 
some  similar  non-oxidizable  substance. 

Mangrove  Tree. — The  bark  of  this  tree  is  capable  of  yield- 
ing several  of  the  saddened  shades  to  cotton  cloth  mordanted 
in  alum.  It  was  formerly  employed  for  dyeing  in  Manchester, 


344  MAUVE — MEECURY. 

but,  presenting  no  very  desirable  results,  it  has  gradually  dis- 
appeared from  the  market  as  a  regular  dyestuff. 

Mauve. — As  seen  above,  this  is  a  French  word,  equivalent 
to  the  English  mallows,  but,  on  account  of  the  extraordinary 
popularity  of  the  aniline  color  called  mauve,  the  term  has  be- 
come Anglicized,  and  means  a  violet  or  purple  color.  The 
rnauve,  distinctively  so  called,  is  the  product  of  the  action  of 
oxidizing  agents  upon  salts  of  apiline,  and  is  nearly  all  made 
under  Perkins'  patent,  of  August  26,  1856,  that  is,  by  means 
of  bichromate  of  potash  and  sulphate  of  aniline.  Its  applica- 
tion in  dyeing  and  printing  are  given  under  ANILINE  COLORS, 
page  64.  The  color  upon  woollen  and  silk  is  sufficiently  stable, 
but  upon  calico  it  is  very  fugitive  however  applied,  neither  re- 
sisting the  action  of  lighter  detergent  agents.  Its  consumption 
for  calico  printing  has,  in  consequence,  become  considerably 
diminished. 

The  mauve  noire,  or  purple  mallows,  contains  in  its  flowers  a 
coloring  matter  apparently  similar  in  some  respects  to  indigo, 
but  whether  capable  of  application  or  not  is  unknown.  Con- 
siderable quantities  of  these  flowers  are  consumed  on  the  con- 
tinent, and  it  is  suspected  that,  besides  their  uses  in  medicine 
and  in  doctoring  wine,  they  are. employed  in  some  branch  of 
dyeing. 

Mazarine  Blue. — A  deep  purplish  blue  color  upon  stuffs  is 
sometimes  called  mazarine ;  it  is  simply  dark  Prussian  blue, 
sometimes  topped  with  archil. 

Mercerized  Cloth. — The  process  called  mercerizing  is  so 
named  from  the  veteran  calico  printer,  Mr.  John  Mercer,  who 
patented  several  processes  of  treating  cotton  cloth,  Oct.  24, 
1850.  The  cloth  was  subjected  to  the  action  of  caustic  soda, 
at  a  strength  of  from  40°  to  70°  Tw. ;  or  sulphuric  acid,  at  a 
strength  of  150°  Tw. ;  or  a  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc,  at  145° 
Tw.,  heated  to  150°  or  160°.  These  processes,  which  were  ex- 
pected to  improve  the  cloth  for  receiving  color,  have  not 
been  successful.  For  an  account  of  the  action  of  caustic  soda 
upon  cotton,  see  page  219. 

Mercury,  Quicksilver. — This  metal,  whose  physical  pro- 
perties are  well  known,  takes  no  part  in  either  dyeing  or 
printing;  it  is  only  seen  in  the  shape  of  mercury  gauges  at- 
tached to  steam  boilers,  in  thermometers,  and  generally  as  the 
weight  with  which  hydrometers  are  loaded.  It  is  about  thir- 
teen times  heavier  than  water,  tarnishes  when  exposed  to  the 
action  of  heat  and  moisture,  and  forms  a  black  substance  which 
is"  an  oxide  of  the  metal.  Mercury  has  a  tendency  to  amalga- 
mate with  most  of  the  metals  as  soon  as  it  is  brought  into 
contact  with  them;  it  penetrates  and  deprives  them  of  all 


MERCURY.  345 

their  ordinary  properties^  making  tbem  powdery  and  soft; 
therefore  this  metal,  and  all  its  salts,  must  be  kept  out  of  con- 
tact with  copper,  tin,  lead,  or  silver  vessels;  iron  is  not  acted 
upon  by  the  metal,  but  is  attacked  by  the  soluble  salts  of 
mercury.  The  compounds  which  mercury  forms  with  metals 
are  called  amalgams,  and  are  so  distinguished  from  the  corn- 
pounds  of  all  the  other  metals  amongst  themselves  which  are 
alloys. 

The  only  compounds  of  mercury  which  have  been  much 
used  are  the  bichloride  of  mercury,  or  corrosive  sublimate,  and 
the  acetate  of  mercury ;  the  iodide  of  mercury  has  been  a 
little  employed. 

Bichloride  of  Mercury  is  a  heavy  dense  crystalline  salt, 
requiring  much  water  to  dissolve  it,  of  most  disagreeable  taste, 
and  is  a  virulent  poison.  Its  principal  employment  has  been 
for  the  purplish-red  color  from  murexide,  the  amaranth  or 
Koman  purple — and  for  use  in  this  it  is  generally  mixed  with 
acetate  of  soda  to  convert  it,  wholly  or  partially  into  acetate. 
Its  chemical  action  in  this  case  is  to  combine  with  the  murexide, 
to  form  a  salt  of  mercury,  the  composition  of  which  is  not  well 
known,  and  which  possesses  the  beautiful  color  which  distin- 
guishes this  amaranth.  As  a  rule,  any  color  of  which  mercury, 
or  a  salt  of  mercury,  forms  an  essential  constituent,  will  be  a 
loose  color,  for,  although  some  compounds  of  mercury  may  be 
used  in  oil  painting  without  fading,  it  must  b6  considered  that 
they  are  not  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air — the  oil  forms  a 
varnish  over  them  and  protects  them,  but  colors  on  calico  and 
other  fibres  are  exposed  in  a  peculiar  manner  to  the  atmos- 
pheric influences,  and  also  to  light,  under  the  combined  action 
of  which  the  compounds  of  mercury  are  unstable. 

Acetate  of  Mercury. — This  salt  can  be  produced  in  a  pure 
state  by  dissolving  the  red  oxide  of  mercury  in  acetic  acid. 
It  crystallizes  in  pearly  scales.  For  practical  uses  the  acetate 
is  made  by  adding  acetate  of  soda  to  a  solution  of  the  bichlo 
ride. 

Vermilion. — This  is  a  compound  of  mercury  and  sulphur ; 
its  brilliant  color  is  familiar,  but  it  does  not  suit  fibrous  mate- 
rial; its  great  density  also  is  an  objection.  Like  red  lead,  this 
color  can  only  be  obtained  in  the  dry  way  by  means  of  heat ; 
it  cannot  be  precipitated  or  thrown  down  by  mixing  com- 
pounds of  mercury  and  sulphur. 

Iodide  of  Mercury  is,  perhaps,  even  a  more  brilliant  color 
than  vermilion,  but  it  is  very  unstable,  and  changes  even  when 
kept  in  a  corked  bottle.  It  has  been  applied  to  calico,  but  it 
could  never  be  any  good.  The  process  of  fixing  consisted  in 
adding  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  to  bichloride  or  nitrate 
23 


346     •  MIXED  FABRICS,   DYEING   OF. 

of  mercury,  until  the  precipitate  at  first  formed  was  redissolved  ; 
this  was  thickened  and  printed,  and  then  passed  in  weak  solu- 
tion of  the  mercury  salt  to  raise  the  color. 

Metallic  Colors. — Up  to  this  time  the  application  of 
metals,  either  in  leaf  or  in  powder,  to  textile  fabrics  has  not 
met  with  any  wide  success;  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
if  there  were  any  cheap  and  regular  methods  of  obtaining 
metallic  effects  there  would  be  a  demand  for  such  a  style.  The 
chief  methods  which  have  been  employed  to  fix  metals  are 
given  under  GOLD  and  HYPOSULPHITES. 

Methylated  Spirits. — This  is  a  mixture  of  crude  distilled 
spirit  with  a  small  quantity  of  naphtha,  which  the  government 
permits  to  be  sold  at  a  merely  nominal  duty  for  trade  purposes. 
It  answers  nearly  all  the  uses  for  which  spirits  of  wine  were 
formerly  consumed,  and  has  been  much  employed  in  connec- 
tion with  dyeing  and  printing,  as  a  solvent  of  the  nftw  coloring 
matter  from  aniline. 

Mixed  Fabrics,  Dyeing  Of. — Of  late  years  this  has  be- 
come a  distinct  branch  of  dyeing,  and  is  very  much  required, 
principally  for  mixed  woollen  and  cotton  goods.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  dyeing,  called  double  and  single  dyeing;  in  the 
first,  or  double  dyeing,  the  woollen  threads  have  a  different 
color  from  the  cotton  threads,  in  the  second  both  are  to  be  of 
the  same  shade,  or  as  nearly  as  possible.  I  give  some  brief 
hints  of  the  methods  employed  in  obtaining  these  results. 

Double  Dyeing.  The  Light  Wool  Blue  and  the  Cotton  Pink.— 
Dye  the  wool  first  with  sulphate  of  indigo,  in  a  bath  made  sour 
with  vitriol,  working  at  about  140°,  when  the  shade  is  pro- 
duced wash  out  and  dye  up  the  cotton  a  safflower  pink.  (See 
SAFFLOWER.) 

The  Wool  Crimson  and  the  Cotton  Blue. — Treat  the  piece  as  if 
all  wool  for  crimson,  the  cotton  will  not  take  the  mordant,  and, 
consequently,  will  not  dye  up;  wash  out  clear,  and  dye  the 
cotton  Prussian  blue,  by  first  mordanting  cold  in  a  mixture  of 
nitrate  of  iron,  muriate  of  tin,  and  a  little  tartaric  acid,  rinse 
out  well,  and  dye  in  prussiate  of  potash  sharpened  with  vitriol. 
If  the  crimson  is  found  to  be  dulled  by  the  iron,  a  passage  in 
weak  spirits  of  salts,  with  some  crystals  of  tin  added,  will 
revive  it. 

The  Wool  Yellow  and  the  Cotton  Blue.— Treat  the  piece  as  if 
all  wool  for  yellow,  the  cotton  will  not  dye  ;  wash,  and  dye  the 
blue  as  in  the  preceding  case. 

The  Wool  Orange  and  the  Cotton  Blue. — Treat  the  pieces  as 
if  all  wool  for  cotton,  i.  e.,  mordanting  in  tin  and  tartar,  and 
dyeing  in  cochineal  and  fustic ;  the  cotton  is  thereby  only 
faintly  tinged.  Dye  a  Prussian  blue  on  the  cotton  as  before. 


MIXED   FABRICS,   DYEING   OF.  347 

The  Wool  Green  and  the  Cotton  Pink. — The  wool  is  dyed 
green  by  aluming,  and  dyeing  in  fustic  or  sulphate  of  indigo, 
or  by  a  mixture. of  picric  acid  and  sulphate  of  indigo.  The 
cotton  is  dyed  pink  by  safflower. 

The  Wool  Purple  and  the  Cotton  Blue.— The  purple  color  is 
produced  by  working  the  wool  for  forty  minutes  in  archil;  the 
blue  is  obtained  as  before. 

The  Wool  Chocolate  and  the  Cotton  Yellow  at  one  Operation. — 
The  piece  is  dyed  with  archil  and  turmeric,  the  bath  being  kept 
feebly  alkaline.  The  result  is  that  the  archil  goes  to  the  wool, 
giving  a  lilac,  and  the  turmeric  to  the  cotton,  giving  a  yellow. 
The  pieces  are  then  raised,  and  passed  in  a  feebly  acid  bath 
with  sulphate  of  indigo;  the  blue  going  to  the  wool  converts 
it  into  chocolate,  while  the  cotton  is  not  affected. 
.  The  Wool  Gray  and  the  Cotton  Pink — Treat  the  piece  with 
alum  and  tartar,  and  dye  up  the  gray  as  for  all  wool  with  cochi- 
neal and  sulphate  of  indigo ;  afterwards  dye  the  cotton  in  saf- 
flower for  the  pink. 

The  Wool  Orange  and  the  Cotton  Purple. — The  cloth  is  mor- 
danted in  tin  and  tartar,  and  the  color  dyed  with  cochineal  and 
fustic,  at  nearly  the  boiling  point.  To  dye  the  cotton  purple 
or  lilac,  a  bath  is  prepared  with  clear  water  and  the  smallest 
quantity  of  logwood  liquor  that  will  effect  the  dyeing;  the 
piece  being  cooled,  is  worked  in  this  quite  cold  for  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes.  If  the  process  has  been  well  carried  on, 
there  will  be  sufficient  tin  adhering  to  the  cotton  to  enable  it 
to  dye  up  a  lilac,  while  the  low  temperature  at  which  it  is 
worked  prevents  the  wool  from  being  affected.  If,  however, 
the  color  does  not  come  up  deep  enough,  it  must  be  washed 
out  of  the  logwood,  winced  in  weak  bichloride  of  tin  for  ten 
minutes  or  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  washed,  and  again  entered  into 
the  logwood. 

The  Wool  Lilac  and  the  Cotton  Crimson. — Dye  the  wool  blue 
with  sulphate  of  indigo,  in  an  acidulated  bath,  until  dark 
enough ;  then  drain  and  work  in  bichloride  of  tin  at  4°  for 
twenty-five  minutes,  and  turn  over  into  peachwood  liquor, 
mixed  with  .bichloride  of  tin  quite  clear,  and  work  in  or  pass 
through  a  jigger  until  the  required  shade  is  obtained.  If  the 
cloth  dyed  blue  be  previously  passed  in  sumac  for  half  an  hour 
before  goino-  into  the  tin,  more  of  this  metal  will  be  fixed,  and 
darker  and  more  purplish  crimson  produced. 

The  Wool  Green  and  the  Cotton  Chocolate. — Treat  the  piece 
as  all  wool  for  the  green  part  (p.  256),  then  work  in  surnac 
liquor  for  half  an  hour  and  pass  in  a  mixture  of  logwood, 
cochineal,  and  bichloride  of  tin,  proportioned  according  to  the 


343  MIXED   FABRICS,   DYEING   OF. 

shade  of  chocolate  required.     If  a  chestnut  or  a  yellow  choco- 
late be  required,  some  fustic  liquor  may  be  added. 

The  Wool  Black  and  the  Cotton  Crimson. — The  cloth  is  boiled 
for  half  an  hour  in  bichromate  of  potash,  acidulated  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  say  6  oz.  bichromate  and  4  oz.  sulphuric  acid  to 
40  yards  of  delaine;  but  this  will  of  course  depend  upon  the 
weight  of  the  cloth.  Wash  out,  then  dye  in  logwood,  to  which 
a  minute  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  has  been  added — not  more 
than  just  suffices  to  take  the  purple  out  of  the  logwood — then 
work  at  the  boil  for  about  an  hour,  lift,  and  wash.  To  brighten 
the  color,  and  to  clear  the  cotton,  work  for  a  few  minutes  in 
clearing  liquor,  made  from  bleaching  powder  and  crystals  of 
soda,  then  wash  and  dye  the  cotton  crimson  by  the  method 
given  previously. 

The  Wool  Royal  Blue  and  the  Cotton  Pink. — The  wool  is 
dyed  Prussian  blue  by  one  of  the  processes  given  page  99, 
preferably  to  the  process  of  working  in  a  nearly  boiling  mix- 
ture of  yellow  prussiate,  acid,  and  tin  salt.  The  pink  is  given 
by  working  in  bichloride,  of  tin,  and  then  in  peachwood;  or 
the  safflower  pink  may  be  employed. 

By  these  processes,  and  others  which  will  readily  suggest 
themselves,  almost  any  two  colors  may  be  dyed  upon  delaine  or 
fabric  in  which  the  warp  or  weft  are  of  different  fibres.  Only 
wool  and  cotton  have  been  mentioned,  because  they  are  prac- 
tically the  only  ones  which  usually  come  under  the  dyers' 
hands.  Silk  very  rarely  occurs,  but  it  can  be  done  in  the 
same  manner,  but  less  successfully  than  wool. 

Single  Color  upon  a  Mixed  Fabric. — Sometimes  the  color  can 
be  dyed  by  one  process,  and  sometimes  two  different  processes 
have  to  be  used,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following  examples : — 

(fray,  by  One  Operation. — Work  hot  in  decoction  of  log- 
wood for  half  an  hour,  then  lift  and  add  copperas  to  the  bath, 
when  dissolved  work  in  for  another  half  hour.  If  the  grays 
are  required  reddish,  some  peachwood  must  be  added;  if  yel- 
lowish, some  fustic. 

Royal  Blue,  by  One  Operation. — Mordant  in  a  rather  strong 
mixture  of  nitrate  of  iron  and  crystals  of  tin,  with  a  little  tar- 
taric  acid;  pass  the  cloth  through  several  times,  and  leave 
some  hours  before  washing  out.  Prepare  a  mixture  of  two 
parts  red  and  three  parts  yellow  prussiate,  five  parts  sal 
ammoniac,  and  three  parts  oil  of  vitriol,  dissolved  in  as  little 
water  as  it  is  possible  to  run  the  cloth  in ;  heat  up  to  90°,  and 
work  the  cloth  very  well,  gradually  raising  the  heat  up  to  the 
boil  in  an  hour;  then  lift,  and  add  four  parts  of  oil  of  vitriol 
and  a  small  quantity  of  crystals  of  tin,  enter  again,  and  work 
at  the  boil  until  the  color  is  well  developed.  The  high  tern- 


MIXED   FABRICS,   DYEING   OF.  349 

perature  is  necessary  to  get  the  wool  well  dyed,  but  it  is  unfa- 
vorable to  the  cotton,  wich  will  be  frequently  found  less  deep 
than  the  wool ;  this  can  be  remedied  by  afterwards  treating 
the  cloth  as  if  for  dyeing  blue  on  cotton,  quite  cold. 

Green,  by  Two  Operations. — The  cotton  is  dyed  first  a  yellow, 
with  turmeric  kept  slightly  alkaline,  then  passed  in  nitrate  of 
iron  and  tin  crystals  as  for  dyeing  blue,  washed  and  raised  in 
yellow  prussiate.  The  wool  is  dyed  by  mordanting  in  alum 
and  tartar,  adding  at  the  same  time  fustic  and  sulphate  of 
indigo;  the  cloth  is  worked  hot  until  the  shade  on  the  wool  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  cotton. 

Pink,  by  Two  Operations.— The  wool  is  mordanted  in  tin  and 
tartar,  and  dyed  up  with  cochineal  to  the  shade.  The  pink  on 
the  cotton  is  obtained  from  safflower. 

Light  Slue,  by  Two  Operations. — Dye  the  cotton  first  by  mor- 
danting in  nitrate  of  iron  and  tin  crystals,  and  raising  in  yel- 
low prussiate;  then  dye  the  wool  by  working  the  piece  warm 
in  sulphate  of  indigo,  acidulated  with  oil  of  vitriol. 

Dark  Chocolate. — The  cloth  is  boiled  in  alum  for  about  an 
hour,  then  worked  cold  for  another  hour  in  bichloride  of  tin 
at  about  7°,  and  then  dipped  in  a  strong  clear  solution  of  tur- 
meric, made  by  a  boiling  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda;  the 
cotton  takes  up  the  coloring  matter  of  the  turmeric  rapidly ; 
when  it  is  saturated  the  piece  is  rinsed  and  again  worked  in 
the  bichloride  of  tin,  and  left  to  drain.  The  dyeing  is  com- 
pleted by  preparing  a  bath  of  peachwood,  with  a  small  quantity 
of  logwood,  in  which  is  dissolved  a  quantity  of  alum  and  tartar; 
the  piece  is  entered  at  140°,  and  the  heat  increased  to  the  boil, 
and  taken  out  when  the  cotton  and  wool  are  perceived  to  have 
the  same  shade.  If  the  colors  are  not  equal  other  ingredients 
must  be  added  to  remedy  this  defect.  If  the  wool,  for  exam- 
ple, is  redder  than  the  cotton,  a  little  extract  of  indigo  added 
soon  changes  it;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  cotton  is  redder 
than  the  wool,  the  addition  of  some  more  logwood  will  equalize 
the  shade;  if  the  wool  is  too  purplish,  a  little  archil  corrects  it; 
if  the  cotton  is  too  purplish,  more  of  the  red  wood  must  be 
added.  The  dyeing  of  this  color  presents  great  practical  diffi- 
culties and  requires  much  experience. 

Chestnut  on  both  Wool  and  Cotton. — Proceed  as  in  last  case, 
as  far  as  giving  turmeric  ground,  then  pass  in  a  strong  catechu 
bath,  and  raise  in  bichromate  of  potash.  As  the  cotton  takes  up 
more  color  than  the  wool  by  this  treatment,  the  shade  is  equal- 
ized by  turning  the  cloth,  for  half  an  hour,  in  a  boiling  bath 
of  turmeric  and  archil.  The  shades  can  be  corrected,  if  at 
variance,  by  the  same  means  as  for  chocolate. 

Black  on  loth  Wool  and  Cotton. — The  wool  is  first  mordanted 
by  boiling  the  cloth  in  bichromate  of  potash  acidulated  with 


350  MORDANTS. 

sulphuric  acid,  afterwards  the  cloth  passed,  for  half  an  hour,  in 
a  decoction  of  sumac,  at  150°  F.,  lifted  and  drained ;  then 
passed  in  nitrate  of  iron,  at  6°  Tw.,  for  twenty  minutes,  and 
rinsed.  The  dyeing  is  completed  in  logwood  and  fustic,  with 
the  addition  of  a  little  tartar. 

Another  Method. — Steep  all  night  in  decoction  of  sumac,  and 
work  for  an  hour  in  a  mixture  of  green  copperas,  blue  cop- 
peras, and  tartar,  wash,  and  dye  in  a  decoction  of  logwood  hot, 
raising  with  copperas. 

In  all  these  processes  much  care  and  address  is  required  to 
produce  good  and  regular  work;  there  is  not  much  choice  of 
materials,  and  most  of  the  colors  are  fugitive.  Although  the 
wool  and  cotton  may  be  very  nearly  the  same  in  shade  they 
do  not  long  remain  so  in  wear,  the  cotton  fading  much  more 
rapidly  than  the  wool  under  the  same  treatment  or  exposure. 
(See  also  DELAINE.) 

Mordants. — A  mordant  is  a  substance  which  can  exert  an 
affinity  for  the  fibrous  material  to  which  it  is  applied,  and  which 
possesses  at  the  same  time  an  attraction  for  coloring  matters. 
It  is  necessary  that  it  should  possess  these  double  properties, 
or  it  cannot  be  considered  as  a  mordant.  There  are  substances 
which  combine  with  fibrous  materials  without  showing  any 
affinity  for  colors,  and  there  are  others  which  have  an  affinity 
for  colors  but  which  cannot  contract  any  adhesion  to  the  fibre. 
Neither  of  these  can  be  called  mordants.  Mordants  are  not 
very  numerous,  and  may  be  divided  into  mordants  proper  and 
mordants  of  a  dubious  nature;  the  first  class  consisting  of  those 
metallic  salts  whose  oxides  seem  to  effect  an  intimate  chemical 
union  with  the  fibre  and  coloring  matter,  and  the  second  consist- 
ing of  a  number  of  substances  which,  possessing  some  affinities 
for  coloring  matter,  do  not  appear  to  combine  with  the  cloth  in 
a  chemical  but  rather  to  adhere  in  a  mechanical  manner.  Be- 
longing to  the  first  are  the  mineral  mordants,  salts  of  iron,  zinc, 
alumina,  tin,  and  copper;  to  the  second  belong  vegetable  and 
animal  matters,  as  galls,  oils,  albumen,  caseine,  and  two  or  three 
others  similar  in  nature.  In  wool,  silk,  and  other  animal  fabrics, 
there  naturally  exists  an  affinity  for  coloring  matters,  but  not 
to  an  extent  sufficient  to  yield  general  good  results. 

From  the  above  definition  of  a  mordant,  it  is  evident  that  it 
is  an  intermediary  agent,  uniting  two  substances  which  of 
themselves  have  no  special  affinity.  Its  powers  extend  on  both 
sides,  and  must  be  equally  effective  on  each ;  on  the  one  to  hold 
firmly  to  the  cloth,  on  the  other  to  retain  the  coloring  matter  in 
a  close  state  of  combination.  There  are  very  few  colors  which 
can  combine  with  either  vegetable  or  animal  tissues  without 
the  aid  of  a  mordant,  and,  of  several  which  can  do  so,  the 
majority  are  much  improved,  both  in  brilliancy  and  fastness 


MORDANTS.  351 

by  the  presence  of  a  mordant.  The  coloring  matters  of  mad- 
der, logwood,  fustic,  etc.,  are  only  able  to  give  a  feeble  stain  to 
unmordanted  calico,  but,  by  the  assistance  of  mordants,  they 
communicate  fast,  full,  and  brilliant  colors;  on  woollen,  also, 
though  several  of  the  coloring  matters  can  give  a  shade  to  the 
cloth,  without  a  mordant  it  is  poor  and  feeble  in  most  cases, 
short  of  lustre,  and  possessing  a  very  inferior  degree  of  stabil- 
ity. On  calico  there  are  a  few  coloring  matters  whose  peculiar 
natures  allow  them  to  contract  an  adhesion  to  the  cloth  with- 
out any  mordant,  and  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  presence  of  a 
mordant  adds  in  any  way  to  the  depth  or  stability  of  the  colors 
which  they  can  produce.  These  coloring  matters  are  indigo, 
safflower,  and  anotta.  On  woollen  the  number  may  be  extended 
to  a  few  more,  as  picric  acid,  archil,  and  aniline  colors.  With 
the  exception  of  indigo,  which  enjoys  peculiar  properties, 
unlike  any  other  coloring  matter  all  these  are  loose,  unstable 
colors.  They  cannot  be  combined  with  mordants  under  any  of 
the  usual  conditions  of  such  combinations,  and  are  obliged  to 
stand  alone. 

There  are  certain  conditions  necessary  to  a  mordant  which 
should  be  always  borne  in  .  mind,  for,  unless  they  are  fulfilled, 
the  mordanting  will  altogether  fail  or  be  deficient  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree.  Solubility  is  the  first  essential  in  a  mordant; 
unless  the  metallic  oxide,  which  is  to  act  as  a  mordant,  can 
penetrate  into  the  very  heart  of  the  fibres  it  will  "hot  be  able 
to  resist  washings,  and  it  can  only  find  such  entrance  by  being 
in  a  state  of  clear  solution.  A  capability  of  becoming  insolu- 
ble is  the  second  essential  in  a  mordant.  It  is  apparent  that 
if  the  solution  of  a  mordant  could  carry  it  into  the  fibre,  the 
same  solubility  would  carry  it  back  again,  unless  means  were 
taken  to  fix  it  permanently  upon  the  spot  to  which  it  had 
penetrated.  This  condition  of  becoming  insoluble  is  effected 
in  a  ^variety  of  ways.  The  metallic  oxide  is  combined  with  a 
volatile  acid,  like  the  acetic,  which  flies  off  and  leaves  it  inso- 
luble in  the  fibre; — this  is  the  most  common  and  generally 
employed  method; — or  it  is  combined  with  any  other  non- 
volatile acid,  and  methods  taken  to  remove  the  acid  by  chemi- 
cal means,  such  as  passing  in  alkaline  baths,  exposing  to  vapor 
of  ammonia,  and  the  like;  or,  as- in  the  case  of  nitrate  of  iron, 
a  salt  is  chosen  which  holds  one  part  of  its  oxide  in  a  compara- 
tively loose  state,  and,  when  diluted  with  water,  allows  the 
feeble  affinity  of  the  fibre  to  take  it  from  the  acid.  This  is  the 
case  also  with  alum,  when  a  portion  of  the  acid  has  been 
removed  by  the  addition  of  alkaline  salts.  The  vegetable  and 
animal  mordants  are  different  in  their  method  of  adhering  to 
the  fibre.  Oil,  as  used  in  Turkey  red  dyeing,  undergoes  a 
change  by  exposure  to  the  air,  which  renders  it  insoluble  and 


352  MORDANTS. 

irremovable  by  ordinary  agents.  Albumen  and  similar  sub- 
stances possess  a  mechanical  affinity  for  the  cloth;  they  are 
applied  in  the  soluble  state,  and  become  insoluble  by  heat,  or 
some  other  agent,  which  coagulates  them ;  they  embrace  the 
fabric  in  a  reticulation  of  fibres,  and  may  be  considered  rather  as 
holding  to  the  surface  than  as  retained  in  the  interior  of  the 
fibre.  This  leads  to  the  question,  which  may  be  naturally 
asked,  what  is  the  nature  of  combination  which  takes  place 
between  the  mordant  and  the  fibre?  Unfortunately  there 
cannot  be  any  direct  positive  answer  given  to  this  question;  it 
is  involved  in  doubt  and  controversy,  and  the  evidence  on  the 
various  views  is  so  inconclusive  that  no  satisfactory  result  has 
been  arrived  at.  The  insoluble  particles  of  the  mordant  may 
be  retained  in  a  simply  mechanical  manner  by  the  fibre,  which 
is  supposed  to  be  hollow,  and  to  act  the  part  of  a  trap.  The 
fibres  may  be  porous,  and  the  acid  solutions,  penetrating  the 
pores,  leave  their  oxides  in  contact  with  the  walls  of  the  pores, 
from  which  they  cannot  escape,  either  by  reason  of  the  nar- 
rowness of  the  pores  or  some  supposed  angularity  of  the 
metallic  oxides.  The  mordants  may  form  a  chemical  combina- 
tion with  the  matter  of  the  fibre,  and  so  hold  on  to  each  other 
until  separated  by  more  powerful  chemical  agents,  or  destruc- 
tion by  time ;  or  the  fibre  may  possess  some  active  power  of 
adhesion  on  its  exterior  walls,  for  metallic  oxides,  and  they 
may  be  held  together  by  virtue  of  the  power  of  contact.  All 
these  theories  are  held,  and  the  evidence  which  can  be  drawn 
from  chemical  or  microscopical  observations  do  not  actually 
tell  more  on  one  side  than  on  the  other.  In  the  absence  of 
any  satisfactory  scientific  account,  we  may  take  the  practical 
supposition  that  the  particles  of  mordants  are  held  by  the 
fibres  in  a  state  of  chemical  freedom,  capable  of  exerting  all 
their  affinities,  and  drawing  to  themselves  those  substances  for 
which  they  have  an  attraction. 

The  affinity  which  the  mordants  have  for  the  coloring  matters 
is  undoubtedly  of  a  chemical  nature ;  a  given  quantity  or 
strength  of  mordant  can  combine  with  only  a  certain  amount 
of  coloring  matter  to  produce  a  certain  shade,  and,  as  is  the 
case  in  most  chemical  combinations,  the  color  of  the  resulting 
compound  bears  no  necessary  resemblance  to  that  of  the  consti- 
tuents. The  shades  of  color  which  any  dyewood  can  give  differ 
for  each  mordant,  and  for  various  strengths  of  the  same  mor- 
dant ;  the  same  coloring  matter  yielding  shades  which  appear 
quite  opposite  in  their  nature,  as,  for  example,  madder,  which 
with  weak  alumina  mordants  gives  pink ;  with  strong,  red  ; 
with  weak  iron  mordants,  lilac  or  violet;  and  with  strong,  black 
colors;  while  a  mixture  of  iron  and  alumina  mordants  yields 


MORDANTS.  353 

various  shades  of  chocolates.  And  these  colors  are  undoubtedly 
derived  or  derivable  from  one  single  coloring  matter.  The 
power  of  the  mordant  is  therefore  very  great  in  influencing  the 
shade. 

A  given  mordant  has  not  the  same  properties  upon  all  kinds 
of  fibre.  The  tin  mordant,  so  extensively  employed  in  woollen 
dyeing,  and  yielding  fast  colors,  is  a  very  feeble  mordant  on 
cotton,  and  never  gives  colors  comparable  for  fastness  with  those 
of  alumina  or  iron.  On  the  contrary,  iron  mordants  are  very 
difficult  to  employ  on  woollen, -for  reasons  which  have  been 
previously  stated. 

A  mordant  may  be  applied  to  a  cloth  in  three  ways,  with 
regard  to  the  coloring  matter.  (1)  It  may  be  applied  before  it ; 
this  is  the  usual  case  in  calico  printing,  for  dyed  goods,  and 
frequently  in  piece  dyeing.  (2)  It  may  be  applied  after  the 
coloring  matter ;  this  is  perhaps  the  most  usual  case  in  piece 
dyeing,  where  the  pieces  are  first  passed  through  the  extract  of 
the  coloring  matter  and  then  through  the  metallic  mordant;  or 
(3)  it  may  be  applied  at  the  same  time  as  the  coloring  matter; 
this  is  the  case  with  many  colors  in  dyeing,  and  with  all  steam 
and  spirit  colors  in  calico  printing.  The  first  case,  viz.,  that  of 
applying  the  mordant  before  the  coloring  matter,  is  a  necessity 
in  printing  designs  upon  the  fabric  to  be  dyed ;  it  is  necessary 
also  that  it  should  be  fixed  upon  the  cloth  in  a  very  perfect 
manner  before  going  into  the  dye;  because  a  design  requires' 
that  there  should  be  at  least  two  shades  of  color,  one  of  which 
may  be  the  white  of  the  cloth;  and  it  is  easily  seen  that  if  the 
mordant  were  loose,  or  floating  about  in  the  dye-beck,  it  would 
attach  itself  indiscriminately  to  all  parts,  and  destroy  the  design. 
This  fixing  of  the  mordant  necessitates  several  processes  un- 
known in  piece  dyeing.  The  second  case,  that  of  applying  the 
coloring  matter  before  the  mordant,  can  only  be  used  in  self- 
colored  fabrics,  and  has  arisen  from  motives  of  convenience  and 
economy.  It  usually  happens  that  the  mordant  is  much  cheaper 
than  the  coloring  matter  in  regard  to  the  quantities  which  have 
to  be  used,  and  the  coloring  matter  can  be  more  completely 
used  up  and  less  wasted  by  employing  an  excess  of  mordant 
than  in  the  contrary  case.  The  method  of  using  the  mordant 
and  coloring  matter  together  is  one  of  limited  application, 
because  in  the  generality  of  cases  insoluble  lakes  are  formed 
which  are  not  well  adapted  for  giving  good  and  fast  colors,  but 
in  several  cases  of  dyeing  such  a  mixture  is  used.  In  calico 
printing  it  is  possible  to  use  the  coloring  matter  in  a  concen- 
trated state,  and  in  combination  with  acids  and  other  matters, 
which  keep  it  and  the  mordant  in  a  state  of  solution,  for  a  time 
at  least,  until  the  affinities  of  the  cloth  come  into  play,  assisted 


35-i  MORINE   AND   MOREINE — MUREXIDE. 

by  extraneous  agents,  such  as  steaming,  passing  in  alkalies,  and 
the  like,  which  cause  the  formation  of  an  insoluble  compound 
of  the  mordant  and  coloring  principle,  which  then  adheres  to 
the  cloth.  For  the  chief  mordants  see  ACETATES,  ALUM,  IRON, 
and  TIN. 

Morine  and  Moreine, — The  names  of  pure  colorable 
principles  extracted  from  fustic. 

Morinda  Citrifolia,  Sooranjee. — A  species  of  East  Indian 
madder,  said  to  dye  up  very  durable,  but  somewhat  dull  colors. 
It  is  used  by  the  natives  to  produce  a  species  of  Turkey  red 
dye.  According  to  Dr.  Anderson,  who  made  experiments  with 
a  substance  supposed  to  be  roots  of  morinda  citrifolia,  it  gives 
no  colors  to  ordinary  mordanted  cloth,  but,  curiously  enough, 
dyes  up  full  colors  with  cloth  prepared  for  Turkey  red  dyeing, 
Bancroft,  and  others,  who  have  examined  a  substance  under 
the  same  name,  found  no  difficulty  in  dyeing  common  mor- 
danted cloth  with  it. 

Mosses. — The  Chondrus  crispus,  commonly  called  carrageen 
or  Irish  moss,  yields  a  mucilage,  which  has  been  used  as  a 
substitute  for  size  in  finishing.  It  has  also  been  employed  as 
a  substitute  for  gum  in  block  printing;  its  thickening  powers 
are,  however,  inferior. 

Some  mosses  contain  coloring  matter :  the  bryum  stellare  gives 
a  colored  juice — brown  at  first,  which  soon  changes  into  green, 
and  finally  acquires  a  blue-green  color.  The  lichens,  which 
are  nearly  similar  to  the  mosses,  yield  several  colors. 

Mungeet,  Manjit,  etc.— This  is  a  kind  of  madder  imported 
from  the  East  Indies.  It  does  not  contain  much  coloring  mat- 
ter, and  appears  to  be  rather  the  reedy  stem  than  the  root  of  a 
plant,  as  our  European  madders  are.  It  is  used  for  making 
low  qualities  of  garancine;  it  can  be  employed,  but  with 
doubtful  advantage,  as  a  substitute  for  madder  in  some  classes 
of  work  :  it  does  not  stain  the  whites  so  much  as  madder. 

Murexide. — The  red  color  obtained  from  this  substance 
has  created  a  great  deal  of  interest  amongst  printers  and  dyers 
since  its  introduction,  about  five  years  ago.  For  purity  and 
brilliancy  of  shade  it  was  not  excelled  by  any  other  color,  and, 
though  expensive,  it  was  easy  and  certain  in  its  application. 
Its  fugitive  nature  has  for  the  present  limited  its  employment 
very  much,  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  something  may  yet  be 
done  which  will  make  this  magnificent  color  better  able  to  stand 
the  effects  of  light  and  air,  when  it  cannot  fail  to  be  frequently 
and  regularly  employed  in  certain  styles. 

It  was  known,  upwards  of  thirty  years  ago,  that  when  the 
uric  acid,  obtained  from  guano,  or  other  sources,  was  treated 
with  nitric  acid,  it  yielded  a  white  crystalline  substance,  called 


MUREXIDE.  355 

alloxan,'  which  stained  the  fingers  and  nails  red,  and  a  method 
is  given,  in  Leuch's  treatise  upon  coloring  matters,  by  which 
woollen  cloth  may  be  dyed  purple  by  steeping  it  in  solution  of 
alloxan,  drying,  and  then  passing  a  heated  iron  over  it.  Not 
much  more  notice  was  taken  of  this  matter  until  the  year  1853, 
when  Sacc  and  Schlumberger  revived  the  idea,  and  communi- 
cated a  paper  to  the  "Socidte  Industrielle  de  Mulhouse," 
accompanied  by  specimens  of  color  upon  woollen  cloth.  There 
was  not  much  in  their  communication  that  was  really  an  advance 
upon  the  statement  in  Leuch,  as  far  as  regards  the  coloring  of 
woollen  cloth  by  alloxan,  but  there  were  many  useful  sugges- 
tions and  statements,  the  results  of  an  advanced  chemical 
knowledge  upon  the  subject  of  uric  acid  and  its  transformations. 
The  authors  attributed  the  production  of  the  color  by  the  heated 
iron  to  the  transformation  of  the  alloxan  into  murexide,  or 
purpuric  acid  ;  but  the  idea  does  not  seem  to  have  occurred  to 
them  to  make  murexide  itself  and  try  it  as  a  color,  and  they 
state  definitely  that  they  cannot  obtain  any  color  on  cotton 
cloth  to  withstand  cold  water.  The  sanguine  authors  of  this 
communication  hardly  dared  to  look  upon  this  subject  as  one 
which  came  within  the  limits  of  practical  application,  but  rather 
as  an  interesting  experiment  which  must  be  confined  to  the 
laboratory  on  account  of  its  difficulty  and  the  costliness  of  the 
materials  used.  The  making  of  murexide  itself,  and  the  possible 
application  of  it  as  a  coloring  matter,  would  even  at  that  time 
be  considered  as  impracticable ;  for  even  as  a  laboratory  pro- 
duct it  was  a  rarity,  and  beyond  the  supposed  difficulty  of  its 
preparation  was  the  belief  that  its  solubility  and  the  absence  of 
any  colored  combinations  of  it  with  metals  would  prevent  its 
-being  of  any  use  as  a  coloring  matter.  Some  time  afterwards 
a  French  chemical  manufacturer  secured  a  patent  (English 
patent,  dated  Feb.  3,  1857),  and  sent  abundance  of  murexide 
into  the  market,  along  with  a  process  of  applying  it  on  calico. 
The  first  murexide  sent  into  the  market  was  a  reddish  purple 
powder,  dissolving  in  water  with  a  fine  purple  color,  leaving  a 
little  residue  undissolved.  Improvements  were  soon  made  in 
its  manufacture,  and  there  has  been  sent  into  the  market  mu- 
rexide in  crystals  almost  chemically  pure,  and  with  that  green 
metallic  reflection  peculiar  to  this  body  and  the  wings  of  certain 
insects.  There  are  two  principal  methods  by  which  it  can  be 
prepared,  but  the  details  would  be  too  long  and  inapplicable 
here,  because  it  is  a  pure  manufacturing  process,  and  not  as 
such  specially  connected  with  printing  or  dyeing. 

The  composition  of  murexide  is  not  known  with  any  degree 
of  certainty  ;  it  may  be  looked  upon  as  an  acid  body,  or  con- 
taining an  acid,  called  from  its  color  the  purpuric  acid;  and 


356  MUREXIDES. 

the  purplish-red  color  it  produces  with  oxide  of  mercury,  or  a 
salt  of  mercury,  may  be  called  the  purpurate  of  mercury.  The 
method  of  obtaining  the  color  from  murexide  can  be  modified 
in  several  ways;  but  it  is  usual  to  make  a  strong  solution  of 
nitrate  of  lead,  from  three  to  five  pounds  per  gallon  of  water, 
thicken,  and  while  at  blood  heat  dissolve  it  in  the  required 
quantity  of  the  murexide,  from  four  to  eight  ounces  per  gallon, 
stirring  it  well.  This  color  is  printed,  aged  a  short  time,  ex- 
posed to  the  vapors  of  ammonia  for  a  few  minutes,  passed 
through  cold  water,  and  then  into  a  raising  pit  containing 
bichloride  of  mercury,  or  corrosive  sublimate,  at  the  rate  of 
about.two  ounces  to  a  gallon  of  water,  and  usually  mixed  with 
a  small  quantity  of  acetate  of  soda  and  acetic  acid.  The  color 
may  be  considered  as  finished,  or  it  may  be  again  exposed  to 
ammoniacal  vapors  to  give  it  a  modified  shade,  or  passed  in 
dilute  acetic  acid.  The  exposure  to  ammonia  in  the  first 
instance  is  sometimes  dispensed  with,  but  I  do  not  think  so 
good  or  full  a  shade  can  be  obtained  without  it.  By  using 
acetate  of  zinc  instead  of  the  bichloride  of  mercury  an  agree- 
able shade  of  yellow  is  produced,  but  not  so  much  esteemed  as 
the  red.  This  color  stands  washing  well  in  water,  and  is  not 
injured  by  weak  soaping;  it  retains  its  brilliancy  for  at  least 
two  years,  when  kept  from  air  and  light;  but,  unfortunately, 
a  short  exposure  to  a  good  light  is  enough  to  spoil  it,  and  it 
must  be  classed  amongst  the  fugitive  colors.  It  is  quite  possi- 
ble that  some  modification  of  this  coloring  matter  may  be  found 
to  give  more  permanent  colors,  but  it  is  contrary  to  all  analogy 
to  expect  that  a.mercurial  mordant  will  ever  do  it.  All  the 
salts  of  mercury  are  subject  to  decompositions  in  a  more  re- 
markable degree  than  the  othef  salts  of  metals  used  in  printing 
and  dyeing,  and  even  among  metals  of  the  same  chemical  class 
they  are  distinguishable  by  their  inferior  stability.  This  is  the 
case  with  mineral  acids,  and  is  more  remarkable  still  with 
organic  acids.  It  would  be  a  matter  for  surprise  if  a  compound 
of  mercury,  with  a  highly  organized  body  like  murexide, 
should  not  be  alterable  under  the  agencies  of  heat,  light,  and 
air.  The  murexide  red  undergoes  some  molecular  change  on 
the  cloth  not  accompanied  by  a  change  of  color,  but  connected 
with  some  change  of  form  which  renders  it  less  adherent  to 
the  fabric.  If  a  murexide  colored  dress  be  worn  a  few  times 
under  favorable  circumstances,  it  will  not  differ  much  in  shade 
from  a  piece  of  it  which  has  been  exposed  to  the  same  atmos- 
pheric influences  but  kept  quiet.  If  the  dress  and  the  piece 
kept  be  subjected  to  washing  together  in  cold  water,  the  dress 
will  be  found  to  lose  color  to  a  perceptible  extent,  the  water 
becoming  colored  at  the  same  time  ;  the  piece  not  worn  does 


MUREXIDE3.  357 

not  suffer  to  nearly  the  same  degree.  The  same  thing  happens 
again,  to  a  still  greater  extent,  the  worn  dress  losing  much 
more  than  the  unworn  patch,  until  at  a  third  washing  the  dress 
will  have  lost  all  its  brightness  and  become  yellow.  This 
seems  to  be  owing  to  the  movement  of  the  fibres  one  upon  the 
other,  inducing  a  change  in  the  form  of  the  mercurial  pigment ; 
for  it  may  be  observed  that  the  parts  most  subject  to° rough 
movement,  as  the  lower  flounces  which  touch  the  floor,  are 
most  and  soonest  injured.  It  is  probable  that  the  precipitated 
purpurate  of  mercury  is  crystalline  in  form,  and  not  amor- 
phous ;  at  any  rate  its  behavior  suggests  something  of  that 
nature,  and  the  taste  of  mercury  which  can  be  perceived  upon 
masticating  a  little  calico  colored  with  it,  seems  also  to  point  out 
a  degree  of  solubility  in  the  compound,  or  else  a  power  on  the 
part  of  the  saliva  to  decompose  the  colored  salt  and  appreciate 
the  mercury.  The  red  color  is  easily  injured  or  destroyed  by 
heat,  it  will  not  sustain  the  action  of  steam,  and  though  a  little 
soap  does  not  much  injure  it,  and  may  in  fact  be  employed 
when  cold  to  produce  a  modified  shade,  a  boiling  in  soap  is 
almost  destructive  to  it.  No  attempts  to  fasten  this  color  have 
been  successful  thus  far,  and  though  represented  by  some  houses 
as  a  fast  color,  and  sold  as  such,  it  is  only  in  the  name ;  there 
is  actually  no  difference  in  the  stability  of  the  color  thus  guar- 
anteed and  that  ordinarily  produced. 

Woollen  does  not  take  color  well  from  murexide;  it  can  be 
dyed  with  it,  but  it  does  not  receive  full  and  deep  shades.  The 
best  color  from  the  uric  acid  products  for  wool  is  derived 
directly  from  alloxan,  which  is  a  colorless  body  in  itself;  but 
being  dissolved  in  water  and  applied  to  woollen  cloth,  and  the 
material  hung  up  in  a  room  with  ammoniaeal  vapors  circu- 
lating in  the  atmosphere,  it  takes  a  deep  reddish-purple  or  ama- 
ranth color.  This  change  can  be  effected  more  rapidly  by 
heating  the  woollen,  but  not  so  regularly.  The  color  thus 
produced  resists  washing  in  water  and  weak  soap,  and  is  not 
particularly  acted  upon  by  atmospheric  agency.  The  com- 
parative expense  of  the  alloxan,  and  the  possibility  of  obtain- 
ing shades  nearly  similar  with  cheaper  substances,  will  prevent 
this  color  from  being  used  to  any  great  extent. 

Silk  receives  a  fine  red  color  from  murexide.  It  may  be 
communicated  by  passing  the  silk  first  in  a  bath  of  the  bichlo- 
ride of  mercury,  and  then  adding  the  murexide  to  the  liquor  ; 
or,  having  two  liquors,  the  mercury  and  murexide,  separate, 
and  passing  from  one  to  the  other  until  the  required  shade  has 
been  obtained.  The  kind  of  red  thus  produced  is  not  one  in 
demand,  and  I  believe  is  never  made  now.  It  is  subject  to 
the  same  influences  and  changes  as  the  color  upon  calico,  fading 


358  WYRABOLANS — NICKEL. 

and  washing  out  like  it  after  an  exposure  of  a  few  days  to  the 
air  and  light. 

The  orange  yellow  color  which  can  be  produced  from  mu- 
rexide,  by  means  of  the  salts  of  zinc  being  used  instead  of  mer- 
cury, is  a  pleasant  color,  but  not  remarkable.  A  similar  and 
hardly  distinguishable  shade  can  be  obtained  in  several  ways 
preferable  on  the  score  of  economy  and  stability  of  color.  It 
is  not  used. 

Myrabolans, — An  East  Indian  product,  which  contains  a 
kind  of  tannin  matter.  It  has  been  slightly  used  by  the  dyers 
of  this  country,  as  a  substitute  for  galls  and  sumac. 


N. 

Nankeen  Color. — This  name  is  usually  given  to  the  shade 
of  buff  obtained  from  iron  salts.  In  pi^ece  dyeing  the  cloth  is 
run  through  copperas  liquor,  and  then  through  lime  water. 
For  lighter  shades  nitrate  of  iron  is  preferable.  The  color  may 
be  softened  both  in  appearance  and  to  the  feel,  by  finally  work- 
ing in  warm  soap  suds.  Anotta  gives  rather  yellow  nankeen 
shades,  which  may  be  combined  with  the  chrome  yellow.  As 
nankeen  is  compounded  of  yellow  and  red,  it  maybe  produced 
by  employing  red  and  yellow  dyeing  materials  in  conjunction. 

Naphthaline. — This  is  the  name  of  a  solid  greasy  substance 
which  is  obtained  in  large  quantities  from  coal  tar.  It  enters 
into  an  infinite  number  of  combinations  with  the  chemical  ele- 
ments, some  of  which  approach  so  near  in  composition  to 
natural  coloring  matters  that  strong  hopes  have  been  enter- 
tained of  being  able  to  produce  them  from  it.  Up  to  the  pre- 
sent time,  however,  it  is  not  known  that  any  available  color 
has  been  obtained  from  this  source. 

Nenuphar,  Nymplioea  Alba,  White  Water  Lily.— This  plant 
contains  an  astringent  matter,  which  enables  it  to  answer  the 
same  purposes  as  galls  and  sumac.  It  is  widely  used  in  the 
eastern  parts  of  the  continent  in  garancine  dyeing,  but  I  am 
not  aware  of  its  having  been  applied  in  England. 

Nicaragua  Wood. — One  of  the  red  woods  similar  to 
peach  wood  and  sapan  wood;  the  same  apparently  as  Santa 
Martha  wood.  Its  quality  is  variable,  sometimes  not  worth 
one  sixth  of  the  price  of  Brazil  wood,  sometimes  worth  as 
much  as  one  half. 

Nickel. — A  comparatively  rare  metal,  distinguished  by 
yielding  salts  of  an  apple  green  color.  It  has  been  tried  both 
as  a  substantive  color  and  as  a  mordant,  but  did  not  give  any 


NITRIC  ACID.  359 

promising  results.^  With  dyewoods  generally  it  gives  the  same 
kind  of  colors  as  iron. 

Cobalt  is  a  metal  usually  associated  with  nickel,  and  nearly 
resembling  it  in  chemical  character.  It  acts  as  a  mordant,  but 
does  not  yield  any  specially  interesting  colors. 

Nitric  Acid,  Aquafortis. — Nitric  acid  is  a  compound  of  ni- 
trogen and  oxygen  ;  it  is  entirely  a  manufactured  article,  never 
being  found  free  in  nature;  it  is  all  obtained  from  either  salt- 
petre, which  is  a  nitrate  of  potash,  or  from  nitrate  of  soda,  the 
Chilian  saltpetre.  It  is  a  strong  acid,  and  possesses  powerful 
oxidizing  properties.  It  is  not  used  in  bleaching,  and  very 
little  in  either  dyeing  or  calico  printing,  but  it  is  employed  in 
considerable  quantities  by  the  manufacturing  chemists  who 
make  drugs  for  dyers  and  printers.  It  is  used  for  making 
nitrate  of  iron,  nitrate  of  lead,  oxymuriate  of  tin,  and  several  of 
those  solutions  of  tin  known  as  dyer's  spirits ;  it  is  used  for  a 
few  colors  in  calico  printing,  and  sometimes  to  cut  madder 
pinks,  that  is,  to  reduce  the  red  to  a  softer  shade.  It  is  occa- 
sionally employed  to  give  silk  a  fast  yellow  color,  by  passing- 
it  through  tolerably  strong  acid,  and  washing  directly.  It  has 
the  property  of  tinging  all  or  most  animal  substances  of  a 
yellow  color;  it  is  used  for  etching  rollers  and  deepening 
engravings,  and  in  several  other  trifling  cases.  The  strength 
of  nitric  acid  is  usually  determined  by  the  hydrometer,  which 
is  a  good  enough  test  between  honest  people,  but  it  is  possible 
to  make  it  seem  strong  by  putting  vitriol  in,  and  one  or  two 
other  substances.  Commercial  nitric  acid  is  occasionally  con- 
taminated with  large  quantities  of  spirits  of  salts  or  muriatic 
acid.  It  is  the  most  expensive  of  the  acids  used  in  large  quan- 
tities, and  there  are  inducements  to  mix  cheaper  acids  or  salts 
with  it.  The  test  for  muriatic  acid  is  nitrate  of  silver  ;  for  sul- 
phuric acid,  or  vitriol,  nitrate  of  baryta,  diluting  the  aquafortis 
to  be  tested  with  pure  water,  so  as  to  allow  the  tests  to  show 
properly.  If  any  solid  substance  is  present  it  is  detected  upon 
boiling"down  a  little  of  the  acid  to  dryness,  in  a  proper  vessel. 
If  the  acid  be  unadulterated  its  strength  will  be  in  proportion 
to  the  figure  it  stands  at  upon  the  Twaddle.  The  very  strong- 
est nitric  nitric  acid  that  can  be  made  contains  some  water,  so 
that  commercial  nitric  acid  is  a  mixture  of  a  certain  quantity 
of  real  supposed  dry  nitric  acid  and  water,  and  by  consulting 
the  following  table  the  quantity  of  real  acid  -in  commercial 
aquafortis,  of  any  given  strength,  can  be  ascertained.  The 
table  is  adapted  from  Dr.  lire's  determinations. 


360 


NITRIC   ACID. 


Table  showing  the  Quantity  of  Anhydrous  Nitric  Acid  in  One 
Hundred  Parts  of  Liquid  Acid,  at  various  Densities. 


Twaddle. 

Dry  acid  in 

Twaddle. 

Dry  acid  in 

Twaddle. 

Dry  acid  in 

Twaddle. 

Dry  acid  in. 

100  parts. 

100  parts. 

100  parts. 

100  parts. 

100 

79.70 

65 

44.50 

46 

31.20 

28 

19.90 

96 

73.32 

62 

42.20 

44 

30.00 

26 

18.50 

92 

68.54 

60 

40.60 

42 

28.80 

24 

17.20 

88 

64.50 

58 

39.10 

40 

27.60 

22 

15.90 

84 

59.77 

56 

37.80 

38 

26.40 

20 

14.40 

80 

56.58 

54 

36.60 

36 

25.00 

15 

11.00 

76 

52.60 

52 

35.10 

34 

23.90 

10 

7.50 

72 

49.41 

50 

34.00 

32 

22.50 

5 

3.50 

68 

47.00 

48 

32.60 

30 

21.40 

The  best  method  of  ascertaining  the  actual  value  of  nitric 
acid  is  to  determine  the  amount  of  other  acids  present,  and 
deduct  them  from  the  gross  acidity  of  the  sample  under  exami- 
nation. The  hydro-chloric  acid  is  determined  as  chloride  of 
silver,  and  the  sulphuric  acid  as  sulphate  of  baryta.  The 
acidity  of  the  whole  may  be  tested  by  ascertaining  how  much 
pure  carbonate  of  soda  a  given  quantity  can  neutralize.  Pure 
nitric  acid  for  laboratory  or  special  purposes  is  obtained  by 
precipitating  the  hydro-chloric  acid  from  ordinary  acid  by 
nitrate  of  silver,  and  then  distilling.  If  there  is  no  other  im- 
purity but  hydro-chloric  acid  present,  it  may  be  expelled  by 
keeping  the  acid  at  near  its  boiling  point,  on  a  sand  bath,  for 
several  hours. 

Nitric  Oxide. — It  is  a  gas,  colorless,  mixes  with  air  or  oxy- 
gen, and  forms  red  or  orange  colored  vapors,  such  as  are  pro- 
duced in  making  nitrate  of  iron,  or  several  kinds  of  dyer's 
spirits.  Its  affinity  for  oxygen  is  very  great ;  it  is  best  pre- 
pared by  acting  upon  nitric  acid,  with  copper  turnings ;  the 
copper  withdraws  oxygen  from  the  nitric  acid  to  form  nitrate 
of  oxide  of  copper,  and  the  gas  is  evolved. 

No  applications;  but  is,  I  think,  capable  of  receiving  some. 
It  is  a  carrier  of  oxygen,  and  may,  perhaps,  be  usefully  em- 
ployed as  such ;  it  is  not  applicable  as  an  oxidizer  for  colors, 
on  account  of  the  formation  of  the  nitrous  acid  and  its  apparent 
conversion  into  nitric  acid.  Acting  under  the  impression  that 
the  oxymuriate  of  tin,  used  for  cutting  or  altering  the  shade  of 
madder  reds,  produced  its  effects  by  some  nitrous  acid,  or  hy- 
ponitrous,  contained  in  it,  I  tried  the  effect  of  the  bi-oxide  of 
nitrogen  mixed  with  air  upon  strips  of  madder  red  previously 
damped.  The  action  of  the  gas  was  prompt  and  energetic, 
the  whole  color  was  changed  to  a  yellowish  shade;  upon  soap- 
ing, it  devolved  into  a  fine  pink.  If  the  gas  was  too  strong, 


NITRO-CUMINIC   ACID— OILS   AND   FATTY   MATTERS.      361 

or  the  fents  left  in  too  long,  the  change  to  yellow  became  per- 
manent, and  soaping  only  developed  a  cinnamon  shade,  which 
appeared  to  be  quite  as  stable  as  other  madder  colors,  resisting 
the  action  of  soap,  acids,  and  chloride  of  lime.  This  experi- 
ment only  proves  that  the  nitrous  acid  generated  by  the  mix- 
ture of  the  gas  with  the  air  could  produce  the  same  effects  as 
the  oxymuriate. 

Nitrous  Acid. — This  acid  is  formed  when  the  bi-oxide  mixes 
with  air,  and  is  the  ruddy  colored  gas  which  is  produced  in 
several  cases  of  the  action  of  nitric  acid  upon  metals,  when  the 
operation  is  carried  on  in  contact  with  the  air.  To  procure  it 
in  its  pure  state,  nitrate  of  lead  is  heated  in  a  retort,  when  it 
distils  over.  It  has  a  suffocating  effect  when  inhaled,  supports 
combustion,  and  is  readily  decomposed.  No  'applications  at 
present:  the  remarks  under  the  bi  oxide  are  applicable  here  as 
well. 

Nitro-Cuminic  Acid. — This  acid  is  interesting  on  account 
of  the  colors  which  it  yields.  According  to  M.  Jules  Persoz, 
calico  dipped  in  it  made  hot,  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  acquires 
a  scarlet  red  color,  which,  by  various  treatments,  is  converted 
into  a  pure  and  bright  pink. 

Nitrogenous  Matters.— This  term,  frequently  found  in 
treatises  upon  dyeing,  indicates  a  class  of  organic  substances 
which  contain  nitrogen.  Most  animal  matters,  such  as  flesh, 
urine,  dung,  milk,  etc.,  are  nitrogenous  substances.  The  use  of 
animal  substances  in  cotton  dyeing  is  thought  to  be  connected 
in  some  way  with  the  communication  of  a  nitrogenized  princi- 
ple to  the  fibre,  but  the  efforts  of  chemists  to  investigate  this 
point  have  not  yet  succeeded  in  penetrating  the  obscurity 
which  surrounds  it. 

Nona.— An  East  India  root,  apparently  of  the  same  kind 
as  madder,  being  used  to  obtain  the  same  colors.  It  is  not 
imported,  or,  at  least,  is  not  known  in  England  under  this 


0. 

Oak  Bark. — This  bark  has  been  slightly  used  in  dyeing  to 
produce  shades  of  drab,  gray,  etc.  Its  value  lies  altogether  in 
the  astringent  matter  which  it  contains,  the  quality  and  quan- 
tity of  which  is  not  so  suitable  for  the  dyer  as  for  the  tanner. 

Oils  and  Fatty  Matters. — Oils  of  various  kinds  are  used 

in  printing  and  dyeing  to  a  considerable  extent,  but  in  only 

one  or  two  cases  as  directly  connected  with  the  production  of 

colors ;  but  these  oils  are  so  important  in  many  respects  as 

24 


362  OILS   AND   FATTY    MATTERS. 

subsidiary  agents,  that  a  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  the 
principal  of  them  is  necessary.  Oils  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  namely,  fat  oils  and  essential  oils;  a  fat  oil  being  what 
is  popularly  understood  under  the  name  of  oil,  its  distinguish- 
ing character  being  to  give  a  greasy  spot  on  paper  which  does 
not  disappear  by  warming  ;  the  essential  oils  resemble  turpen- 
tine, most  of  them  have  well  defined  smells,  they  are  thin  and 
volatile,  and  a  stain  made  by  a  drop  upon  paper  disappears 
when  strongly  warmed.  They  are  none  of  them  employed  in 
printing  or  dyeing,  except  the  oil  of  turpentine.  The  fat  oils 
(and  by  this  is  meant  to  include  those  solid  fats  like  tallow, 
which  do  not  take  an  oily  consistency  in  this  climate)  are  again 
divided  into  two  classes,  called  rancid  oils  and  drying  oils, 
from  the  manner  in  which  they  behave  when  exposed  for  long 
periods  to  the  action  of  the  air.  'An  oil  which  dries  up  or 
forms  a  skin  over  the  surface,  or  that  shows  any  inclination  to 
thicken  into  a  resinous  or  gummy  substance  upon  long  expo- 
sure to  the  air,  is  called  a  drying  oil;  linseed  oil  is  the  best 
common  example  of  this  class  of  oils.  When,  on  the  other 
hand,  an  oil  shows  no  inclination  to  skin  over  or  dry  up,  but 
sometimes  to  become  more  fluid,  and  at  the  same  time  gives 
oft'  a  sour  smell,  and  has  that  appearance  and  taste  known  as 
rancidity,  it  is  classed  among  the  rancid  oils;  some  of  these 
oils  grow  firmer  on  standing,  but  they  never  go  tough  or  form 
skins.  The  animal  fats,  as  tallow  ard  sperm  oil,  are  good 
instances  of  this  class.  The  term  "rancid  oil"  is  not  a  good 
one,  for  some  fats  of  this  class  do  not  go  sensibly  rancid  by 
very  prolonged  exposure  to  the  air,  and  probably  never  would 
become  rancid ;  it  actually  means  an  oil  which  does  not  go 
thick,  in  contradistinction  to  one  which  does.  The  drying  up 
of  an  oil  on  the  one  hand,  and  its  rancidity  on  the  other,  are 
owing  to  the  same  chemical  cause,  which  is  the  absorption  of 
the  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  the  production  of  some  essential 
modifications  in  the  internal  composition  of  the  oil.  Exposure 
to  the  air  is  essential  to  this  change,  for  in  quite  close  vessels 
the  drying  oils  remain  thin  and  the  rancid  oils  sweet ;  but  as, 
practically,  all  common  vessels  contain  and  admit  of  a  circula- 
tion of  air  within  them,  so  these  effects  of  drying  and  rancidity 
do  make  their  appearance  even  in  corked  up  phials,  but  of 
course  only  when  so  kept  for  great  lengths  of  time;  so  much 
the  more  do  their  characters  appear  in  oil  casks  and  in  oil 
reservoirs;  but  they  are  in  their  greatest  state  of  activity  when 
the  oils  are  exposed  to  the  air  in  thin  films,  as  on  paper  soaked, 
in  them,  or  painted  on  wood,  or  as  lubricants  on  machinery. 
The  drying  oils  are  suitable  for  painting  and  varnish  making, 
and  quite  unfit  for  machinery,  while,  on  the  contrary,  the 


OILS   AND   FATTY   MATTERS.  363 

rancid  oils  are  adapted  for  all  lubricating  purposes,  and  quite 
unfit  for  painting,  never  becoming  dry.  The  chief  fatty  mat- 
ters in  use  on  a  print  or  dye  works  are  as  follows: — 

Tallow.—Tbb  is  the  melted  fat  of  animals,  and  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  all  fats;  it  undergoes  very  little  change  on 
exposure  to  the  air,  and  is  solid  at  the  temperature  of  this 
country.  It  is  used  as  a  grease  for  machinery,  either  alone  or 
in  combination  with  other  fats  or  substances;  principally, 
however,  on  account  of  its  not  being  fluid,  it  is  employed  in 
warm  places,  or  warm  bearings,  or  on  large  wheels.  It  never 
goes  acid  when  good.  The  best  kind  of  soap  is  made  from 
tallow,  but  on  account  of  the  comparative  dearness  of  this  fat 
it  is  seldom  used  alone  in  soap  making,  but  mixed  with  other 
oils  of  less  value.  The  soap  sold  as  white  curd  soap  should  be 
a  pure  tallow  soap. 

Sperm  Oil — This  is  an  animal  oil,  and  the  finest  and  best  of 
all  oils  for  lubricating  machinery;  it  is  very  thin,  and  seems  to 
resist  the  action  of  the  air  for  any  length  of  time.  It  is  the 
most  expensive  of  all  the  common  oils,  and  is  only  used  for 
particular  purposes  in  lubricating  and  for  burning. 

Olive  Oil(Gallipoli  Oil}. — This  is  perhaps  the  most  important 
of  all  the  vegetable  oils,  from  the  quantity  which  is  produced 
in  Europe,  and  the  many  useful  purposes  to  which  it  is  appli- 
cable. It  is  extracted  from  the  fruit  of  the  olive,  the  commer- 
cial quality  being  about  the  third  pressing  of  the  fruit,  after 
two  pressings  have  taken  out  the  finer  qualities  used  for 
domestic  purposes.  Besides  the  pure  oil,  it  contains  a  quantity 
of  vegetable  matter  of  an  albuminous  nature,  which  makes  it 
thicker  and  more  ropy  in  appearance.'  This  oil  should  be 
sweet  to  the  taste  and  clear  to  the  eye,  of  a  dull  yellow  color, 
and  an  odor  free  from  rancidity.  It  is  often  adulterated  with 
cheaper  oils ;  and  it  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  difficulty  to 
ascertain  if  this  is  the  case  by  chemical  means,  still  more  so  to 
judge  of  the  nature  of  the  adulterating  oil  and  its  proportion 
to  the  rest.  Practical  testing  and  comparing  of  qualities  on 
the  large  scale  are  the  only  reliable  means  by  which  the  value 
of  a  sample  can  be  estimated  ;  long  experience  enables. a  person 
to  judge  at  once  by  the  taste  and  smell  what  kind  of  an  article 
is  offered  to  him. 

Gallipoli  oil  is  equally  fitted  for  lubricating  machinery  and 
making  soap.  It  is  not  often  used  for  this  latter  purpose  in 
England,  but  the  best  known  soaps  of  the  continent,  the 
southern  countries  especially,  are  all  made  from  this  oil.  Gal- 
lipoli oil  is  employed  by  the  Turkey  red  dyers  as  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  dyeing;  for  their  use  it  must  possess  some  peculiar 
properties  not  necessary  to  its  goodness  for  general  purposes. 


364  OILS  AND   FATTY  MATTERS. 

It  must  mix  up  thoroughly  with  a  weak  solution  of  pearl  ash, 
forming  a  milky  fluid,  which  must  not  break  or  throw  up  any 
oily  globules  for  a  period  of  at  least  twenty-four  hours.  Not 
all  the  oil  in  commerce  possesses  this  property;  there  are 
means  of  making  it  suitable  when  it  is  not  so,  but  I  believe 
that  the  bulk  of  common  Gallipoli  oil  answers  without  any 
preparation.  This  property  of  forming  what  is  called  an  emul- 
sion is  possessed  by  several  vegetable  oils,  but  by  none  in  so 
perfect  a  manner  as  by  this  oil.  Pure  olive  oil  does  not  form  a 
perfect  emulsion,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  ordinary  oil  owes 
its  qualities  in  this  respect  to  the  impurities  it  contains.  An 
oil  which  will  not  mix  with  weak  alkaline  solutions  by  itself, 
will  do  so  very  readily  if  beaten  up  with  the  yolk  of  an  egg, 
which  seems  to  prove  that  there  is  something  of  an  albuminous 
nature  in  the  regular  oil.  It  is  quite  plain,  therefore,  that  an 
oil  very  good  for  one  purpose,  would  be  either  inferior  or  bad 
for  another  use.  Gallipoli  oil  is  in  regular  use  in  color  shops 
for  mixing  with  colors,  especially  paste  colors,  to  give  them 
smoothness  and  enable  them  to  work  better;  in  gum  colors  it 
is  used  to  prevent  frothing. 

Linseed  Oil. — Linseed  oil  is  of  two  kinds,  the  raw  natural 
oil  and  the  boiled  oil.  The  boiled  oil  is  only  used  in  painting, 
and  for  a  few  other  purposes  where  it  is  required  to  dry  up  into 
a  kind  of  varnish.  The  raw  oil  is  of  a  drying  nature,  but  not 
so  strongly  marked  in  this  respect  as  the  boiled — the  boiling 
being  for  no  other  purpose  than  to  heighten  its  properties  as  a 
dryer,  and  to  give  it  a  little  more  consistency.  Linseed  oil  is 
used  in  colors,  the  same  as  Gallipoli.  It  is  usually  lower  in 
price,  and  there  is  an  economy  in  employing  it;  for  keeping 
down  froth  I  believe  it  is  rather  better  than  Gallipoli.  Linseed 
oil  does  not  make  good  soap.  Drying  linseed  oil  is  the  basis 
of  all  paints,  and  also  of  most  of  the  attempts  made  to  produce 
oil  colors  for  printing  on  calico.  The  chief  difficulty  in  making 
an  oil  color  fit  to  print  on  the  machine  seems  to  lie  in  depriving 
the  oil  of  its  flowing  character  or  its  greasiness;  that  property 
which  causes  it  to  spread  beyond  the  limits  of  the  design,  and 
give  an  unpresentable  appearance  to  the  whole  cloth.  At  the 
same  time,  nothing  must  be  done  which  will  injure  the  trans- 
parency of  the  vehicle,  nor  interfere  with  the  hue  of  the  colors 
to  be  employed.  Boiled  oil  is  inadmissible  on  account  of  its 
color,  especially  for  all  light  or  bright  colored  pigments.  By 
repeatedly  boiling  oil  in  conjunction  with  earthy  matters,  it  can 
be  made  into  a  kind  of  tough  varnish,  capable  of  being  thinned 
down  with  turpentine,  and  when  printed  on  calico  not  spread- 
ing beyond  its  proper  limits.  But  this  injures  the  color  of  the 
oil  for  all  except  the  darkest  colors,  and  the  use  of  much  tur- 


OILS   AND   FATTY  MATTERS.  365 

pentine  is  open  to  objection.  Liebig  published  a  method  of 
converting  linseed  oil  into  a  very  drying  oil  without  injuring 
its  color.  The  process  consists  in  shaking  the  raw  oil  up  in  a 
bottle,  with  a  basic  acetate  of  lead  and  powdered  litharge,  along 
with  water,  until  it  had  been  acted  upon  and  taken  up  a  quan- 
tity of  the  lead  in  solution.  It  could  then  be  washed  by  shaking 
with  water,  and  the  lead  contained  in  the  oil  removed  by  agi^ 
tating  with  weak  oil  of  vitriol.  By  this  process  a  drying  oil  can 
be  obtained,  which  is  all  that  can  be  desired,  as  far  as  color  is 
concerned,  but  is  deficient  in  other  respects ;  it  is  as  thin  as  the 
original  oil,  is  quite  greasy,  and  though  it  dries  up  pretty  fast, 
it  will  run  very  much.  The  published  processes  take  no  account 
of  an  alteration  of  the  properties  of  the  oil  caused  by  removing 
the  lead  which  is  held  in  solution  by  it.  The  presence  of  the 
lead  is  objectionable  because  it  changes  color  on  the  cloth, 
becoming  brown,  probably  owing  to  the  sulphurous  vapors  in 
the  air,  probably  from  absorbing  some  oxygen,  and  becoming 
changed  into  the  higher  oxide;  but  its  removal  destroys  the 
drying  property  of  the  oil.  Without  the  lead  it  is  little  or  no 
better  than  raw  oil.  To  obtain  a  product  having  greater  con 
sistency,  I  boiled  some  of  the  oil  made  by  Liebig's  process 
without  removing  the  lead  ;  it  became  colored  immediately  and 
went  worse  as  the  heat  was  increased,  until  it  was  quite  unser- 
viceable. Oil  from  which  the  lead  had  been  removed  by  acid 
behaved  much  as  raw  oil  would  do  under  the  same  circum- 
stances, becoming  colored  to  an  objectionable  degree  as  it  boiled 
and  became  thicker.  All  the  efforts  I  made  to  get  a  consistent 
colorless  oil,  which  would  print  without  spreading  and  dry  up 
quickly,  were  of  no  avail.  Some  results  I  obtained  of  a  promis- 
ing nature  by  attempts  to  thicken  the  oil  with  various  sub- 
stances, as  amber,  rosin,  and  the  like,  and  I  was  convinced  that, 
sooner  or  later,  the  difficulties  which  seemed  insuperable  would 
be  overcome,  and  oil  printing  become  a  regular  and  valued 
branch  of  calico  printing.  It  resulted  from  my  experiments 
that  fast  colors  of  great  brilliancy  and  beauty  could  be  obtained, 
and  I  did  obtain  them,  but  by  processes  too  delicate  and  too 
costly  to  be  practicable.  I  was  of  opinion  that  the  cloth,  in 
its  state  of  looseness  of  texture,  was  not  well  adapted  to  receive 
oil  colors,  and  that  it  would  have  to  be  prepared— the  interstices 
being  filled  up  with  some  thickening  substance,  and  the  whole 
fabric  made  smooth  and  absorbent— not  for  a  permanent  state, 
but  for  the  application  of  the  color,  and  while  it  was  being 
fixed,  to  be  washed  off  afterwards. 

Other  drying  oils  are  poppy  oil  and  nut  oil;  they  are  more 
expensive  than  linseed  oil,  but  not  too  much  so  to  be  capable 


366  OILS   AND   FATTY  MATTERS. 

of  being  used  in  calico  printing  if  their  properties  were  par- 
ticularly valuable.  They  are  used  by  articles  as  drying  oils. 

Palm  Oil. — This  valuable  product  comes  from  the  African 
coast ;  it  has  received  its  name  from  the  tree  whose  fruit  yields 
k.  It  is  called  an  oil  because  it  is  fluid  in  the  tropical  climate 
where  it  is  extracted.  It  is  not  used  to  any  considerable  extent 
by  dyers  or  printers  unless  they  make  their  own  soap,  and  for 
this  purpose  it  answers  better  than  any  other  fatty  substance. 
It  is  easily  saponified,  and  suits  very  well  all  the  needs  of  the 
printer  and  dyer  of  calicoes  and  woollens.  It  has  a  strong  yellow 
color,  of  which  it  can  be  deprived  by  many  processes,  and 
brought  into  a  white  state,  when  of  course  soap  made  from  it 
is  white,  while  the  soap  made  from  unbleached  oil  is  yellow. 

Cheaper  fish  oils,  as  cod  oil  and  whale  o^7,  are  not  much  in 
favor  on  account  of  their  odor,  which  is  very  persistent,  adher- 
ing to  cloth  through  all  kinds  of  processes,  and  making  itself 
sensible  to  the  smell  in  a  disagreeable  manner.  They  are  em- 
ployed in  making  soft  soap,  whence  the  odor  of  that  substance 
is  derived. 

Spermaceti. — This  is  an  animal  fatty  matter,  obtained  from  a 
species  of  whale.  It  is  not  exactly  an  oil,  although  possessing 
many  properties  of  oil;  it  mixes  with  oils  and  turpentine.  It 
is  sparingly  used  in  color  mixing  for  some  colors,  especially 
for  a  black  which  has  a  logwood  basis.  It  gives  brilliancy  to 
colors,  and  is  rather  more  manageable  than  other  fatty  bodies 
when  mixed  in  colors. 

Bees'  Wax,  which  was  formerly  used  as  a  resist,  is  now  seldom 
employed.  On  specimens  of  calico  printing  which  come  from 
India  the  wax  resist  may  be«seen  yet.  It  acts  as  a  resist,  and 
effectually  so,  in  all  cases  where  the  liquors  are  not  hot  or 
strongly  alkaline ;  it  is  a  resist  of  the  mechanical  sort. 

Action  of  Sulphuric  Acid  upon  Oils. — When  strong  oil  of  vit- 
riol is  mixed  with  a  fat  oil,  arid  left  in  contact  for  some  hours, 
it  causes  a  change  to  take  place  in  the  oil,  which  can  then  be 
dissolved  in  water.  This  method  of  treating  oils,  for  applying 
them  to  dyeing,  has  been  patented  by  more  than  one  party,  the 
patents  of  the  dates  June  22,  1846,  to  Mercer  and  Greenwood ; 
and  to  the  same  parties  on  March  15,  1852,  may  be  consulted 
upon  this  matter.  The  object  of  the  inventors  has  been  mostly 
to  shorten  the  Turkey  red  process,  but  what  degree  of  success 
they  have  met  with  I  do  not  know. 

Oil  as  a  Mordant.— The  use  of  oils  as  assisting  cloth  to  absorb 
and  retain  coloring  matters  is  of  very  ancient  origin.  It  is  used 
chiefly  in  Turkey. red  dyeing,  and  appears  to  bean  introduction 
from  the  East,  improved  as  to  the  manner  of  its  application  by 
the  science  of  our  own  time  and  country.  It  plays  a  part  simi- 


OILS   AND   FATTY   MATTERS.  367 

lar  to  that  ascribed  to  the  astringent  principles,  capable  indeed 
of  acting  as  a  mordant  by  itself,  but  producing  thus  only  dull 
and  feeble  colors;  but  combining  with  other  mordants,  ele- 
vating their  affinities  and  communicating  stability  to  the  colors, 
produced  by  them.  It  seems  necessary  that  the  oil  should 
undergo  some  chemical  change  upon  the  cloth  before  it  is  fitted 
for  use  as  an  assistant  mordant;  this  change  is  most  probably 
an  oxidation.  The  oil  which  has  been  exposed  upon  the-  cloth 
for  some  hours  or  days  is  evidently  altered  in  its  properties  in 
some  way  or  other ;  it  is  not  removable  by  the  same  agents 
which  act  upon  quite  fresh  oil ;  that  though  the  oil  most  proper 
for  this  purpose  never  passes  to  the  resinous  state  of  the  drying 
oils,  it  loses  a  great  deal  of  its  greasiness,  and  may  be  supposed 
either  to  have  partially  dried  up  or  to  have  formed  some  sapona- 
ceous combination  with  the  mordant,  by  which  its  oily  nature 
is  disguised.  We  have  no  satisfactory  information  as  to  the 
rationale  of  the  Turkey  red  process;  it  is  a  series  of  empirical 
treatments  perfected  by  practice  and  long  years  of  experience, 
which  science  is  as  unable  to  improve  as  to  explain.  The  In- 
dustrial Society  of  Mulhouse  offer  a  prize,  and  have  done  for 
many  years,  to  any  person  who  can  give  a  satisfactory  scientific 
explanation  and  justification  of  the  Turkey  red  processes,  but 
the  prize  remains  unclaimed  or  unawarded — a  sufficient  proof 
of  the  little  knowledge  possessed  by  chemists  upon  the  matter. 
What  can  be  said  is,  that  the  oil  enables  the  cloth  to  take  the 
mordant  more  readily  and  in  greater  quantity.  If  one  end  of 
a  strip  of  calico  be  dipped  in  the  emulsion  of  oil  and  ash  used 
by  the  Turkey  red  dyers,  and  placed  for  a  few  hours  in  a  warm 
place,  the  fatty  matter  will  be  found  to  have  contracted  a  per- 
manent adhesion  to  the  cloth,  and  if  put  into  a  madder  dye  it 
will  be  stained  of  a  dull  red,  not  possible  to  clear  off  by  the 
usual  clearing  processes.  If  this  strip,  one  end  of  which  has 
not  been  in  the  oil,  be  boiled  in  a  weak  solution  of  alum  for 
some  minutes  before  dyeing  in  madder,  a  more  striking  differ- 
ence is  seen.  The  oiled  part  dyes  up  a  red  of  no  great  depth, 
but  in  great  contrast  with  the  other  end,  which  remains  color- 
less. These  two  experiments  indicate  clearly,  firstly :— that 
oil  itself  can  attract  coloring  matters;  and  secondly,  that  it 
possesses  some  power  of  withdrawing  the  alumina  from  alum 
which  is  not  possessed  by  the  fibre.  This  is  nearly  all  that  is 
clearly  known  of  the  properties  and  uses  of  oil;  besides  assist- 
ing in  the  attraction  of  the  coloring  matter,  it  communicates  to 
it  a  permanence  when  fixed.  This  can  be  readily  understood 
upon  general  principles  as  attributable  to  the  presence  of  the 
oily  matter,  covering  and  shielding  the  changeable  coloring 
principle  from  the  action  of  the  destructive  natural  agents  to 


368  OILS   AND   FATTY  MATTERS. 

which  it  is  exposed ;  an  effect  which  is  partially  supplied  by 
the  use  of  soap  in  other  cases.  An  illustration  of  the  affinity 
of  oil  for  calico  and  colors  occurred  to  me  in  an  unexpected 
and  puzzling  manner,  and  its  recital  may  be  of  some  use  per- 
haps to  others.  A  number  of  pieces  having  been  printed  in 
wrong  mordants  for  madder  dyeing  were  discharged,  after  about 
a  week's  age,  and  before  dyeing.  The  colors  were  for  black, 
chocolate,  and  purple  ;  the  discharge  was  simply  a  warm  sour- 
ing and  slight  chemicking  to  take  the  yellow  off  the  cloth. 
The  pieces  were  printed  again  with  various  others  some  weeks 
afterwards,  and  dyed  as  usual,  but  they  showed  the  old  pattern 
through  the  back  of  the  piece,  and  though  not  strong,  it  was 
sufficient  to  spoil  the  color  on  the  face  and  job  the  pieces.  At 
first  I  suspected  the  pieces  had  been  originally  printed  in  red 
with  crystals  of  tin  in  the  red  liquor,  and  it  is  well  known  that 
the  tin  cannot  be  removed  without  a  bowking  or  strong  spirits 
of  salts  treatment,  and  pieces  for  discharging  containing  that 
color  were  kept  separate.  By  testing  the  unprinted  tab  ends 
I  was  certain  there  was  no  iron  left  on  the  cloth,  but  neither 
could  tin  be  detected.  As  tin  is  not  easily  found  by  chemical 
tests  when  in  very  small  quantities,  the  non-detection  of  it  did 
not  prevent  me  still  attributing  the  reappearance  of  the  pattern 
to  it  until,  upon  examination,  it  was  found  that  those  patterns 
had  never  been  printed  in  red,  and  they  were  traced  to  the  pre- 
cise lot  spoken  of  as  being  printed  in  black,  chocolate,  and 
purple,  and  it  was  evidently  the  black  outline  which  showed 
through  the  other  colors  to  their  injury.  It  was  some  time 
before  I  fixed  upon  the  oil,  which  was  used  in  the  color,  as  the 
cause  of  the  mischief,  but  I  proved  it  very  satisfactorily  by 
various  experiments.  Only  about  a  half  noggin  was  used  to  a 
gallon  of  color,  yet  it  had  fixed  upon  the  cloth,  and  had  gone 
through  the  hot  sours,  washing  and  chemicking,  to  re-appear 
as  a  mordant  several  weeks  afterwards.  It  was  easy  to  prevent 
the  repetition  of  this  accident  when  once  its  cause  was  dis- 
covered. It  is  probable  that  the  chemicking,  and  the  time 
which  elapsed  between  the  discharging  and  subsequent  dyeing, 
,  enabled  the  oil  to  become  oxidized  and  quite  fast.  If  the  pieces 
had  been  reprinted,  and  dyed  soon  after  discharging,  I  think 
the  color,  attracted  by  the  oil,  would  have  disappeared  in  the 
soaping.  Not  all  oil  produces  this  effect,  it  is  only  an  excep- 
tional case  I  believe,  for  evidently  the  acidity  of  the  mordant 
is  not  favorable  to  the  oil  forming  an  intimate  union  with  the 
fibre ;  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  presence  of  alkalies  that  it 
combines  most  effectually  with  the  material  of  the  cloth. 

Cloth  is  oiled,  in  Europe,  by  means  of  an  emulsion  made 
with  pearl  ash ;  but  in  the  East,  where  the  natives  still  produce 


OLIVE   COLORS.  369 

the  finest  and  fastest  reds  known,  it  is  applied  in  many  various 
ways ;  but  it  appears  that  the  best  informed  of  them  adopt  a 
plan  similar  to  the  method  in  use  with  us,  that  is,  diluting 
the  fatty  matter  by  some  liquid  which  brings  it,  if  not  into 
solution,  at  least  into  a  state  of  very  fine  suspension  and  divi- 
sion. Many  of  them,  however,  plunge  the  material  to  be  dyed 
into  the  neat  oil,  and  work  it  there,  wringing  it  out  and  expos- 
ing it  to  the  air.  Many  kinds  of  oil  are  used ;  in  Europe  it 
is  generally  an  inferior  quality  of  olive  oil,  but  in  Asia,  fish- 
oil,  lard,  and  other  fatty  matters  are  successfully  employed. 

I  would  notice  here  an  impression  held  by  some  chemists 
that  oil  alone  if  properly  modified  would  form  a  sufficient  mor- 
dant for  madder-red.  I  can  find  no  ground  for  this  idea, 
except  in  a  very  briefly  reported  and  unconfirmed  experiment 
of  a  pupil  of  M.  Persoz,  to  the  effect  that  prepared  Turkey 
red  cloth  when  treated  by  acetone,  yields  an  oily  matter,  which, 
being  transferred  to  a  fresh  untreated  cloth,  mordants  it  in  an 
effective  manner;  and  a  further  statement  that  M.  Chevreul 
had  tested  a  certain  Turkey  red  color,  which  contained  very 
little  alumina.  I  do  not  share  in  the  opinion  of  the  sufficiency 
of  the  oleaginous  body  as  an  actual  mordant,  because  the  expe- 
riments quoted  are  not  sufficiently  clear,  and  because  I  have 
made  many  experiments  without  obtaining  anything  beyond  a 
mere  stain  in  the  madder  dye.  It  was  stated  in  1846  that  M. 
Chevreul,  who  has  made  himself  famous  by  his  successful  labors 
upon  fats  and  oils,  was  trying  to  elucidate  this  matter;  but, 
from  the  absence  of  any  published  account  of  his  experiments, 
we  may  presume  that  he  has  not  solved  the  question,  which 
still  remains  a  difficulty  in  dyeing  chemistry. 

Drying  oils  have  been  used  as  vehicles  for  pigments,  but  they 
are  difficult  of  application  and  require  special  arrangements 
and  skill  to  make  them  any  good  ;  for  this  reason,  oil  colors 
are  scarcely  ever  found  on  calico.  In  some  very  superior 
qualities  of  continental  work  they  may  be  seen  producing  very 
striking^ ffects ;  but  it  is  evident  that  they  are  applied  by  block 
upon  carefully  prepared  grounds,  and  must,  including  the 
labor,  be  very  expensive.  I  believe  that  in  the  course  of  time 
oil  will  be  extensively  used  as  a  vehicle  for  colors  in  calico 
printing;  but  several  improvements  or  alterations  in  the  ma- 
chinery will  be  necessary,  and  some  more  complete  and  effec- 
tive means  of  taking  the  quality  of  greasiness  out  of  drying 
oils  discovered. 

Olive  Colors. — The  color  of  the  olive  may  be  defined  as  a 
dark  dull  green,  such  a  color  as  would  be  optically  produced 
by  mixing  a  pure  dark  green  with  black  or  brown,  or  what 
comes  to  the  same  thing,  mixing  some  red  with  it ;  or  again,  as 


370  ORANGE   COLORS. 

in  some  practical  receipts,  mixing  purple  and  green  colors 
together.  Thus  an  olive  color  for  delaine  is  mixed  by  taking  :  — 

2  gallons  dark  green  color, 

1  gallon  dark  purple  (see  DAHLIA). 

In  France,  and  in  some  parts  of  Great  Britain,  olive  color 
means  a  kind  of  brown. 

Orange  Colors.  —  Orange  is  a  mixture  of  yellow  and  red, 
and  with  the  exception  of  the  chrome  oranges  (see  page  144), 
these  colors,  in  bath  dyeing  and  printing,  are  produced  by  the 
combination  of  red  and  yellow  parts,  as  in  the  following 
examples  :  — 

Orange  for  Delaine. 

1  gallon  water, 

2  gallons  bark  liquor  .at  18°, 

5  Ibs.  starch  ;  boil,  and  add 

1  pint  cochineal  liquor  at  8°, 
2i  Ibs.  crystals  of  tin. 

This  is  rather  a  red-orange,  a  smaller  amount  of  cochineal 
would  be  better;  for  a  bright  yellow-orange,  the  cochineal 
liquor  may  be  left  out  altogether. 

Orange  for  all  Wool. 

6  quarts  bark  liquor  at  18°, 

3  quarts  cochineal  liquor-at  3 
^           5  Ibs.  gum, 


°- 


8  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

1  Ib.  bichloride  of  tin. 

In  dyeing,  orange  colors  are  likewise  obtained  by  combining 
yellow  and  red  elements  ;  on  woollen,  the  cloth  is  mordanted 
in  bichloride  of  tin  and  tartar,  and  then  dyed  in  a  mixture  of 
cochineal  and  fustic,  proportioned  according  to  the  shades 
required. 

Upon  silk,  shades  which  may  be  called  orange  are  Sbtairred 
directly  from  anotta,  this  dye  stuff  being  dissolved  in  soft  soap, 
and  the  silk  worked  in  until  the  right  shade  is  obtained.  An 
orange  color  from  anotta  for  printing  on  silk  is  composed  as 
follows:— 

Anotta  Orange  for  Silk. 

6  gallons  water, 
10  Ibs.  pearl  ash, 

4  Ibs.  anotta,  boil  down  to  one  half: 
1  gallon  of  the  above  and 
1  gallon  gum  water. 


ORPIMENT— OXALIC   ACID.  371 

Orpiment,  Yellow  Sulphuret  of  Arsenic.— Orpiment  is  a 
compound  of  sulphur  and  metallic  arsenic ;  it  has  a  good  yel- 
low color,  and  has' been  used  to  some  extent  as' a  coloring  mat- 
ter. ^  It  was  applied  to  cloth  by  dissolving  it  in  ammonia ; 
padding  the  cloth  in  this  clear  liquor,  and  then  hanging  up  till 
the  ammonia  evaporated  and  left  the  orpiment  fixed  to  the 
fibre.  Its  principal  use  in  calico  printing  is  as  a  reducing 
agent;  for,  when  mixed  with  caustic  soda,  or  potash,  it  has  a 
strong  affinity  for  oxygen,  and  will  take  it  from  many  sub- 
stances— among  others  from  indigo.  It  is  used  in  this  way  in 
preparing  the  blue  long  known  as  pencil-blue,  and  which,  in 
later  days,  was  tried  to  be  applied  as  "gas-blue,"  but  without 
success.  Orpiment  is  a  component  in  many  of  the  receipts  for 
China  blue,  and  it  appears  to  fulfil  some  useful  part  in  it, 
although  China  blue  can  be  obtained  without  it. 

Orpiment  is  poisonous,  but  not  to  the  same  extent  as  white 
arsenic,  or  arsenic  acid. 

Oxalic  Acid. — Oxalic  acid  exists  naturally  in  the  juice  of 
some  plants  in  a  state  of  combination  with  potash,  and  for  many 
years  there  was  no  other  method  known  by  which  it  could  be 
obtained  than  from  the  plant.  At  length  it  was  found  that 
when  nitric  acid  acted  upon  sugar  and  some  other  vegetable 
matters  of  the  same  or  similar  composition,  it  produced  oxalic 
acid,  and  until  very  lately  all  oxalic,  acid  was  thus  produced. 
Messrs.  Koberts,  Dale,  and  another  have  recently  patented 
quite  a  new  method  of  making  it  from  sawdust,  and  instead  of 
an  acid  using  alkalies.  Oxalic  acid  is  sold  in  a  crystalline 
state,  the  crystals  are  small  and  soft ;  it  is  very  acid  to  the 
taste,  and  does  not  dissolve  to  any  great  extent  in  cold  water. 
It  is  a  powerful  and  energetic  acid,  and,  as  proved  by  Dr.  Cal- 
vert,  has  a  very  destructive  action  upon  fibrous  substances 
when  heated  to  a  high  temperature  with  them,  but  at  the  ordi 
nary  temperatures  of  drying  and  steaming  the  pure  acid  has  no 
injurious  action,  and  may  be  safely  used  without  fear.  It  is 
not  very  much  employed  in  either  printing  or  dyeing  :  it  serves 
for  a  discharge  in  some  cases  ;  used  to  a  small  extent  in  several 
steam  colors  to  form  oxalate  of  alumina  ;  occasionally  employed 
as  a  mordant,  and  to  form  an  acid  oxalate  of  soda;  used  as  a 
half  resist  on  steam  work. 

Oxalate  of  potash  is  usually  found  in  print-work,  where  it 
enters  into  the  composition  of  some  colors,  and  may  be  viewed 
as  a  milder  form  of  oxalic  acid. 

The  degree  of  purity  of  oxalic  acid  can  be  practically  ascer- 
tained by  heating  a  small  quantity  in  a  hollow  metal  cup :  if 
pure  it  will  pass  away  in  vapor,  and  leave  no  residue  of  any 
kind  ;  if  it  only  leaves  a  film,  it  is  not  to  be  accounted  bad ; 


372  OXYGEN". 

but  if  it  leaves  a  considerable  quantity,  which  does  not  disappear 
at  red  heat,  it  is  an  indication  of  some  impurity  or  adultera- 
tion. 

In  receipts  containing  oxalic  acid  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
directions  are  uniformly  to  add  it  to  the  other  ingredients  when 
they  are  cold.  This  is  on  account  of  the  action  of  oxalic  acid 
upon  the  thickening,  which  it  breaks  up  and  makes  watery  if 
mixed  with  it  when  very  hot.  But  at  a  temperature  of  blood 
heat  there  need  be  no  fear  of  the  oxalic  acid  thinning  the  color, 
and  it  is  better  to  stir  it  in  then  than  wait  until  the  color  is 
quite  cold,  because  oxalic  acid  is  only  sparingly  soluble  in  the 
cold,  and  it  requires  a  great  deal  of  stirring  to  get  it  dissolved. 

Oxygen. — This  is  the  active  element  in  common  air;  in 
older  chemical  works  it  is  sometimes  called  vital  air. 

Oxygen  possesses  active  and  powerful  affinities  which  are 
assisted  by  heat.  It  combines  with  the  metals,  depriving  them 
of  all  their  metallic  properties,  making  them  into  powders  of 
an  earthy  appearance :  these  are  oxides.  It  combines  with  the 
non-metals,  producing  acids.  It  is  a  producer  and  destroyer  of 
color.  It  changes  indigo-white  into  blue,  and  indigo  blue  it 
destroys,  changing  it  into  some  colorless  substance.  The  most 
powerful  actions  of  oxygen  do  not  take  place  with  the  pure  gas ; 
it  is  in  the  status  nascendi,  the  nascent  state,  the  moment  of  its 
being  liberated  from  its  compounds,  it  exerts  its  most  remark- 
able oxidizing  actions.  Such  is  the  case  of  bleaching  or  dis- 
charging with  acids  and  bichromate  of  potash,  with  alkalies, 
and  the  red  prussiate,  with  the  peroxide  of  lead  and  other  mat- 
ters. Either  the  gas  is  in  some  physically  different  state  at  the 
moment  of  its  liberation,  or  it  has  a  chemical  activity  unknown, 
to  its  free  state ;  the  latter  seems  most  probable  from  the  dis- 
covery of  the  body  called  ozone. 

Oxygen,  existing  in  the  air,  and  being  in  fact  the  only  active 
element  in  it,  is  the  origin  of  most  of  the  changes  which  take 
place  in  a  spontaneous  manner  in  nature.  The  gradual  destruc- 
tion and  disappearance  of  organic  matter  can  be  all  traced  to 
the  action  of  oxygen :  the  carbon  is  converted  into  carbonic  acid, 
the  hydrogen  becomes  water,  and  the  nitrogen  passes  eventually 
into  nitric  acid.  There  is  no  element  in  nature  with  which 
oxygen  cannot  enter  into  combination,  and  so  alter  its  appear- 
ance and  properties  to  a  most  remarkable  degree.  Fluorine  is 
said  to  be  an  exception,  not  forming  a  compound  with  oxygen, 
but  too  little  is  known  of  this  element  to  justify  the  statement. 
The  action  of  oxygen  upon  other  matters  is  more  or  less  energetic 
as  the  temperature  is  higher  or  lower;  it  seems  probable  that 
at  sufficiently  low  temperatures  it  has  no  action,  while  at  high 
temperatures  it  produces  the  most  surprising  effects.  The 


OZONE— PHOSPHORUS.  373 

fading  of  colors  as  well  as  bleaching,  which  is  only  a  case  of 
color  fading,  may  be  attributable  in  most  cases  to  the  action 
of  oxygen,  light  assisting  ;  colors  upon  fabrics  cannot  be  pre- 
served from  the  action  of  oxygen  in  any  way  except  that  of 
covering  them  with  a  varnish.  Vegetable  colors  remain  good 
and  bright  for  centuries,  when  protected  with  oil  or  varnish, 
while  the  same  would  fade  in  a  short  time  if  deposited  as  an 
ordinary  dye. 

Ozone. — Ozone  is  the  name  given  to  a  body  whose  actual 
existence  and  composition  remain  in  question.  It  is  perhaps 
a  molecular  modification  of  oxygen,  it  is  not  quite  certain 
whether  it  contains  hydrogen  or  not.  Air  and  oxygen  can 
be  ozonized  by  electricity  or  by  phosphorus,  and  the  oxygen 
is  then- found  to  have  an  amount  of  chemical  activity  which  it 
never  possesses  alone ;  it  bleaches,  it  liberates  iodine  from  iodide 
of  potassium,  oxidizes  sulphurous  into  sulphuric  acid,  and 
performs  other  oxidizing  actions  all  consistent  with  the  suppo- 
sition that  it  is  pure  oxygen,  but  with  the  certainty  that  it  is  in 
a  very  different  state  from  common  oxygen  gas. 

The  subject  of  ozone  is  highly  interesting  in  a  practical  point 
of  view,  for  if  ever  oxygen  is  to  be  applied  to  the  performance 
of  those  reactions  which  are  indirectly  attributable  to  it,  such 
as  bleaching  or  elevating  colors,  it  must  be  through  the  medium 
of  this  ozone  or  some  similar  body.  Common  oxygen  is  to 
ozonized  oxygen  what  a  rod  of  iron  is  to  a  sharp  sword,  both 
of  the  same  substance  but  in  different  states  of  activity  and  of 
very  different  powers.  There  is  reason  to  hope  that  if  ever 
the  oxygen  of  the  air  can  be  ozonized  in  a  practical  manner, 
chemists  will  be  able  to  effect  those  oxidations  directly  which 
are  now  accomplished  in  circuitous  and  expensive  manners. 


P. 

Pastel. — This  plant,  formerly  most  extensively  employed 
for  blue  dyeing,  is  the  same  or  similar  to  woad  ;  its  botanical 
name  is  isatis  tinctoria,  and  its  coloring  matter  appears  to  be 
chemically  identical  with  indigo. 

Peachwood. — This  wood  is  one  of  the  red  woods  similar  in 
all  its  characters  to  Brazil  wood,  although  held  to  be  poorer  in 
coloring  matter. 

Pearl  Ash. — A  common  name  for  a  partly  purified  variety 
of  carbonate  of  potash.  (See  POTASH.) 

Phosphorus. — This  interesting  element  has  not  yet  received 
any  application  in  dyeing  or  printing.  In  its  ordinary  state  it 
is  dangerous  to  handle  on  account  of  its  easy  inflammability ; 


374  PICRIC   ACID. 

but  there  is  a  modified  state  in  which  it  is  much  less  combusti- 
ble, that  is,  the  amorphous  condition  into  which  it  is  brought 
by  long  continued  heat  or  the  action  of  iodine.  I  tried  many 
experiments  with  the  amorphous  phosphorus,  but  did  not 
succeed  in.making  any  useful  application  of  it;  it  has  powerful 
reducing  properties,  can  readily  bring  indigo  into  the  white 
state,  and  permit  it  to  be  fixed  upon  calico  ;  but  it  was  difficult 
to  manage,  alkalies  seemed  to  bring  it  back  to  the  active  condi- 
tion, and  the  unoxidized  phosphorus  adhered  to  the  cloth  with 
pertinacity,  and  gradually  seemed  to  burn  the  indigo  with 
which  it  was  in  contact.  Vapor  of  phosphorus  has  been  used 
to  produce  a  metallic  dye  upon  some  fibrous  matters,  by  pre- 
viously steeping  them  in  solutions  of  silver,  lead,  or  copper. 
Phosphorus  is  easily  soluble  in  bisulphuret  of  carbon,  and  can 
be  reduced  to  a  fine  state  of  division  by  melting  it  in  urine, 
and  keeping  it  well  agitated  as  it  solidifies.  Phosphorus  forms 
several  acids  with  oxygen,  the  chief  of  which  is  phosphoric  acid, 
naturally  existing  in  bones  and  other  substances.  It  has  not 
received  any  applications  in  its  free  state,  although  attempts 
have  been  made  to  use  it  for  a  discharge;  it  is  a  mild,  non-cor- 
rosive, but  yet  strong  acid  ;  it  differs  from  all  the  previously 
mentioned  acids  by  being  fixed  in  fire,  not  distilling  or  rising 
in  vapor.  It  forms  salts  with  the  oxides,  which  are  as  yet  but 
little  used.  The  phosphate  of  soda  has  been  slightly  used  in 
calico  printing;  it  acts  the  part  of  a  mild  alkali,  partially  neu- 
tralizing acids  and  acid  salts.  It  has  been  used  in  dung  substi- 
tute, as  a  solvent  for  lactarine,  and  in  color  mixing  for  printing 
upon  sulphate  or  citrate  of  iron  mordants,  when,  by  its  alkaline 
nature,  it  caused  the  precipitation  of  more  iron  than  would 
oiherwise  have  been  fixed,  giving  rise  to  double  shades. 

Picric  Acid. — This  is  only  lately  introduced  as  a  dyeing 
material  for  silks  and  woollens :  it  has  no  affinity  for  cotton. 
It  is  made  in  various  ways,  but  always  through  the  agency  of 
nitric  acid  upon  some  organic  matter.  The  cheapest  source 
appears  to  be  one  of  the  oils  separable  from  coal  tar,  called 
carbolic  acid,  but  many  other  substances  can  yield  it.  It  is  a 
yellow  crystalline  powder,  of  an  intensely  bitter  taste,  not  acid 
to  the  tongue.  It  is  very  combustible,  and  the  compounds 
which  it  forms  with  potash  and  other  bases  burn  like  gun- 
powder. It  dissolves  in  warm  water,  communicating  a  fine 
yellow  color  to  it,  and  dyes  wool  and  silk  of  a  beautiful  canary 
yellow  without  any  mordant  being  required.  It  has  been 
largely  used  in  Lyons  for  silk  dyeing ;  upon  woollen  its  color 
is  too  weak  and  transparent.  It  is  a  powerful  coloring  mat- 
ter; one  part  giving  a  yellow  tinge  to  more  than  one  hundred 
times  its  weight  of  wool  or  silk.  Silk  dyed  with  picric  acid 


PIGMENT   COLORS.  375 

can  be  detected  by  masticating  it,  when  the  peculiar  bitter 
taste  of  this  acid  can  be  perceived.  It  does  not  work  well  with 
other  colors,  overpowering  them  and  destroying  them.  Besides 
the  name  of  picric  acid  it  is  known  in  chemistry  as  carlazotic 
acid  and  nitropicric  acid. 

Pigment  Colors.— This  name  has  been  given  to  those  colors 
which  are  in  the  state  of  powder,  and  insoluble  in  the  vehicle 
by  which  they  are  applied  to  the  fabric.  The  principal 
colors  of  this  class  in  use  are  the  ultramarine  blue,  zinc  white, 
carbon  gray,  and  one  or  two  other  mixed  shades.  From  the 
fact  of  these  colors  being  insoluble  in  water,  it  is  evident  they 
cannot  obtain  an  entrance  into  the  pores  of  the  fibre,  and 
that  they  are  never  more  than  superficially  attached  to  the 
goods  upon  which  they  are  printed.  Hence  arises  the  necessity 
of  employing  some  thickening  or  vehicle  which  will  fasten  the 
colored  powder  upon  the  cloth ;  and  if  the  color  is  to  be  fast  in 
water  it  is  further  necessary  that  the  thickening  should  not  be 
dissolved  by  water.  Suppose  ultramarine  blue  is  to  be  applied 
to  calico,  if  thickened  with  gum  or  starch  it  can  be  printed,  and 
when  dry  it  will  adhere  to  the  cloth  in  a  more  or  less  perfect 
manner ;  but  if  the  calico  so  printed  was  dipped  in  water  the 
thickening  would  dissolve,  and  the  ultramarine  blue,  having 
no  power  of  itself  to  adhere  to  the  fibre,  would  float  away  in 
the  water,  leaving  only  a  few  particles  entangled  in  the  threads. 
The  most  useful  materials  which  are  used  for  fixing  this  class 
of  colors,  namely,  albumen  and  lactarine,  have  been  treated  of. 
It  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  these  substances  undergo  a  change 
by  steaming,  which  makes  them  insoluble  in  water,  that  they 
differ  from  the  ordinary  thickenings  in  not  permitting  the 
escape  of  the  pigment  when  treated  by  water.  Many  trials 
have  been  made  to  fix  pigment  colors  by  means  of  varnish, 
solutions  of  the  gum  resins  in  volatile  fluids,  or  by  drying  oils, 
but  up  to  this  time  there  is  really  no  practical  method  of  using 
these  materials .  It  is  true  that  pigment  colors  can  be  and  are 
so  applied,  but  the  difficulties  are  veay  considerable,  and  the 
styles  consequently  limited  in  production. 

The  application  of  pigment  colors  in  a  perfect  manner  to 
calico  printing  is  one  of  the  most  important  objects  which  can 
be  aimed  at  by  an  inventor.  The  methods  at  present  are  so 
defective,  the  vehicles  so  expensive,  and  even  so  uncertain  in 
the  fastness  they  communicate  to  the  colors,  that  nearly  every- 
thing remains  to  be  done  in  this  direction.  It  is,  perhaps,  too 
much  to  expect  that  any  powder  or  substance  applied  merely 
upon  the  fibre  should  have  the  same  degree  of  fastness  as  color- 
ing matters  which  appear  to  be  seated  in  the  very  interior  of 
the  fibre,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  any  species  of  protecting 


376  PINK   COLOR. 

varnish  would  have  an  elasticity  less  than  that  of  the  fibre,  and 
would,  consequently,  crack  by  the  ordinary  wear  of  the  mate- 
rial. But  the  really  surprising  manner  in  which  albumen 
fastens  a  harsh  gritty  powder  like  ultramarine,  gives  encourage- 
ment to  the  hope  that  even  more  suitable  vehicles  can  be  pro- 
cured. The  advantages  which  pigment  colors  have  in  bloom 
and  freshness,  and  the  opportunities  they  present  to  an  extended 
scope  of  design,  are  so  considerable  that  I  have  no  doubt  they 
will  before  long  receive  the  attention  they  deserve. 

Pink  Color,  Rose  Color. — Pink  is  a  diluted  crimson,  and 
seems  to  differ  from  red  of  the  same  tone  by  the  addition  of  a 
faint  amount  of  blue  or  violet.  The  chief  pink  colors  in  calico 
printing  are  derived  from  madder  and  cochineal,  and  the 
methods  of  obtaining  them  are  given  in  the  articles  upon  these 
coloring  matters,  but  some  additional  receipts  will  be  found 
here.  In  dyeing,  but  not  in  calico  printing,  the  pink  from 
safflower  is  extensively  used,  and  will  be  described  under  that 
head.  The  remaining  pink  colors,  not  before  mentioned,  are 
as  follows : — 

Brazil  Wood  Pink— Silk. 

2  quarts  Brazil  wood  liquor  (sapan  or 

peachwood)  at  6°. 
1 J  Ib.  ground  gum, 
2  J  oz.  oxymuriate  of  tin. 

Sapan  Wood  Pink — Steam. 

1  gallon  sapan  wood  liquor  at  3°, 

1  Ib.  pink  salt, 

8  oz.  sal  ammoniac, 

1  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

1  oz.  sulphate  of  copper, 

1  gallon  thick  gum  water. 

The  pink  salt,  now  very  seldom  employed,  is  a  double  chlo- 
ride of  tin  and  ammonia.  It  is  necessary  to  remark  that  all 
these  wood  pinks  are  of  a  low  class,  and  very  much  inferior  to 
the  cochineal  pink,  both  in  beauty  and  permanency. 

Spirit  Pink— Standard. 

2  quarts  sapan  wood  liquor  at  14°, 
4  oz.  sal  ammoniac, 

2  quarts  gum  water, 

1  pint  oxymuriate  of  tin  at  120°, 

to  be  reduced  with  gum  water  according  to  shade ;  npt  to  be 
steamed,  but  washed  off  after  three  days'  hanging  in  a  cool 
place. 


PINK   COLOR. 


Another  Spirit  Pink. 
1  gallon  sapan  wood  liquor  at  8° 
If  Ib.  starch  ;  boil,  and  cool  to  100° 
I  pint  oxymuriate  of  tin  at  120° 
pint  acetate  of  copper 


,   , 

Pink  for  Calico—Steam. 
2|  gallons  sapan  wood  at  8°, 
i  gallon  cochineal  liquor  at  8° 
1  quart  nitrate  of  alumina, 
l|lb.  alum, 
1  oz.  oxalic  acid, 
4  oz.  chlorate  of  potash. 

These  ingredients  mixed  together  warm,  and  then  added  to 
6  gallons  gum  water. 

of  gura  water  m  be  "sed 


Common  Cochineal  Pink. 
1  gallon  cochineal  liquor  at  6°, 

heat  to  170°,  and  dissolve  in  it 
6  oz.  alum, 
3  oz.  cream  of  tartar, 
J  oz.  oxalic  acid. 

This  standard,  reduced  with  two  parts  of  gum  water  to  o 
part  standard  will  give  the  most  commonly  required  shade 

fclm^r^  Pink8  arefr°m  the  ^moniacal  cochineai 
(p.  164),  the  following  receipts  will  illustrate  their  composition 
The  preceding  cochineal  pink  is  no  more   than  a  light  red 
while  a  good  pink  has  a  delicate  hue  entirely  differ?*    and 
can  only  be  obtained  from  the  ammoniacal  cochineal 

Pink  for  all  Wool 
1  gallon  water, 

8  oz.  solid  ammoniacal  cochineal, 
8  oz.  ground  cochineal  ;  boil  to  3  quarts, 
1  gallon  gum  water; 
3  oz.  oxalic  acid, 
6  oz.  bichloride  of  tin. 
25 


378  PINK  SALTS — PIPECLAY. 

On  woollen,  the  pink  from  ammoniacal  cochineal  alone  would 
be  too  blue,  therefore  a  quantity  of  ordinary  cochineal  is  added. 
Instead  of  making  the  decoction  as  above,  liquors  of  corres- 
ponding strength  could  be  employed. 

Pink  for  Silk. 

1  gallon  ammoniacal  cochineal, 
6  oz.  binoxalatS  of  potash, 

3  oz.  oxymuriate  of  tin, 
1  gallon  gum  water. 

Another  Pink  for  Silk. 

1  gallon  ammoniacal  cochineal  at  6°, 

4  oz.  alum, 

£  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

3  Ibs.  ground  gum. 

Cochineal  Pink  for  Delaine. 

1  gallon  ammoniacal  cochineal  at  10°, 

2  oz.  cream  of  tartar, 
8  oz.  alum, 

4  Ibs.  ground  gum. 

See  the  article  on  cochineal  for  the  precautions  necessary  to 
be  employed  in  using  the  ammoniacal  cochineal. 

The  pink  colors  obtained  from  the  aniline  products  are 
applied  by  means  of  lactarine  and  tannic  acid,  as  before 
described. 

Pink  Colors  by  Dyeing. — Silk  is  dyed  pink  by  mordanting  in 
bichloride  of  tin,  and  dyeing  in  decoction  of  ammoniacal  cochi- 
neal. Common  shades  are  obtained  by  using  peachwood 
instead  of  cochineal. 

Wool  is  dyed  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  for  crimson, 
mordanted  in  a  mixture  of  oxymuriate  of  tin,  tartar,  and  alum, 
and  dyed  up  the  required  shade  in  cochineal  liquor,  or  for  the 
best  colors  in  ammoniacal  cochineal. 

Common  pinks  on  cotton  cloth  are  merely  weak  reds,  the 
eafflower  pink  is  the  one  generally  employed  for  fancy  shades. 

Fink  Salts. — A  name  given  to  the  double  chloride  of  tin 
and  ammonia.  It  was  formerly  employed  instead  of  the  other 
salts  of  tin,  in  the  wood  pinks ;  but  it  is  now  very  seldom  met 
with  in  commerce,  and  is  replaced  by  using  both  muriate  of 
tin  and  sal  ammoniac  in  the  colors. 

Pipeclay. — This  substance,  or  the  very  similar,  china  clay, 
is  employed  in  calico  printing,  as  a  constituent,  in  certain 
resists.  It  is  a  resist  of  the  mechanical  sort,  as  distinguished 


PLUM  COLOR — POTASH.  379 

from  chemical  resists,  which  act  by  producing  chemical  chancres 
in  the  mordants  and  colors.  The  clay,  being  tenacious,  covers 
the  nbre  and  receives  the  superimposed  mordant  or  color  which 
does  not  consequently  reach  the  fibre;  upon  washing,  the  clay 
is  detached,  carrying  with  it  the  mordant  or  color.  It  is  em- 
ployed in  resists  for  indigo  styles,  and  frequently  in  fancy 
styles  to  reserve  colors  from  the  action  of  the  cover  or  ground 
color. 

Plum  Color,  Plum  Spirits.— The  term  plum,  is  used 
amongst  dyers  to  describe  a  reddish  purple  color,  not  unlike 
the  dahlia  shade  of  the  printers.  It  is  obtained  from  Wwood 
as  a  coloring  matter,  and  tin  as  a  mordant,  and  is  generally 
obtained  from  a  mixture  called  &  plum  tub,  made  by  mixin^  a 
decoction  of  logwood  with  a  solution  of  tin,  called  plum  spirits 
As  there  are  several  plum  shades,  so  there  are  several  ways  of 
mixing  a  plum  tub,  and  besides  the  method  above  given  alum 
and  logwood  are  employed,  and  for  a  red  plum,  peachwood 
and  tin  salts  are  used.  (See  SPIRIT  COLORS.) 

Polygonum.— A  species  of  plants  of  which  the  P.  tincto- 
rium  has  attracted  much  attention,  because  it  produces  a  blue 
coloring  matter  similar  or  identical  with  indigo.  The  Chinese 
are  said  to  obtain  blue  and  green  colors  from  species  of  the 
polygonum. 

Pomegranate  Bark.— This  bark  is  used  in  dyeing  to  a 
small  extent;  it  yields  colors  analogous  to  those  obtained  from 
quercitron  bark,  and  has  been  chiefly  used  for  shades  of  drab 
and  gray. 

Potash.— This  alkali  is  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  bases 
known  to  chemists,  and  was  formerly  much  employed  in 
bleaching,  but  on  account  of  the  cheaper  price  at  which  soda, 
is  now  obtainable  potash  is  seldom  used.  The  chief  compounds 
of  potash  interesting  to  the  dyer  and  printer  are  caustic  potash 
and  carbonate  of  potash,  in  its  impure  forms  of  American 
potash  or  pearl  ash.  Other  salts  of  potash,  the  chemical  action 
of  which  are  more  referable  to  their  acid  than  to  the  base,  are 
not  treated  of  here,  but  may  be  found  under  appropriate  head- 
ings— as  OXALATE,  TARTRATE,  PRUSSIATE,  etc. 

Caustic  Potash. — Caustic  potash  is  usually  sold  as  a  liquid 
which  is  a  variable  mixture  of  real  potash  and  water;  when 
the  liquid  is  boiled  down  sufficiently  a  mass  is  obtained,  be- 
coming solid  when  cool,  which  is  still  a  mixture  of  dry  potash 
and  water.  The  solid  caustic  potash  of  the  druggists'  shops 
contains  usually  about  20  per  cent,  of  water.  Liquid  caustic 
potash  is  prepared  from  commercial  carbonate  of  potash,  sold 
under  the  names  of  potash,  American,  Canadian,  or  Russian 
ootash,  or,  when  refined,  as  pearl  ash.  The  difference  between 


380 


POTASH. 


caustic  potash  and  carbonate  of  potash  is,  that  the  former  is 
free  from  carbonic  acid,  with  which  the  latter  is  combined. 
The  operation  of  making  ordinary  potashes  caustic  consists  in 
abstracting  the  carbonic  acid  from  them  ;  this  is  done  by  means 
of  quick  lime,  in  the  following  manner :  The  commercial 
potash  is  dissolved  in  water  until  the  solution  marks  about  20° 
Tw. ;  the  solution  heated  up  to  the  boiling  point,  in  an  iron 
boiler,  quick  lime  is  added  by  degrees  until  about  one-half  of 
the  weight  of  the  potash  has  been  added;  the  boiling  is  con- 
tinued, with  uninterrupted  stirring,  until  a  portion  of  clear 
liquor,  taken  from  the  boiler  and  mixed  with  dilute  muriatic 
acid,  gives  no  effervescence;  the  heat  is  then  withdrawn,  the 
clear  liquor  syphoned  off,  and  boiled  down  in  another  pan  to 
any  required  degree  of  concentration.  The  bottoms  consist  of 
carbonate  of  lime  which,  retaining  some  of  the  caustic  potash, 
are  usually  washed  once  or  twice  with  .water  before  being 
thrown  away.  Caustic  soda  is  made  in  precisely  the  same  man- 
ner, substituting  soda  ash  for  potash. 

Caustic  potash  and  soda  are  more  energetic  in  their  actions 
than  their  carbonates  ;  this  can  be  attributed  to  their  being  free 
from  the  neutralizing  power  of  the  carbonic  acid.  The  common 
idea  that  the  lime  communicates  some  caustic  principle  to  the 
potash  or  soda  is  erroneous ;  the  lime  communicates  nothing, 
but  on  the  contrary,  removes  something,  which  is  carbonic  acid. 

The  caustic  alkalies  have  many  applications  in  the  arts  which 
are  referred  to  throughout  this  work,  but  caustic  potash  is  not 
nearly  so  much  employed  as  caustic  soda.  It  has,  however, 
advantages  in  the  preparation  of  the  alkaline  pink  mordant  in 
making  soft  soaps,  in  dissolving  anotta,  and  generally  in  all 
cases  where  it  has  to  go  upon  the  fibre,  because  it  produces  the 
deliquescent,  while  soda  gives  the  efflorescent,  carbonate.  The 
following  table  will  give  an  idea  of  the  relative  proportion  of 
alkali  and  water  in  liquid  caustic  potash  of  various  strengths. 
For  exact  determination  of  the  value  of  caustic  solutions  the 
chemical  test  given  in  the  article  of  ALKALIMETRY  must  be 
employed : — 

Table  showing  the  amount  of  Dry  Potash  in  one  hundred  parts 
of  Liquid  Caustic  at  various  densities. 


Degree  Twaddle. 

Potash. 

Degree  Twaddle. 

Potash. 

66 

28 

40 

19 

6* 

27 

34 

16* 

60 

26 

29 

14 

56 

25 

24 

12 

R3 

24 

19 

10 

50 

22£ 

14 

7 

45 

21 

10 

5 

PREPARING.  381 

Carbonate  of  Potash. — Pure  carbonate  of  potash  is  a  white 
crystalline  salt,  commonly  known  as  salt  of  tartar.  Pearl  ash 
and  American  potash  consist  of  carbonate  of  potash  mixed  with 
impurities,  that  is,  other  salts  of  little  or  no  value.  There  are 
no  external  characteristics  by  which  the  value  of  commercial 
potashes  can  be  estimated  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  Carbonate 
of  potash  is  not  largely  employed  in  printing  or  dyeing.  Pearl 
ash  is  used  in  Turkey  red  dyeing  for  the  emulsion  of  oil ;  it  is 
used  as  a  solvent  for  anotta  and  safflower,  and  in  a  few  cases 
of  bleaching  and  scouring. 

Bisulphate  of  Potash.— This  is  a  very  acid  salt,  and  is  em- 
ployed in  a  low  class  steam  work  as  a  substitute  for  tartaric 
acid.  It  contains  two  atoms  of  sulphuric  acid  to  one  of  potash  ; 
one  atom  of  sulphuric  acid  is  in  so  feeble  a  state  of  combination 
that  it  acts  nearly  as  strong  as  vitriol  itself,  and  consequently 
there  is  always  a  risk  of  corroding  the  fibre  if  the  least  excess 
be  employed. 

Nitrate  of  Potash,  or  Saltpetre. — This  salt  is  very  seldom  used 
in  printing;  in  some  cases  where  it  is  prescribed  it  may  have 
an  oxidizing  action,  but  usually  its  beneficial  effect,  if  it  have 
any,  may  be  traced  to  its  hygroscopic  character. 

Preparing,— The  series  of  operations  technically  called 
preparing  are  employed  for  the  purpose  of  giving  to  the  fabric 
a  uniform  coat  of  the  higher  oxide  of  tin,  in  order  that  it  may 
receive  the  class  of  colors  known  as  steam  colors'.  By  whatever 
sequence  of  treatments  this  is  effected,  and  there  are  many 
different  ways  of  performing  it,  the  object  is  simply  to  get  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  tin  into  the  cloth  to  serve  as  a  kind  of  basis 
for  the  colors  afterwards  applied.  The  utility  of  this  prepara- 
tion is  unquestionable,  for  the  colors  which  are  obtained  from 
a  well  prepared  cloth  are  incomparably  superior  to  the  same 
colors  printed  on  an  unprepared  or  badly  prepared  cloth.  The 
nature  of  the  action  of  the  deposited  tin  upon  the  colors  does 
not  seem  difficult  to  explain;  in  the  first  place  it  is  a  mordant, 
and  so  combines  with  a  portion  of  the  coloring  matter,  but  this 
is  probably "Se  least  useful  action  of  the  tin;  in  the  second 
place,  it  serves  to  saturate  the  necessary  acidity  of  the  majority 
of  steam  colors,  or  to  act  upon  the  salts  contained  in  them, 
favoring  the  production  of  basic  compounds,  which  are  the 
real  foundation  of  all  colored  lakes.  To  illustrate  this  explana- 
tion, let  a  color  be  made  of  weak  cochineal  liquor,  without  any 
addition  but  the  thickening,  and  printed  upon  the  prepared 
cloth  and  steamed;  the  result,  upon  washing,  will  be  merely  a 
dull  stain,  because  the  tin  which  is  upon  the  cloth  cannot,  in  its 
existing  state,  combine  with  the  coloring  matter  of  the  cochineal 
beyond  a  very  small  extent.  Now  make  the  same  cochineal 


382  PREPARING. 

color  slightly  acid  with  oxalic  acid,  print  upon  the  same  pre- 
pared cloth,  and  also  upon  unprepared  cloth,  steam  and  wash 
off.  The  prepared  cloth  will  this  time  show  the  -pattern  in  a 
light  pink,  well  defined  though  faint;  the  unprepared  cloth  will 
hardly  show  a  trace  of  color.  These  two  trials  prove  that  the 
acid  has  acted  upon  the  tin  in  such  a  manner  as  to  allow  it  to 
combine  with  the  coloring  matter  of  the  cochineal,  has  in  fact, 
brought  it  out  of  the  cloth  into  atomic  contact  with  the  color, 
forming  an  insoluble  lake,  which  remains  adhering  to  the  cloth. 
The  unprepared  cloth  having  taken  no  color  shows  that  the 
acid  alone  does  not  fix  the  cochineal.  To  pursue  the  subject 
further,  prepare,  say  a  weak  cochineal  red  with  crystals  of  tin, 
cochineal  liquor,  and  gum  water,  and  print  a  prepared  and  un- 
prepared fent  with  the  color,  steam  and  wash  off;  it  will  be 
found  that  the  prepared  cloth  has  a  fuller,  deeper,  and  richer 
color  than  the  unprepared  cloth.  The  theoretical  explanation 
is  as  follows:  The  tin  crystals  during  steaming  give  up  oxide 
of  tin  to  the  cochineal,  and  liberate  the  muriatic  previously 
combined  with  the  oxide  of  tin;  after  this  has  proceeded  a  cer- 
tain distance  the  amount  of  muriatic  acid  liberated  becomes  so 
great  as  to  put  a  stop  to  the  further  decomposition  in  the  case 
of  unprepared  cloth,  and  the  formation  of  the  colored  lake  is  at 
an  end  ;  but  in  the  case  of  the  prepared  cloth  the  muriatic  acid 
falls  upon  the  tin  of  the  prepare,  and  forms  muriate  of  tin  with 
it,  and  brings  it  into  contact  with  the  color,  at  once  permitting 
a  further  decomposition,  and  at  the  same  time  a  further  and 
more  deep  seated  deposition  of  the  colored  compound  of  tin 
and  cochineal.  Not  only  does  the  tin  in  the  cloth  act  as  a 
mordant  itself,  but  it  so  acts  upon  the  tin  in  the  color  as  to 
greatly  increase  its  mordanting  powers.  In  the  case  of  alum 
mordants  a  very  similar  explanation  may  be  given  ;  the  acid  of 
the  alum  is  partly  saturated  by  the  oxide  of  tin,  sulphate  of 
tin  produced,  and  a  basic  alum,  both  of  which  form  lakes  with 
the  coloring  matter.  A  still  closer  and  more  extended  consid- 
eration would  serve  to  show  how  the  same  prepare  is  not 
equally  suited  to  all  styles,  nor  answers  the  same  under  different 
conditions,  as  to  steaming,  kind  of  cloth,  etc. ;  but  here  it  would 
be  necessary  to  go  into  minute  details,  which  are  different  for 
every  works,  and  for  almost  every  color.  Nor  would  it  be 
possible,  even  on  these  grounds,  to  explain  the  preference  which 
is  here  given  to  one  method  of  preparation,  and  there  to  a  very 
different  one;  nor  give  a  satisfactory  reason  how  it  is  one 
manager  can  prepare  at  one  operation  with  stannate,  and  an- 
other, doing  the  same  class  of  work,  must  combine  stannate  and 
oxymuriate  in  a  complicated  process.  Yet  such  is  the  state  of 
affairs,  and  each  one  believes  that  he  has  the  only  good  and  real 


PREPARING.  38^ 

method  of  preparing  for  his  particular  styles,  and  considers 
success  a  sufficient  justification  for  a  number  of  unnecessary 
if  not  hurtful  treatments  of  the  cloth. 

Preparation  by  Alkaline  Stannate. — In  the  preparing  salts,  or 
stannate  of  soda,  the  tin  is  held  in  solution  by  the  soda,  which, 
if  neutralized  by  an  acid,  loses  its  hold  on  the  tin  and  parts  with 
it.  The  process  of  preparing  is  based  upon  this  fact :  the  cloth 
is  padded  in  a  clear  solution  of  the  stannate  until  thoroughly 
saturated,  it  is  then  passed  into  weak  vitriol  sours  and  washed. 
The  process  may  be  repeated  two  or  three  times ;  it  is  very 
simple,  requires  very  few  precautions,  and  is,  in  my  opinion, 
capable  of  preparing  any  kind  of  cloth  for  any  kind  of  work ; 
but  herein,  I  am  aware,  a  great  many  will  not  agree  with  me. 
The  only  points  likely  to  be  missed  in  preparing  with  stannate, 
are,  having  too  much  liquor  in  the  cloth  and  letting  the  acid 
get  too  weak.  In  the  first  case,  the  tin  is  not  soundly  deposited, 
probably,  because  the  stannate  is  not  promptly  decomposed  by 
the  acid,  a  good  deal  of  tin  gets  into  the  sours,  which  is  a  bad 
sign.  In  the  second  case,  there  is  a  danger  of  all  the  stannate 
washing  off.  Nothing  would  appear  simpler  than  keeping  the 
sours  well  up,  and  yet  I  know  that  a  great  deal  of  bad  and 
uneven  work  is  due  to  nothing  else  but  deficient  souring  ;  in 
one  case,  where  there  was  a  great  deal  of  trouble  on  account  of 
irregular  work,  I  found  the  supposed  sours  quite  alkaline ! 
Since  the  alkalinity  of  the  stannate  varies,  and  the  quantity  of 
it  taken  up  by  the  cloth  is  irregular,  this  point  must  be  well 
looked  to.  The  sours  should  always  be  very  sour,  and  the 
cloth  not  hurried  through  too  quickly. 

The  strength  of  stannate  to  be  used  depends  upon  its  degree 
of  purity,  that  is,  the  percentage  of  tin  which  it  contains.  For 
a  quality  containing  about  20  per  cent,  of  tin,  a  strength  of  24° 
Tw.,  is  about  as  high  as  can  be  safely  or  profitably  used ;  two 
treatments  of  this  strength  are  sufficient  for  the  darkest  styles. 
The  sours  should  be  about  6°  Tw.  The  order  of  operations  may 
be  put  down  as  follows  : — 

Preparing  for  Dark  Steams — Calico  or  Delaine. 

1.  Pass  in  stannate  at  24°  Tw. 

2.  Leave  wet  two  hours,  or  more. 

3.  Sour  with  vitriol  sours  at  6°. 

4.  Wash  and  whizz. 

5.  Pad  in  stannate  at  24°,  a  second  time. 

6.  Leave  two  hours,  or  more. 

7.  Sour  with  vitriol  sours  at  6°. 

8.  Wash  and  dry. 


384  PREPARING. 

For  light  shades,  the  same  operations,  but  only  half  the  strength 
of  stannate.  For  delaines,  the  same  treatment,  up  to  No.  7, 
when  the  cloth  must  pass  into  a  rather  strong  solution  of  bleach- 
ing powder,  and  afterwards  into  sours. 

I  give  some  other  processes  which  have  come  within  my 
observation,  and  which  answer,  more  or  less  perfectly,  the  re- 
quirements of  the  various  styles. 

Delaine  Prepare  for  Blue. — Make  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
bichloride  of  tin  at  120°  Tw.  and  muriate  of  tin  at  120°,  and 
set  the  preparing  box  or  cistern  with  this  mixture  until  it  stands 
at  10°  Tw.  Pass  the  delaines  four  separate  times  through  this 
solution,  and  then  through  sours  at  4°  Tw.,  and  then  through 
chemic  and  sours. 

Double  Prepare  for  Delaine — Chocolate  and  Dark  Greens. — Pad 
four  times  in  stannate  of  soda  at  12°  Tw.,  and  let  rest  on  the 
rolls  for  four  hours,  at  least,  and  twenty-four  hours,  at  most ; 
sour  at  5°  Tw.  twice  over,  and  pass  through  clear  water  and 
squeeze  open.  Next  pass  four  times  in  the  mixture  of  muriate 
and  bichloride  at  10°,  same  as  above,  and  sour  immediately  in 
vitriol  sours  at  4°,  and  then  through  chemic  and  sour,  wash 
and  dry. 

Preparations  for  All  Wool: — 

For  Dark  Blue. 
50  gallons  water, 
30  Ibs.  crystals  of  tin, 
1  Ib.  sulphuric  acid ; 

pass  through  this  solution  twice,  and  leave  it  in  for  some  hours ; 
then  wash  ouh  very  well,  and  wince  in  weak  chemic  for  twenty 
minutes;  finisn  with  a  weak  sour,  wash  very  well,  and  dry 
cool. 

For  Lilac,  Chocolate,  and  Wood  Colors. 

50  gallons  water, 
•  12  Ibs.  crystals  of  tin, 
8  Ibs.  sulphuric  acid  ; 

pass  through  twice,  leave  for  some  hours,  and  wash  very  well. 
For  green,  pale  blue,  and  reds,  the  same  prepare  may  be  used, 
but  must  be  finished  in  chemic. 

Another  Delaine  Prepare  for  Blue. 

6  gallons  bichloride  of  tin, 
10  Ibs.  crystals  of  tin, ) 
1  gallon  water ;  j 

mix,  and  then  add  caustic  soda  at  20°  until  the  precipitate  at 
first  produced  is  re-dissolved ;  an  excess  of  soda  is  to  be  avoided. 


PRUSSIATE   OF  POTASH.  385 

Reduce  to  15°  Tw.,  pass  the  cloth  in  twice,  and  leave  on  the 
rolls  for  three  hours,  then  pass  for  ten  minutes  in  an  acid  mix- 
ture composed  as  follows  : — 

100  gallons  water, 

4  Ibs.  muriate  of  ammonia, 

14  Ibs.  sulphuric  acid ; 

then  was  off,  and  chemic  as  before. 

Although  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  stannate  would  answer 
all  purposes  of  prepare  for  calico  and  delaines,  it  is  a  more 
general  opinion  that  the  wool  will  not  take  tin  enough  from 
the  alkaline  solution,  and  the  usual  practice  is  to  give  a  first 
passage  in  the  stannate  for  the  cotton,  and  a  final  passage  in  an 
acid  solution  for  the  purpose  of  filling  the  wool.  Although 
prepared  cloth  remains  good  for  a  considerable  time,  it  is  not 
advisable  to  prepare  beyond  the  immediate  prospects  of  print- 
ing, for  there  have  been  known  cases  in  which  delaines  seem 
to  have  undergone  some  change  by  long  standing  in  the  pre- 
pared state;  freshly  prepared  cloth  is  the  best.  The  cloth 
should  be  dried  soft  and  cool;  if  dried  on  the  tins,  it  should 
be  taken  off'  damp  and  hung  up  to  finish  the  drying.  If  cir- 
cumstances permit,  the  delaines  should  be  well  whizzed  and 
allowed  to  dry  spontaneously,  especially  if  they  are  for  wood 
colors,  as  chocolate,  lilac,  etc.  By  a  dry  heat,  it  appears  as  if 
the  oxide  of  tin  was  put  into  some  allotropic  condition,  in  which 
its  affinity  for  coloring  matters  is  very  much  reduced,  and  this 
seems  to  be  the  case  more  frequently  with  the  stannate  than 
with  the  acid  prepares. 

Privet  Berries. — The  ripe  berries  of  the  ligustrum  vulgare, 
similar,  or  identical  with  the  privet  hedges  of  England,  are 
capable  of  communicating  green  colors  to  cotton,  with  an  alu- 
minous mordant,  and  dark  colors  to  alumed  wool.  They  are 
said  to  be  employed  on  a  small  scale,  in  Italy,  for  dyeing  silk 
of  a  bluish-green  color. 

Proteine. — This  name  was  given  in  trade  to  some  kind  of 
a  nitrogenous  substance,  intended  as  a  substitute  fpr  albumen 
and  lactarine  in  fixing  pigment  colors;  it  was  only  partially 
successful,  and  has,  I  believe,  ceased  to  be  offered. 

Prussiate  of  Potash. —  Yellow  Prussiate,  Ferrocyanide  of 
Potassium. — This  useful  salt  is  made  by  fusing  animal  sub- 
stances, as  guano,  hoofs  of  cattle,  etc.,  with  potash  and  iron. 
Its  chemical  components  are  carbon,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  potas- 
sium, and  iron;  the  iron  which  it  contains  is  in  a  peculiar  state 
of  combination,  and  does  not  show  like  iron  in  its  usual  state 
in  salts ;  but  the  action  of  acids  upon  it  is  to  decompose  it  and 
make  this  iron  apparent,  turning  it  then  into  Prussian  blue 'by 


386  PRUSSIATE   OF   POTASH. 

combining  it  with  another  part  of  the  same  salt.  Yellow  prus- 
siate,  as  generally  sold,  is  in  a  nearly  pure  state.  If  a  simple 
examination  of  it  leaves  its  quality  doubtful,  there  is  no  other 
way  of  trying  its  goodness  than  either  regular  chemical  analy- 
sis, or  making  colors  from  it  in  comparison  with  prussiate  of  a 
known  quality.  It  is  used  in  dyeing  for  making  various  shades 
of  blue,  by  passing  the  goods  alternately  in  some  iron  bath  and 
then  into  the  prussiate  made  slightly  acid ;  in  printing  no  iron 
can  be  used,  and  the  blue  is  made  from  the  prussiate's  own 
iron.  It  is  not  used  except  as  a  producer  of  blue,  although 
many  of  the  metals  give  particular  colored  precipitates  with  it, 
none  of  them  have  been  found  of  any  practical  value  except 
the  Prussian  blue,  which  is  a  prussiate  of  iron.  It  is  used  to 
make  the  Prussian  and  Chinese  blues  used  in  finishing  and 
spirit  colors :  from  it  red  prussiate  is  made ;  and  it  serves  to 
prepare  prussiate  of  tin,  or  tin  pulp,  for  steam  blues. 

Red  Prussiate  of  Potash,  Chloro-prussiate. — This  salt  is  made 
from  the  yellow  prussiate,  by  passing  chlorine  gas  over  or 
through  it.  Its  properties  are  somewhat  different  from  those 
of  yellow  prussiate,  though  of  the  same  general  class  ;  it  is 
essiiy  distinguished,  by  not  giving  any  blue  color  with  a  per- 
salt  of  iron,  which  the  yellow  prussiate  does.  Mr.  Mercer  found 
that  a  mixture  of  red  prussiate  and  caustic  potash  possesses 
peculiar  powers  of  oxidation,  the  most  interesting  of  which,  to 
the  calico-printer,  is  its  discharging  effect  upon  indigo  blue.  If 
a  piece  of  dip  blue  be  soaked  in  solution  of  red  prussiate  and 
dried,  and  then  dipped  in  moderately  strong  caustic,  it  will  be 
entirely  bleached ;  the  same  thing  happens  if  it  be  dipped  at 
once  into  a  mixture  of  red  prussiate  and  alkali.  This  interest- 
ing reaction  has  not  been  taken  much  advantage  of  on  account 
of  some  practical  difficulties  and  the  comparative  expensive- 
ness  of  the  process.  The  discharging  of  the  indigo  blue  is 
owing  to  its  oxidation,  and  in  so  far  resembles  the  regular  pro- 
cess in  which  bichromate  of  potash  is  used.  The  difficulty  in 
applying  this  discharge  to  calico  lay  in  its  acting  too  quickly, 
and  its  being  difficult  to  thicken  the  mixture  of  caustic  and 
red  prussiate;  all  the  ordinary  thickenings  were  more  or  less 
oxidized  and  destroyed ;  at  the  same  time  the  mixture  lost  its 
discharging  power.  It  has  been  proposed  to  use  calcined  mag- 
nesia instead  of  potash  to  mix  with  the  red  prussiate.  No  action 
takes  place  until  the  cloth  is  steamed  or  otherwise  heated,  then 
the  blue  is  discharged.  I  have  made  trial  of  this  plan,  but  I 
do  not  think  that  it  is  likely  to  be  employed,  for  it  is  even 
more  expensive  than  using  potash  and  quite  as  uncertain. 

Red  prussiate  is  used  by  dyers  for  obtaining  peculiar  shades 
of  blue.  If  cotton  cloth  be  passed  in  the  usual  way  through 


PRUSSIATE   OF  POTASH.  387 

nitrate  of  iron  and  rinsed,  it  will  make  no  blue  when  put  into 
red  prussiate,  but  if  it  is  afterwards  passed  into  muriate  of  tin 
liquor  it  strikes  a  blue  directly,  which  has  a  good  shade.  The 
shades  of  blue  produced  by  the  yellow  and  red  prussiates  are 
not  precisely  the  same,  one  being  preferred  in  one  place  and 
another  in  another,  according  to  the  peculiar  demands  of  trade ; 
by  mixing  the  two  it  would  be  possible  to  modify  the  reflection 
and  hue  of  the  color  produced.  Eed  prussiate  is  not  much 
used  in  printing;  it  is  found  in  some  receipts  for  dark  steam 
blues,  and  for  a  few  other  colors,  as  myrtles  and  chocolates. 

A  liquid  is  sold  as  a  substitute  for  red  prussiate  under  the 
names  of  chloro-prussiate  liquor,  red  prussiate  liquor,  elc.  It 
is  the  mother  color  from  which  red  prussiate  crystals  have  been 
obtained,  and  contains  all  the  chloride  of  potassium  produced 
in  making  the  yellow  prussiate  into  red,  besides  any  impurities 
which  may  be  formed  in  the  process ;  it  is  not  a  safe  substitute, 
nor  is  it  always  a  cheap  one  compared  with  the  pure  crystals. 

The  chemical  name  for  red  prussiate  is  ferridcyanide  of  po- 
tassium. The  best  criterion  of  its  purity  is  the  size,  color,  and 
clearness  of  the  crystals ;  the  iron  test  may  be  applied  to  see 
if  it  contains  any  yellow  prussiate  unchanged.  It  should  lose 
no  weight  upon  drying,  and  should  dissolve  completely  in  water 
without  residue. 

Prussian  Blue. — This  is  a  prussiate  of  iron,  and  it  may  be 
either  a  ferrocyanide  or  a  ferridcyanide  of  iron,  as  it  is  made 
from  yellow  or  red  prussiate.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  destroyed 
by  caustic,  which  forms  one  of  the  alkaline  prussiates  from  it, 
and  leaves  the  red  oxide  of  iron ;  some  varieties  dissolve  in 
oxalic  acid,  and  others  do  not.  Muriate  of  tin  and  oxymuriate 
bring  it  into  a  kind  of  solution,  and  in  this  state  it  is  applied 
as  a  spirit  color.  Dissolved  in  oxalic  acid  it  forms  a  good  blue 
liquor  for  finishing,  correcting  the  yellowish  tone  of  garancine 
whites,  when  these  are  not  well  cleared.  Not  much  is  known 
of  the  actual  composition  of  the  various  Prussian  blues. 

Prussiate  of  Tin,  or  tin  pulp,  is  used  only  as  an  ingredient  in 
the  making  of  steam  blues  on  calico  and  delaines.  It  is  made 
by  mixing  proper  quantities  of  muriate  of  tin  and  yellow 
prussiate ;  the  more  water  employed  in  mixing  them,  the  finer 
will  the  pulp  be  and  the  better  to  work.  If  practicable,  the 
prussiate  should  be  dissolved  separately  in  one  half  the  water, 
and  the  muriate  mixed  with  the  other  half,  and  both  then 
poured  together  into  the  vessel  in  which  the  pulp  is  to  settle. 
Another  pulp  is  made  from  the  bichloride  or  perchloride  of 
tin,  instead  of  the  muriate ;  but  I  am  not  sure  that  there  is  any 
advantage  in  using  it  instead  of  the  preceding  :  some  very  fine 


338  PUCE   COLOR — PURPLE   COLORS. 

blues  have  been  produced  by  using  a  mixture  of  the  two 
pulps. 

The  following  receipts  for  making  tin  pulp  for  steam  blues 
have  been  in  use  in  different  places : — 

Ordinary  White  Tin  Pulp. 

No.  1.            No.  2.  No.  3. 

Prussiate  of  potash,              4  Ibs.         8  Ibs.  9  Ibs. 

Muriate  of  tin  at  120°,         2  qts.         5  qts.  6  qts. 

Water,                                    6  gal.        10  gal.  10  gal. 

Yield  of  pulp,                       2  gal.         4  gal.  6  gal. 

The  prussiate  is  first  dissolved  in  one  half  of  the  water,  the 
muriate  of  tin  then  mixed  with  the  remainder  of  the  water,  the 
two  solutions  are  then  mixed  together  and  well  stirred  to 
break  up  the  precipitate  into  a  fine  pulp,  thrown  upon  a  filter, 
or  else  washed  by  decantation,  and  then  drained  down  to  the 
given  bulk. 

Blue  Tin  Pulp. 

9  Ibs.  prussiate  of  potash, 

5  gallons  hot  water, 

3  quarts  bichloride  of  tin  at  100°, 

5  gallons  cold  water. 

The  two  solutions  are  mixed,  stirred  up  well  with  about  a 
dozen  gallons  of  water,  and  then  drained  down  to  six  gallons. 

In  mixing  dark  steam  blues  it  frequently  happens  that  large 
quantities  of  prussic  acid  are  developed  from  the  hot  colors, 
and  sometimes  men  working  over  the  pans  or  mugs  are  stupefied 
or  sickened  by  the  smell.  There  should  always  be  good  ven- 
tilation, but  in  default  of  that  some  ammonia  liquor  sprinkled 
about  will  relieve  the  place  a  good  deal  ;  or,  inspiring  its 
vapor,  not  too  strong,  is  perhaps  the  best  restorative  for  men 
affected  by  these  exhalations,  combined  in  severe  cases  with 
dashing  cold  water  on  the  face. 

Puce  Color. — A  color  resembling  that  of  the  flea  (from  the 
French  puce,  a  flea)  a  kind  of  chocolate  with  a  purplish  hue. 
The  color,  which  is  known  in  calico  printing  as  puce,  is  the 
brown  or  chocolate,  which  may  be  obtained  from  the  lead  salts 
by  fixing  the  oxide  in  lime  and  raising  it  to  the  state  of  pe- 
roxide by  means  of  warm  chloride  of  lime.  (See  BROWN  and 
CHOCOLATE  for  the  shades  of  this  class.) 

Purple  Colors. — Purple  is  compounded  of  red  and  blue; 
in  the  common  idea  of  what  is  purple,  the  red  predominates 
over  the  blue  ;  but  there  are,  of  course,  a  vast  number  of  hues 
and  shades  of  purple  not  to  be  defined  by  language.  The 


PURPLE   COLORS.  389 

terms  red  purple,  or  blue  purple,  serve  to  indicate  the  color 
which  predominates.  For  the  bluer  and  lower  tones  of  purple, 
the  words  violet  or  lilac  are  more  generally  employed,  while, 
by  common  consent,  purple  is  confined  to  express  deep  and 
full  shades  of  color. 

For  the  purple  from  madder,  see  page  330 ;  for  the  most 
usual  steam  purple  obtained  from  logwood,  see  DAHLIA,  page 
190. 

Common  Steam  Purple — Calico. 

3  gallons  logwood  liquor  at  10°, 

3  gallons  red  liquor  at  18°,   \ 

12  oz.  crystals  of  soda,  j 

1£  Ib.  oxalic  acid  ;  dissolve,  and  add 

18  Ibs.  ground  gum  Senegal. 

The  purple  yielded  by  logwood  and  red  liquor,  or  alum,  is 
rather  red,  and  never  very  deep ;  in  order  to  strengthen  it, 
and  make  it  more  blue,  the  prussiates  are  combined  as  in  the 
following  receipt : — 

Dark  Purple — Calico. 

3  quarts  logwood  liquor  at  16°, 
3  quarts  red  liquor  at  20°, 
3  oz.  crystals  of  soda, 
6  oz.  red  prussiate  of  potash, 
6  oz.  oxalic  acid. 

5  Ibs.  gum  Senegal. 

The  purple  just  now  in  vogue  for  delaines  and  calico  is  the 
aniline  mauve,  thickened  with  lactarine,  and  containg  tannic 
acid,  it  does  not  call  for  any  receipts.  I  give  one  or  two  of  the 
old  purples  for  delaines. 

Purple  for  Delaines — Standard. 

1  gallon  red  liquor  at  18°, 

6  Ibs.  ground  logwood ; 

steep  hot  for  several  hours,  and  add 

2  oz.  binoxalate  of  potash, 

2  oz.  oxalic  acid  ; 

leave  for  twenty-four  hours,  then  strain,  and  use  the  clear  as  a 
standard ;  a  blue  liquor  for  mixing  with  this  standard  is  made 
as  follows : — 

Blue  Liquor  for  Purple. 

3  pints  red  liquor  at  18°, 

1  pint  neutral  extract  of  indigo, 

well  stirred  until  dissolved.  The  color  is  prepared  by  mixing 
the  standard  with  this  blue  part. 


S90  PURPLE   COLORS. 


Purple  Color. 
2  quarts  standard, 
|  pint  blue  liquor, 
2  Ibs.  British  gum. 


The  blue  liquor  in  this  receipt  is  mainly  for  the  benefit  of  the 
wool,  which,  under  the  same  conditions,  takes  a  redder  tint 
than  the  cotton  from  logwood.  The  dark  purple  given,  page 
190,  is  stronger  and  bluer  than  this  one,  since  it  contains  prus- 
siate  of  potash. 

The  purple  colors  upon  all  wool  are  obtained  by  combining 
the  red  of  cochineal  with  the  blue  of  sulphate  of  indigo.  The 
receipt  for  lilac,  p.  313,  may  serve  as  a  model  for  purple  on 
wool. 

The  purple  for  printing  on  silk  is  somewhat  different,  and 
nearly  approaches  that  for  calico.  Here  is  a  receipt  :  — 

Purple  for  Silk. 
2  quarts  logwood  liquor  at  3°, 
2  quarts  peachwood  liquor  at  3°, 

2  Ibs.  alum, 

1|  Ib.  sugar  of  lead  ; 

warm  and  stir  well,  leave  for  several  hours,  then  take 

1  quart  clear  liquor, 

1  quart  gum  water, 

3  oz.  oxymuriate  of  tin, 

2  oz.  nitric  acid  at  20°. 

The  nitric  acid  might  be  advantageously  replaced  by  nitrate  of 
alumina  and  oxalic  acid. 

The  aniline  purples  are  also  successfully  printed  on  silk. 

Purple  Colors  by  Dyeing.  —  For  the  ecclesiastical  purples  on 
wool  a  fast  color  is  required,  which  is  obtained  by  first  dyeing 
a  blue  in  the  indigo  vat,  and  then  dyeing  a  cochineal  or  lac 
scarlet  upon  the  top.  The  color,  though  not  very  brilliant,  is 
very  durable.  The  common  class  of  purples  upon  wool  are 
from  logwood  and  extract  of  indigo,  mordanted  in  alum,  tin, 
and  tartar.  The  following  process  may  be  taken  as  an  illustra- 
tion :  — 

125  Ibs.  wool  (merino), 

18  Ibs.  white  tartar, 

12  Ibs.  sulphate  of  alumina, 

4  Ibs.  oxymuriate  of  tin  ; 

dissolve  the  salts  in  the  water,  enter  the  stuff,  and  work  for 
three  hours  at  the  boil  ;  take  out,  and  leave  for  a  day  before 


PURPLE,  FRENCH — PYROLIGNEOUS  ACID.       391 

washing.  Prepare  a  boiler  with  2  Ibs.  of  white  tartar,  3  Ibs.  of 
sulphate  of  alumina,  and  as  much  logwood  liquor  and  extract 
of  indigo  as  is  required  to  produce  the  color  intended.  Old 
vats  dye  best ;  a  purple  vat  will  last  a  month,  and  the  older  it 
is  the  better  it  dyes.  Purples  are  also  obtained  from  cochineal 
for  the  red  part,  and  sulphate  of  indigo  for  the  blue ;  the  cloth 
is  mordanted  in  tartar,  alum,  and  oxymuriate  of  tin,  and  dyed 
in  a  mixture  of  ammoniacal  cochineal  and  sulphate  of  indigo. 
Purples  are  also  obtained  from  archil  as  the  red  part,  and  ex- 
tract of  indigo  for  the  blue,  leaving  out  the  tin  in  mordanting. 
Purple  shades  are  also  dyed  with  aniline  purple,  made  blue, 
if  required,  by  a  passage  in  an  acid  bath  of  sulphate  of  indigo. 

Purple  colors  upon  cotton  are  derived  from  logwood  with  a 
tin  basis ;  the  goods  are  first  grounded  in  sumac,  by  leaving 
them  in  a  hot  decoction  of  it  for  several  hours,  then  wrung  out, 
and  passed  in  oxymuriate  of  tin  at  2°  for  half  an  hour,  then 
dyed  up  in  logwood,  and  raised  with  oxymuriate.  This  class 
of  colors  are  loose  and  fugitive,  soon  fading  upon  wear  and 
exposure. 

Silk  is  dyed  purple  for  common  styles  by  mordanting  in  tin, 
and  then  dyeing  in  a  mixture  of  logwood  liquor  and  sulphate 
of  indigo.  Aniline  purple  colors  are  extensively  employed 
upon  silk,  and  beautiful  shades  are  obtained  from  archil  and 
cudbear. 

Purple,  French. — A  preparation  of  archil,  by  Guinon, 
Mamas  &  Co.,  of  Lyons,  introduced  into  trade  a  few  years  ago. 
By  some  changes  made  in  the  method  of  extracting  the  archil 
from  the  lichens,  an  improved  product  is  obtained,  which  yields 
much  faster  colors  than  any  previously  known  to  dyers  from 
the  same  material. 

Purple  Heart,  Purple  Wood  of  Guiana. — The  wood  of  the 
copaiba  pubiflora,  very  hard  and  dense,  principally  used  for 
making  ramrods,  contains  also  a  colorable  principle  which 
assumes  a  purple  color  when  exposed  to  light.  It  is  capable 
of  communicating  colors  to  fabrics,  but  I  am  not  aware  of  its 
being  employed  for  dyeing. 

Pyroxilized  Cotton.— Cotton  which  has  been  treated  with 
concentrated  nitric  acid,  or  a  mixture  of  strong  nitric  and  sul- 
phuric acid.  (See  page  2-14.) 

Pyroligneous  Acid. — Crude  and  impure  acetic  acid  when 
obtained  from  the  distillation  of  wood.  (See  ACETIC  ACID, 
page  49.) 


392  QUERCITRON   BARK — RED   COLORS. 


a. 

Quercitron  Bark. — This  dyeing  matter,  as  its  name  indi- 
cates, is  the  inner  bark  of  a  tree  ;  the  Quercus  tmctoria,  or  black 
oak,  growing  in  several  parts  of  America.  It  was  introduced 
into  England,  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  by  Dr.  Bancroft, 
well  known  for  his  treatise  on  "  Permanent  Colors."  It  soon 
came  into  use,  as  being  cheaper  and  stronger  than  the  yellow 
coloring  matters  then  known  in  the  trade.  It  is  sold  in  the 
ground  state,  has  a  yellow  color,  a  bitter  taste,  and  a  peculiar 
smell.  It  dyes  up  good  yellows  upon  wool  and  cotton — on  the 
first  with  a  tin  mordant,  and  upon  the  second  with  an  alumina 
mordant.  The  coloring  matter  is  very  soluble  in  water,  and 
is  much  used  for  steam  colors,  under  the  name  of  bark  liquor ; 
its  principal  use  in  this  respect  being  for  compound  shades, 
from  dark  chocolate  down  to  the  lightest  drabs,  grays,  etc.  Its 
yellow,  either  by  itself  or  with  blue  in  forming  a  green,  is  not 
liked  so  much  as  that  which  can  be  obtained  from  other  sources. 
With  iron  mordants  it  gives  shades  of  gray,  olive,  and  black, 
not  good  in  themselves,  but  which  combine  well,  and  modify 
the  shades  produced  by  other  dyewoods.  The  ground  bark  is 
liable  to  adulteration  with  mineral  matters  and  worthless 
vegetable  substances,  the  manner  of  detecting  which  are  the 
same  for  all  coloring  matters,  and  have  been  before  alluded  to. 
Bark  is  much  used  in  garanoine  dyeing.  When  quercitron 
bark  is  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid  and  water,  then  steamed,  as 
in  the  making  of  garancine,  a  product  is  obtained  which  has 
somewhat  higher  powers  of  dyeing  than  the  original  bark. 
This  method  of  treating  bark  has  been  followed  in  some  places, 
but  is  of  no  real  advantage,  and  is  now  quite  abandoned. 

An  extract  of  bark  is  sold  under  the  name  of  Flavine  (see 
page  226):  other  preparations  which  contain  the  coloring  matter 
in  a  concentrated  state  are  also  found  in  trade. 


R. 

Realgar,  Red  Arsenic. — This  is  one  of  the  sulphides  of 
arsenic,  similar  in  its  composition  to  orpiment.  Its  only  use 
in  printing  or  dyeing  is  as  a  reducing  agent  for  bringing  indigo 
into  solution. 

Red  Colors. — The  chief  red  colors  are  derived  from  cochi- 
neal, lac  dye,  madder,  and  garancine,  and  the  methods  for 
obtaining  them  have  been  given  when  treating  of  those  sub- 
stances. A  less  important  but  still  largely  used  class  of  red 


RED   COLORS.  393 

colors  are  obtained  from  the  red  woods  so  called,  of  which 
Brazil  wood  is  the  chief  type;  the  barwood  red  dye  is 
described,  page  73,  and  I  give  here  a  few  receipts  showing  the 
methods  of  applying  the  coloring  matters  of  sapan  wood,  peach- 
wood,  etc. 

Steam  Red,  for  Calico. 

3  gallons  sapan  wood  liquor  at  10°, 

2  Ibs.  alum, 

1  quart  bark  liquor  at  18°, 

1  quart  red  liquor  at  20°, 

10  oz.  crystals  muriate  of  copper. 

The  oxidizing  agent  here  is  the  muriate  of  copper,  which  may 
be  replaced  by  a  mixture  of  nitrate  of  copper  and  sal  ammo- 
niac, or  else  by  chlorate  of  potash,  which  is  more  usual  in 
England,  as  in  the  following  receipt: — 

Steam  Red,  for  Calico. 
6  quarts  sapan  liquor  at  8°, 
1  quart  bark  liquor  at  12°, 
1  quart  nitrate  of  alumina, 

1  Ib.  alum, 

3  Ibs.  starch, 

2  oz.  chlorate  of  potash. 

The  nitrate  of  alumina  must  also  act  in  this  color  as  an  oxidiz- 
ing agent;  if  it  be  omitted,  and  a  corresponding  amount  of 
alum  used,  the  chlorate  may  be  increased  to  six  ounces.  Atten- 
tion has  been  several  times  drawn  to  the  fact  that  the  wood 
reds  are  not'  good  without  chlorate  of  potash  or  some  oxidiz- 
ing agent ;  it  was  formerly  the  custom  to  pass  the  reds  in 
chrome,  but  this  was  bad  for  the  other  colors.  The  use  of 
chlorate  of  potash  for  wood  reds  is  due  to  a  Lancashire  color 
mixer,  and  has  been  of  great  service  in  the  lower  class  of 
chintz  styles. 

The  wood  reds  are  inadmissible  upon  delaines,  being  so  much 
inferior  to  cochineal,  but  are  sometimes  used  upon  silk.  (See 
PINK.) 

In  dyeing  common  reds  upon  calico  the  cloth  is  well  mor- 
danted by  steeping  in  hot  sumac  liquor  for  several  hours,  and 
then  worked  in  oxymuriate  of  tin  (red  spirits)  for  a  sufficient 
length  of  time  to  enable  it  to  take  up  as  much  tin  as  possible, 
then  washed  and  dyed  in  a  mixture  of  peach  wood  and  fustic, 
taking  about  3  Ibs.  of  the  red  to  1  Ib.  of  the  yellow  wood,  and 
finally  raising  by  adding  a  quantity  of  the  red  spirits  to  the  dye. 
The  use  of  fustic  in  dyeing,  and  bark  in  printing,  is  in  order 
26 


394:  RED   LIQUOR — RESISTS. 

that  the  yellow  they  .communicate  may  brighten  the  otherwise 
crimson  of  the  red  woods  into  a  scarlet  shade.  If,  conse- 
quently, a  crimson  red  be  aimed  at,  the  yellow  wood  must  be 
left  out,  and  if  a  bluer  crimson  is  required  a  small  proportion 
of  logwood  may  be  added.  The  wood  red  upon  silk  is  dyed 
the  same  as  calico,  but  the  sumac  treatment  may  be  omitted. 

Inferior  reds  upon  wool  may  be  obtained  by  mordanting  in 
a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  alum  and  bichromate,  and  then 
dyeing  up  in  peachwood  and  raising  with  alum. 

Red  Liquor.     (See  ACETATE  OF  ALUMINA.) 

Red  Woods. — The  woods  known  by  this  name  are  those 
which  give  a  red  or  crimson  color  to  yarn  or  cloth  mordanted 
with  either  tin  or  alumina.  The  chief  varieties  in  use  are  sapan 
wood,  Brazil  wood,  peachwood,  Lima  wood,  and  barwood. 
Brazil  wood  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  the  red  woods,  which 
differ  from  one  another  rather  in  the  quantity  than  the  quality 
of  the  coloring  matter  contained  in  them. 

Resists,  Reserves. — A  resist  in  calico  printing  is  some  com- 
position applied  to  parts  of  a  fabric  in  order  to  prevent  the 
deposition  of  color  or  mordant  upon  those  parts.  The  parts 
thus  protected  may  be  the  uncolored  fibre  alone,  which  it  is 
intended  to  keep  white,  or  it  may  be  some  colored  part  which 
is  required  to  be  preserved  unaltered  while  the  remainder  of 
the  cloth  is  covered  with  some  colored  design.  Resist  compo- 
sitions intended  for  this  latter  purpose  are  usually  called  pastes, 
and  color  so  preserved  is  said  to  be  "pasted." 

Resists  may  be  either  chemical  or  mechanical,  or  both  com- 
bined, according  to  the  nature  .of  the  color  or  mordant  to  be 
resisted,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  has  to  be  applied. 

Resists  for  Iron  and  Red  Liquor  Mordants. -r-The  best  and  only 
safe  resist  for  these  mordants  is  lime  juice  ;  if  of  a  fair  quality, 
and  employed  at  the  proper  strength,  it  leaves  nothing  to 
desire.  Good  lime  juice,  at  15°  Tw.,  thickened  with  calcined 
farina,  will  resist  all  the  iron  and  almina  mordants  in  use  for 
madder  work;  at  30°  Tw.  it  is  strong  enough  as  a  resist  for 
garancine  styles. 

Muriate  of  tin  is  used  in  conjunction  with  red  liquor,  in  order 
to  give  the  latter  a  power  of  resisting  weak  iron  mordants.  It 
would  not  answer  as  white  resist,  because  some  of  the  oxide 
of  tin  would  become  attached  to  the  cloth,  and  dye  up  a  red 
stain. 

Oxalic  acid,  tartaric  acid,  and  the  acid  sulphate  of  potash 
will  act  as  resists,  but  are  very  inferior  to  lime  juice  or  citric 
acid.  These  substances  will  resist  for  a  day  or  two,  and  may 
be  used  when  only  a  short  period  elapses  between  the  printing 
and  dyeing;  but  after  a  few  hours  the  oxalate,  tartrate,  or  sul- 


RESISTS.  395 

pbate  of  iron,  or  alumina  begins  to  suffer  decomposition,  and 
deposit  oxide  upon  the  fibre,  which  attracts  sufficient  of  the 
coloring  matter  to  make  the  whites  bad.  Citric  acid  does  not 
act  so,  for  I  have  kept  lime  juice  resists  five  years  between 
printing  and  dunging,  and  the  whites  were  as  perfectly  clear 
then  as  three  days  after  printing.  (See  CITRIC  ACID,  page  148.) 

Resist  for  Catechu  Colors. — The  best  resist  for  this. purpose 
appears  to  be  citrate  of  soda  thickened  with  calcined  farina. 
It  may  be  made  by  taking  lime  juice  at  30°,  and  adding  caustic 
soda  at  58°  until  the  lime  juice  is  quite  neutralized,  or  made  a 
little  alkaline.  This  resist  will  also  throw  off  light  chocolates 
and  purples,  but  is  rather  defective  in  catting  power,  and  will 
not  resist  dark  paste  chocolates. 

Citrate  of  soda,  or  potash,  forms  also  a  good  neutral  resist, 
but  is  seldom  employed  without  being  strengthened  with  pipe- 
clay, or  some  of  the  other  mechanically  resisting  substances. 

Reserves,  or  Protecting  Resists. — These  are  mostly  applied  by 
the  block,  and  are  in  great  part  mechanical,  as  will  be  seen  in 
the  illustrations. 

Resist  Paste  for  Chintz. 

6  gallons  water, 

15  Ibs.  arsenate  of  potash  neutral, 

40  Ibs.  pipeclay, 

30  Ibs.  calcined  farina. 

If  the  arsenate  of  potash  (the  arsenate  of  soda  will  also  answer 
very  well)  be  acid  it  must  be  neutralized  with  caustic.  The 
arsenate  of  potash  has  some  resisting  powers  of  itself,  but  its 
use  in  combination  with  pipeclay  is  owing  to  its  drying  up  in 
a  dense  and  somewhat  gummy  mass  which  gives  solidity  to  the 
.pipeclay,  and  makes  it  more  capable  of  withstanding  the  effects 
of  friction. 

Another  neutral  paste  is  made  from  citrate  of  soda  mixed 
with  pipeclay  and  calcined  farina;  it  is  well  adapted  for  styles 
which  are  to  be  covered  with  iron  buff  or  chrome  green. 

Indigo  Resists. — These  have  been  given  in  the  article  on 
indigo  so  far  as  regards  the  white  and  chrome  yellow  resists. 
I  append  here  two  or  three  resists  for  a  style  to  be  dipped  in 
indigo  and  dyed  in  madder,  the  active  agent  in  which  is  a  com- 
pound of  copper  with  fat,  obtained  by  mixing  nitrate  of  copper 
and  soda  together. 

Copper  Soap  Resist.  , 

10  gallons  water, 
50  Ibs.  gum  Senegal, 
100  Ibs.  pipeclay, 


396  ROSIN — ROSIN  SOAP. 

well  incorporated  together;  then  add  a  hot  solution  composed 
of 

50  Ibs.  of  soap, 

5  gallons  water; 

and  then  mix  very  gradually,  and  with  constant  stirring, 
50  Ibs.  nitrate  of  copper  at  80°.        * 

This  mixture,  which  should  be  perfectly  smooth  and  homoge- 
neous, constitutes  the  resist,  and  it  can  be  combined  with  mor- 
dants which  will  fix  upon  the  fabric,  while  the  fatty  salt  resists 
the  indigo. 

Resist  Red  for  Indigo  Dipping. 

1|  gallon  red  liquor  at  20°, 

2  Ibs.  starch, 

6  oz.  crystals  of  tin, 

3  quarts  of  copper  soap  resist. 

A  chocolate  and  a  black  can  be  prepared  in  the  same  manner. 
The  pieces  are  dipped  as  usual,  cleaned  as  perfectly  as  possible 
from  the  copper,  and  dyed  in  madder. 

Resists  for  special  colors,  not  included  in  this  article,  will  be 
found  under  the  head  of  the  colors,  or  by  reference  to  the  index. 

Rosin. — Common  rosin  has  become  an  important  substance 
in  bleaching  cotton  goods;  its  effects  are  remarkable,  and  could 
scarcely  have  been  anticipated.  It  is  the  residue  of  the  heat- 
ing of  the  juice  which  flows  from  certain  trees — the  pine  species 
in  particular.  It  varies  considerably  in  quality,  and  conse- 
quently in  price;  some  kinds  contain  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
turpentine,  when  arrived  in  this  country,  to  make  it  worth 
while  to  distil  them  over  again,  to  extract  what  the  unskilful- 
ness  of  the  foreign  distiller  has  left  in.  The  quality  of  rosin 
can  be  generally  estimated  by  a  simple  inspection  of  it.  It 
should  be  clear  and  transparent.  Its  color  does  not  matter 
much  for  bleaching  purposes,  if  it  is  otherwise  good,  but  its 
transparency  seems  to  be  an  important  matter;  if  milky  look- 
ing it  usually  contains  water,  and  is  weak.  It  should  not  be 
dirty — containing  bits  of  chips,  gravel,  sand,  etc.,  for  of  course 
these  deteriorate  its  value,  however  good  the  pure  portion  may 
be.  Practical  dealers  lay  some  stress  upon  the  absence  of  small 
specks  upon  the  rosin,  which  can  be  observed,  if  present,  upon 
holding  small  pieces  to  the  light.  When  held  in  the  flame  of 
a  gaslight  or  candle,  the  rosin  ought  to  melt  without  spitting 
or  sputtering. 

Rosin  Soap,  Prepared  Rosin  for -Bleachers. — Rosin  combines 
with  potash  or  soda  to  make  a  kind  of  soap;  but  it  is  riot  a 


ROSIX  SOAP.  397 

real  soap,  according  to  the  chemical  definition  of  that  sub- 
stance; but  the  alkali  causes  the  rosin  to  become  soluble  in 
water,  and  that  solution  possesses  properties  of  the  same  nature 
as  soap.  The  prepared  rosin  is  mostly  sent  to  the  bleachers 
ready  made;  but  I  understand  some  bleachers  add  the  pounded 
rosin  to  the  soda  in  the  kier,  and  boil  it  until  dissolved,  and 
then  enter  the  pieces.  The  results  of  many  experiments  I 
have  made  upon  this  point  seem  to  show  a  decided  advantage 
in  having  the  combination  made  separately,  chiefly  because 
they  can  be  better  made,  and  with  less  loss  of  time  than  dis- 
solving it  in  the  kiers.  It  is  made  in  two  or  three  different 
ways:  Firstly,  by  boiling  crushed  rosin  with  soda  ash  and 
water;  secondly,  by  boiling  the  rosin  with  weak  caustic;  and 
thirdly,  by  boiling  it  with  strong  caustic  soda.  Whichever 
way  it  is  made  it  ought  to  dissolve  well  in  water,  without  leav- 
ing any  sediment.  It  is  very  variable  in  its  quality,  containing 
an  irregular  amount  of  water,  and  sometimes  a  deficient  quan- 
tity of  alkali.  Its  appearance  cannot  always  be  depended  upon 
as  an  indication  of  its  quality,  and  nothing  but  chemical  analy- 
sis will  point  out  if  there  is  the  due  proportion  of  rosin  and 
soda  with  regard  to  water.  It  is  not  difficult  to  make;  some 
bleachers  make  their  own,  and  more  might  do  so  with  advan- 
tage, both  in  a  pecuniary  point  of  view,  and  as  having  a  more 
regular  and  reliable  product.  In  making  the  prepared  rosin 
by  means  of  soda  ash,  the  ash  must  be  weak  to  begin  with, 
and  the  pounded  rosin  added  by  degrees,  as  it  dissolves  in  the 
boiling  liquor.  The  quantity  which  ash  can  dissolve  depends 
upon  its  strength,  which  is  variable,  but  a  little  practice  soon 
shows  when  it  has  dissolved  as  much  as  it  can  properly ;  when 
this  point  is  arrived  at  a  little  more  ash  is  added,  and  the  boil- 
ing continued  until  all  the  soap  separates  from  the  liquor,' and 
rises  to  the  top  as  a  pasty  mass.  When  it  has  cooled  a  little 
it  is  scooped  off  and  is  fit  for  use — the  bottom  liquor  being 
mixed  with  water  for  the  beginning  of  another  operation.  In 
making  it  from  weak  caustic  the  same  method  is  followe'd ;  if 
it  does  not  rise  to  the  surface  some  soda  ash  or  common  salt 
put  in  it  will  compel  it  to  do  so.  The  method  of  making  it 
from  strong  caustic  is  only  applicable  to  small  quantities.  The 
following  proportions  and  methods  may  be  adopted:  Six  gal- 
lons of  caustic  soda,  containing  1-4  per  cent,  of  real  alkali 
(marking,  if  pretty  pure,  44°  Tw.),  is  heated  in  an  iron  boiler 
until  it  gets  near  the  boil,  then  112  pounds  of  crushed  rosin 
are  added  by  degrees,  with  constant  stirring,  and  the  heat  con- 
tinued until  perfect  combination  has  taken  place,  which  can  be 
ascertained  by  taking  a  little  of  the  stuff  out  and  observing  if 
it  is  all  of  one  consistency,  containing  no  visible  particles  of 


398  ROSEAXILINE— ROSOLIC   ACID. 

rosin,  and  when  put  into  hot  water,  dissolving  with  only  a  little 
milkiness.  This  process  gives  very  good  results  when  the 
proportion  of  alkali  is  right,  and  the  boiling  has  been  con- 
tinued long  enough  ;  it  requires  some  care  in  the  making, 
principally  to  prevent  the  rosin  burning  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pan.  Larger  quantities  than  112  pounds  of  rosin  can  be  pre- 
pared at  once,  but  the  difficulties  increase,  £Tnd  the  danger  of 
burning  is  greater ;  but,  as  the  whole  process  does  not  take 
more  than  an  hour  and  a  half,  it  is  quite  easy,  even  with  a 
small  pan,  to  keep  a  large  bleaching  works  supplied  with  pre- 
pared rosin.  If  the  prepared  rosin  is  short  of  soda,  or  if  the 
combination  between  the  rosin  and  soda  has  not  taken  place  in 
a  perfect  manner,  the  rosin  is  liable  to  be  thrown  out  upon  the 
pieces  during  the  bowking  in  such  manner  that  it  will  not  wash 
off.  The  sour  fixes  it  still' more,  and  it  remains  upon  the  cloth 
to  its  injury,  especially  when  the  cloth  is  intended  for  dyeing.  If 
the  pieces  are  dryed  over  tins  the  rosin  will  sometimes  collect 
on  the  skrimp  rail  in  considerable  quantities.  I  have  known 
several  ounces  of  a  mixture  of  rosin  and  cotton  fibre  thus  col- 
lected, and  seen  pieces  of  sound  calico  torn  across  by  the  half- 
melted  rosin  on  the  bar,  holding  them  against  the  pulling  of  the 
tins.  This  can  always  be  avoided  by  increasing  the  amount  of 
soda  to  the  rosin,  and  attending  to  the  heating  of  them  together. 
The  action  of  the  prepared  rosin  in  bleaching  is  that  of  a  soap, 
dissolving  the  natural  and  added  resinous  matters  contained  in 
the  fibre,  and  so  loosening  the  dirt  which  these  kept  as  it  were 
fastened  to  the  cloth. 

Gum  Thus. — This  resinous  body  is  the  exudation  of  a  differ- 
ent tree  from  that  which  yields  common  rosin.  It  is  employed 
by  some  bleachers  who  conceive  that  it  gives  better  results 
than  ordinary  pine  rosin.  For  bleaching  for  calico  printing,  I 
believe  that  it  is  no  better  than  the  cheaper  common  rosin,  if 
this  latter  is  well  prepared;  but  gum  thus  seems  more  readily 
and  perfectly  soluble  in  carbonated  alkalies,  which  will  be  an 
advantage  in  some  methods  of  bleaching.  Such  qualities  of 
gum  thus  that  I  have  had  experience  of  were  much  softer 
than  rosin  and  contained  volatile  oil,  and,  besides,  were  greatly 
contaminated  with  leaves,  twigs,  dirt,  etc. 

Roseaniline,  Roseine. — This  is  the  name  given  to  the  base 
which  constitutes  the  Magenta  color  as  manufactured  by  Simp- 
son, Maule,  and  Nicholson,  upon  Medlock's  patent.  As  sent 
into  the  market,  it  is  in  the  state  of  acetate  of  aniline,  dissolved 
in  some  mestruum,  the  nature  of  which  is  not  generally  known. 

Rosolic  Acid. — An  acid  body  obtained  from  coal-tar,  so 
called,  because  it  gives  pink-colored  salts  with  some  bases. 
Hopes  were  entertained  of  isolating  the  coloring  matter,  and 


RUBY  COLOR — SAFFLOWER.  399 

applying  it  as  a  tinctorial  substance;  but  recent  investigations 
have  shown  that  there  is  no  prospect  of  any  useful  color  being 
derived  from  it. 

Ruby  Color. — A  color  of  a  deep  rose  red;  the  only  dyed 
color,  distinctively  so  called,  that  is  obtained  upon  silk  by 
means  of  cudbear.  To  produce  it  the  cudbear  is  boiled  .in 
water  and  strained,  and  the  silk,  without  mordant  or  prepara- 
tion, worked  in  the  clear  liquor  until  the  required  shade  is 
obtained.  The  addition  of  ammonia  at  the  end  of  the  dyeing, 
or  working  the  silk  separately  in  amrnoniacal  water,  gives  a 
bluish  hue  to  the  ruby  ;  on  the  other  hand,  very  weak  sours, 
or  tin  salts,  convert  into  a  reddish  hue. 

By  combining  the  fustic  and  logwood  with  the  cudbear,  and 
raising  in  tin,  a  variety  of  hues  and  shades  can  be  produced. 


s. 

Safflower. — This  substance,  called  also  carthamus,  is  the 
flower  of  a  plant  growing  in  the  north  of  Africa,  and  in  some 
other  warm  climates.  It  contains  two  colors — a  yellow  which 
is  loose  and  valueless,  and  a  red  which  is  very  beautiful.  The 
yellow  dissolves  in  cold  water,  but  the  red  is  insoluble;  and  as 
the  yellow  would  injure  the  red  if  the  whole  safflower  were  to 
be  used  together  in  dyeing,  it  is  always  washed  in  cold  water  to 
remove  the  former  coloring  matter.  The  method  of  washing 
consists  in  putting  the  safflower  loosely  into  bags,  and  leaving 
these  in  a  slight  stream  of  pure  water  until,  upon  pressure,  it  is 
found  that  the  water  runs  away  nearly  colorless.  Another  way 
is  to  put  several  bags  into  a  large  vat  or  cistern  with  water,  and 
trampling  the  bags  with  the  feet ;  but  this  seems  to  cause  a 
loss  of  color.  Where  pure  running  water  is  not  available,  the 
best  process  is  to  wash  the  safflower  upon  a  fine  straining 
cloth  by  pouring  water  upon  it  until  it  ceases  to  pass  through 
yellow.  Care  must  be  taken  that  no  portions  of  the  safflower 
escape  washing,  or  only  inferior  shades  of  color  will  be  pro- 
duced. The  red  coloring  matter  is  soluble  in  weak  alkalies, 
and  crystals  of  soda  or  pearl  ash  are  usually  employed  to  dis- 
solve it;  heat  is  not  necessary  and  is  even  injurious,  the  opera- 
tions succeeding  best  at  the  natural  temperature.  When  the 
solution  of  the  coloring  matter  is  made,  it  is  set  free  again  by 
neutralizing  the  alkali  with  some  acidulous  body;  lemon-juice, 
citric  acid,  tartaric  acid,  and  vitriol  are  used  by  different  dyers; 
it  does  not  seem  that  it  is  of  any  importance  which  acid  is 
used,  notwithstanding  all  the  minute  directions  which  have 
formerly  been  given  in  this  way,  and  the  great  importance 


400  SAFFLOWER  COLORS. 

which  seemed  to  be  attached  to  it.  No  time  should  be  lost 
after  the  addition  of  the  acid  in  placing  the  articles  to  be  dyed, 
for  it  appears  that  the  affinity  of  the  colored  particles  for  the 
fibre  diminishes  in  proportion  to  the  time  of  their  precipitation 
or  liberation  from  the  alkali.  The  stuff  to  be  dyed  is  then 
worked  in  the  liquid  until  the  color  is  exhausted  or  the  desired 
shade  obtained.  It  yields  shades  of  red  from  the  finest  light 
pink  to  a  flame-colored  poppy  red.  Its  shades  can  be  height- 
ened and  assisted  by  other  colors  for  the  darker  shades ;  as  for 
example  by  anotta,  turmeric,  etc. ;  but  these  are  not  admissible 
for  the  lighter  and  brighter  shades. 

A  method  of  obtaining  finer  colors  is  sometimes  used ;  the 
red  coloring  matter  is  taken  up  by  finely-carded  cotton  wool 
from  the  dye  tub;  this  is  gently  washed  in  clear  water,  and 
then  the  color  taken  from  it  by  crystals  of  soda,  and  the  stuffs 
dyed  in  it  after  the  addition,  of  lime  juice.  It  is  said  to  give 
better  results,  but  it  is  questionable  whether  it  is  worth  the 
trouble.  Inferior  qualities  of  safflower  might  require  some 
such  treatment  to  give  good  colors,  but  good  qualities  do  not. 

Safflower  Colors. — Although  safflower  yields  the  most 
delicate  shades  of  color  which  the  art  of  the  dyer  can  produce, 
it  has  the  disadvantage  of  being  one  of  the  most  unstable  of 
all  coloring  matters  ;  being  excessively  susceptible  to  the  action 
of  light  and  alkalies,  it  can  neither  stand  exposure  nor  washing. 
Its  chief  consumption  is  in  silk  dyeing,  and  in  light  fancy 
articles  of  cotton  not  intended  to  be  washed. 

Few  dyers  now  wash  or  extract  the  coloring  matter  of  the 
safflower  themselves,  preferring  to  purchase  an  extract  ready 
made  which  contains  the  coloring  matter  in  a  concentrated 
state  and  by  means  of  which  they  are  enabled  to  obtain  more 
regular  results.  The  process  of  dyeing  is  simple  in  the  extreme ; 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  extract  is  added  to  as  small  a  quan- 
tity of  water  as  the  goods  can  be  worked  in  and  well  mixed 
up.  The  goods  being  ready  for  the  dye,  a  small  quantity  of 
acid  is  mixed  with  the  liquor,  citric  acid  seems  to  be  generally 
preferred,  but  weak  vitriol,  acetic  or  tartaric  acid  can  be  used ; 
the  goods  are  entered  cold  and  worked  about  until  all  the  color- 
ing matter  is  absorbed,  or  until  the  desired  shade  is  obtained. 
As  a  finish,  the  goods  are  passed  through  water  made  very 
slightly  acid  with  tartaric  or  citric  acid.  Some  dyers  work 
the  goods  in  the  safflower  before  adding  acid,  lifting  them  out 
and  adding  the  acid,  and  then  entering  and  working  again. 

About  four  ounces  of  safflower  will  dye  a  pound  of  cotton 
cloth  light  pink,  eight  ounces  will  dye  a  full  rose  pink,  and 
from  12  oz.  to  1  Ib.  will  die  it  a  full  crimson.  In  order  to  take 


SAFFRON — SAL   AMMONIAC.  401 

up  tli is  quantity  the  cotton  must  be  several  times  dyed  in  fresh 
solutions  of  the  coloring  matter. 

No  mordanting  is  used  for  safflower  colors  since  none  of  the 
mordants  known  either  increase  the  affinity  of  the  cloth  for  the 
coloring  madder  or  give  it  any  greater  stability. 

In  fancy  cotton  dyeing  safflower  is  used  to  top  many  dyed 
colors;  combined  with  Prussian  blue  it  gives  lavender  or  lilac 
shades,  with  anotta  it  yields  scarlets. 

The  quantity  of  safflower  required  to  dye  silk  is  nearly  the 
same  as  for  cotton,  and  the  process  and  colors  precisely  similar. 

There  is  one  peculiarity  about  the  dyeing  with  safflower 
which  is  worthy  of  consideration  ;  in  all  other  cases  the  dyer 
is  generally  careful  to  have  his  dye  stuffs  in  a  perfectly  soluble 
state  for  dyeing,  but  here  the  exceptional  method  of  precipi- 
tating the  coloring  matter  from  its  solution  before  the  goods 
are  entered  for  dyeing  is  practised.  It  is  curious  to  speculate 
how  the  colored  particles  can  be  so  rapidly  and  so  completely 
attracted  by  the  fibre  as  is  found  to  be  the  case  in  practice. 

Saffron. — Saffron  cannot  be  said  to  be  a  regular  coloring 
matter,  being  mostly  used  for  other  purposes,  but  it  contains 
an  intensely  yellow  principle,  not  soluble  in  water,  but  soluble 
in  spirits,  oils,  etc.  It  is  used  to  color  confectionery  and  var- 
nishes, and  is  sparingly  used  in  topping  thread  dyed  yellow 
with  chrome  and  lead.  It  is  not  a  fast  color,  but  used  in  this 
last  way  it  communicates  a  very  desirable  shade  to  thread  for 
fancy  articles. 

The  pure  yellow  coloring  matter  of  saffron  has  not  been 
separated  in  a  sufficiently  pure  state  to  be  analyzed.  It  has 
received  the  name  of  Polychroite. 

Sal  Ammoniac,  Muriate  of  Ammonia. — This  is  the  only  salt 
of  ammonia  in  regular  use  for  the  purposes  of  the  calico  printer. 
It  is  found  in  two  different  states — in  large  lumps  of  a  fibrous 
structure,  and  in  small  crystals.  The  former  variety  has  been 
sublimed,  the  latter  has  been  crystallized  from  an  aqueous  solu- 
tion. Preference  is  given  to  the  sublimed  sal  ammoniac  as 
being  the  purest.  I  have  found  samples  of  the  crystallized  sal 
ammoniac  very  pure,  but  often  also  contaminated  with  metallic 
salts,  as  chloride  of  zinc  and  chloride  of  lead.  The  chloride  of 
lead  is  objectionable,  but  the  chloride  of  zinc  would  not  be  in- 
jurious in  small  quantities.  With  the  exception  of  a  trace  of 
iron,  and  that  in  an  insoluble  state,  I  have  not  found  any  im- 
purity in  good  qualities  of  sublimed  sal  ammoniac. 

The  uses  of  sal  ammoniac  in  color  mixing  seem  to  be  refer- 
able to  its  power  of  forming  double  salts  with  metals,  and  thus 
in  some  unknown  way  regulating  their  action  upon  the  color- 
ing matters.  It  is  especially  useful  in  conjunction  with  copper 


402  SALMON   COLOR — SCARLET   COLOR. 

salts,  when  the  nature  of  the  color  requires  their  presence:  it 
has  been  satisfactorily  proved  by  experiment  that  without  sal 
ammoniac  a  much  larger  quantity  of  copper  would  be  required 
to  produce  the  same  effect,  even  if  any  practical  quantity  could 
effect  the  results  attained  by  a  combination  of  the  two  salts. 

Salmon  Color. — This  color  may  be  defined  as  a  kind  of 
buff,  somewhat  redder  and  warmer  than  the  common  iron  buff. 
The  color  yielded  to  cotton  and  silk  by  anotta  is  frequently 
called  a  salmon  color ;  to  obtain  the  shade  by  means  of  the 
compound  colors  it  is  only  necessary  to  mix  the  red  and  yellow 
colors  in  the  proper  proportions. 

Sapan  Wood. — One  of  the  red  woods,  the  concentrated 
decoction  of  which  is  largely  used  in,  calico  printing,  as  the 
most  economical  red  part  for  compound  colors.  In  chemical 
and  other  properties  it  is  identical  with  Brazil  wood. 

Santa  Martha  Wood. — One  of  the  red  woods,  which  ap- 
pears to  be  the  same  as  the  wood  more  frequently  called  peach- 
wood,  similar  or  identical  in  its  properties  to  Brazil  wood. 

Santal  Wood,  Sandal  Wood,  Red  Saunders  Wood.— This 
wood  is  very  similar  to  barwood,  it  contains  a  red  coloring 
matter  which  is  very  little  soluble  in  water.  The  wood  is  ex- 
tremely hard,  and  can  only  be  employed  in  bulk  when  ground 
excessively  fine;  it  is  said  to  communicate  a  harsh  feeling  to 
wool  dyed  with  it,  probably  on  account  of  hard  resinous  matter 
present  in  the  wood.  With  aluminous  and  tin  mordants  santal 
wood  dyes  brownish-red  colors  of  considerable  depth.  It  ap- 
pears to  be  very  largely  used  in  France  as  a  constituent  in  dye- 
ing woollen  of  a  dark  blue  color,  for  soldiers'  uniform.  This 
color  is  obtained  as  follows  : — 

French  National  Blue. — The  wool  is. first  dyed  a  strong  blue 
in  the  indigo  vat,  and  then  (for  every  100  Ibs.  wool)  boiled  for 
one  hour  with  a  mixture  of 

30  Ibs.  sandal  wood, 
If  Ib.  logwood, 
2£  Ibs.  archil, 
l|  Ib.  gall  nuts. 

At  the  expiration  of  an  hour,  2f  Ibs.  green  copperas  are  added, 
and  the  wool  further  worked  until  the  color  is  deemed  to  be 
sufficiently  raised.  The  use  of  sandal  wood  in  this  case  is  only 
to  fill  up  the  blue,  and  give  it  a  brown  or  bronze  shade. 

Saw  Wort. — This  plant,  the  serratula  tinctoria  of  Linnaeus, 
according  to  Bancroft,  affords  a  good  substitute  for  weld,  dye- 
ing up  a  bright  lemon  yellow  color,  of  considerable  durability. 

Scarlet  Color.— Scarlet  may  be  considered  as  red  with  the 


SHADED   STYLES.  403 

addition  of  a  little  yellow.  The  processes  for  producing  this 
color  are  given  in  the  articles  on  COCHINEAL  and  RED  COLORS. 

Shaded  Styles. — By  this  term  I  intimate  a  style  of  work 
produced  by  printing  colors  which  fall  upon  one  another,  and 
at  the  point  of  contact  produce  a  shade  different  from  the  body 
of  the  piece.  There  are  several  methods  by  which  this  may 
be  accomplished ;  one  or  two  illustrations  will  suffice. 

Two  Shades  of  Red  for  Madder. — A  red  liquor  of  such  strength 
as  will  produce  the  lightest  shade  is  taken  and  mixed  with 
nitrate  of  alumina,  equivalent  in  strength  to  four  pounds  of 
alum  per  gallon,  thickened,  and  printed  in  say  a  stripe,  a  pad, 
or  a  Bengal  pin,  and  dried  up.  The  nitrate  of  alumina  cannot 
act  as  a  mordant,  and  the  color,  if  now  dunged  and  dyed,  would 
only  produce  a  shade  corresponding  with  the  strength  of  red 
liquor;  but  if  some  color  which  will  precipitate  the  alumina  of 
the  nitrate  of  alumina  be  printed  upon  the  first  pattern,  it  will 
then  cause  a  deposition  of  alumina  in  those  places,  which  will, 
consequently,  dye  up  a  dark  red.  Acetate  of  soda,  properly 
thickened,  is  suitable  for  this  purpose;  wherever  it  falls  upon 
the  nitrate  of  alumina  it  effects  a  double  decomposition,  pro- 
ducing acetate  of  alumina  and  nitrate  of  soda;  the  acetate  of 
alumina,  by  ageing,  deposits  its  alumina,  and  forms  a  dark  red 
mordant. 

Two  Shades  of  Purple— Madder. 
li  gallon  of  16  lilac, 

that  is,  gum  water,  which  contains  one-sixteenth  of  strong  iron 
liquor ;  dissolve  in  it 

1|  Ib.  green  copperas. 
Print  and  dry.     Then  for  the  precipitating  color  take  \ 

1  gallon  water, 

2  J  Ibs.  acetate  of  soda, 
5  Ibs.  gum. 

And  print,  age,  dung,  and  dye,  as  usual.  The  chemical  action 
here  is  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  case,  acetate  of  iron  is  pro- 
duced, the  metal  of  which  is  taken  up  by  the  cloth  which  cannot 
take  it  up  from  the  sulphate. 

Instead  of  acetate  of  soda,  a  solution  of  neutral  arsenate  of 
soda  may  be  employed,  standing  at  about  14°  Tw. 

Another  method  is  carried  out  as  follows:  — 


404  SILICON. 

Chocolate  for  Shades — Madder. 

3  gallons  red  liquor  at  18°, 
5  gallons  own  liquor  at  8°, 
20  Ibs.  flour;  boil,  and  add 
1  gallon  lime  juice  at  40°. 

Purple  for  Shades — Madder. 

8  gallons  water, 
1  gallon  iron  liquor  at  24°, 
13|  Ibs.  flour;  boil,  and  add 
7  pints  lime  juice. 

In  these  receipts  it  will  be  observed  that  the  mordants  are, 
when  thickened,  strong  mordants  and  calculated  to  yield  dark 
shades  ;  but  the  addition  of  citric  acid  converts  a  quantity  of 
the  iron  into  citrate,  which  cannot  fix,  and  the  shades  pro- 
duced are  only  such  as  would  be  due  to  the  iron  still  left  as 
acetate  ;  but  by  printing  a  composition  of  arsenate  or  phos- 
phate of  soda  across  the  aceto-citrate  mordant  the  iron  is  pre- 
cipitated, and  forms  a  mordant  for  dark  colors. 

Darkening  Color  for  Shades. 
1  gallon  gum  water, 
3  Ibs.  crystals  phosphate  of  soda. 

There  is  a  good  deal  of  uncertainty  and  irregularity  in  this 
style  of  work  unless  closely  attended  to.  The  lime  juice 
method  is  the  best  and  most  regular,  but  a  good  quality  of  lime 
juice  must  be  employed ;  if  it  contains  any  notable  quantity  of 
saccharine,  or  extractive  matter,  there  is  no  saying  how  much, 
or  how  little  iron  it  will  deposit,  or  how  it  will  answer  the 
phosphate  or  arseniate  precipitating  color. 

Silicon,  Silica. — This  element  is  the  basis  of  sand  and 
many  minerals ;  it  is  little  known  in  its  free  state.  Its  com- 
bination with  oxygen  is  silicic  acid,  which  exists  pure  in  rock 
crystal,  and  a  few  other  natural  minerals.  It  has  no  applica- 
tions as  an  acid,  being  insoluble  in  water  in  its  ordinary  state. 
Silicic  acid  combines  with  bases  giving  silicates,  all  of  which 
are,  in  their  neutral  state,  insoluble  in  water.  The  alkaline 
silicates  of  potash  or  soda  are  soluble  in  water.  Common 
glass  is  a  neutral  or  acid  silicate  of  potash  or  soda,  containing 
an  excess  of  silicic  acid;  if  an  excess  of  the  alkaline  material 
be  used  a  glass  is  equally  produced,  but  it  is  soluble  in  water. 
Powdered  flint  or  quartz  is  dissolved  by  a  boiling  concentrated 
solution  of  caustic  soda,  producing  a  silicate  of  soda  ;  such  a 
solution  was  known  to  the  older  chemists  as  liquor  of  flints ; 


SILK.  405 

a  solution  of  silicate  of  soda  is  now  extensively  employed  in 
the  cleansing  of  printed  goods  instead  of  cow  dung,  and  is 
known  as  one  of  the  dung  substitutes. 

Silicate  of  soda  is  made  on  the  large  scale  by  fusing  clean 
sand  with  soda  ash  until  a  glass  is  produced,  which  is  broken 
into  small  lumps  and  boiled  with  water  until  a  solution  of  the 
required  strength  is  obtained.  Silicic  acid  is  one  of  the  feeblest 
acids,  consequently  the  addition  of  any  of  the  ordinary  acids 
to  a  solution  of  the  silicate  of  soda  effects  the  decomposition  of 
the  salt,  the  silicic  acid  being  displaced  in  a  'gelatinous  state ; 
if  the  solution  be  concentrated  it  becomes  semi-solid  by  the 
free  silicic  acid  in  suspension.  Silicic  acid,  thus  liberated  from 
its  compounds,  may  enter  into  a  solution  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  water  and  dilute  acids ;  it  is  rendered  insoluble  by 
boiling  or  evaporation  to  dryness.  Solution  of  silicate  of  soda 
is  decomposed  by  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  atmosphere;  a 
strong  and  nearly  neutral  solution,  when  exposed  in  an  open 
vessel  to  the  air  for  a  few  days,  becomes  solid ;  this  may  form 
a  test  of  the  alkalinity  of  a  sample.  Silicate  of  soda  for  dung 
substitute  should  be  as  neutral  as  possible,  but  it  is  necessarily 
alkaline,  and  is  not  well  fitted  for  cleansing  any  styles  of  work 
likely  to  be  injured  by  alkalies.  Silicate  of  soda  has  been  used 
as  agent  for  fixing  ultramarine  blue  and  other  pigment  colors ; 
the  color  was  ground  up  well  with  a  solution  of  silicate  at 
about  90°  Tw.,  printed  without  any  other  thickening,  dried 
soft  and  hung  in  a  cool  place,  then  fixed  by  passing  in  solution 
of  muriate  of  ammonia  or  common  salt.  The  results  were  not 
generally  satisfactory,  the  color  was  difficult  to  print,' uncertain 
as  to  its  fastness,  sometimes  all  coming  off  in  the  fixing  liquor, 
and  even  when  well  fixed  communicating  an  unpleasant  harsh- 
ness to  the  cloth.  Grays  for  the  printing  machine  are  in  some 
continental  establishments  passed  through  silicate  of  soda ; 
they  are  said  when  thus  prepared,  to  give  a  better  impression, 
to  last  longer,  and  to  absorb  less  of  the  color  from  the  white 
piece.  Silicate  of  soda  has  been  mixed  with  soap  and  the  com- 
pound highly  recommended  ;  but  it  possesses  no  detergent 
properties,  and  can  only  be  looked  upon  as  an  adulteration. 
Silicate  of  soda  has  a  very  injurious  action  upon  unsoaped 
madder  work. 

Silk. — Silk  is  the  fine,  strong,  and  apparently  solid  thread 
which  several  insects  wind  round  themselves  as  a  protection 
while  undergoing  their  metamorphosis.  It  is  originally  fluid 
or  semi-fluid,  and  exudes  from  an  opening  in  the  lip  of  the 
worm,  but  soon  solidifies  in  the  air.  The  color  is  usually  of 
a  golden  yellow,  but  sometimes  quite  white;  the  thread -often 
exceeds  1300  feet  in  length,  and  is  consequently  the  longest 


406  SOAP. 

fibre  known,  the  pure  silk  contained  in  this  length  will  not 
weigh  more  than  a  couple  of  grains,  from  which  fact  an  idea 
of  its  extreme  fineness  mny  be  formed.  Its  diameter  is  about 
2^0  of  an  inch,  under  the  microscope  it  appears  as  a  cylindri- 
cal fibre,  without  any  twists  or  evidences  of  structure.  Silk 
contains,  naturally,  a  large  quantity  of  gummy  substance 
attached  to  it  which  must  be  removed  before  it  can  be  dyed  ; 
it  is  best  removed  by  boiling  the  raw  silk  in  soap  and  water  ; 
a  loss  of  weight  equivalent  to  one-fourth,  or  one-third  of  the 
weight  of  the  silk  takes  place  in  boiling  off.  For  the  behavior 
of  silk  towards  the  various  drugs  used  in  dyeing,  see  FIBROUS 
SUBSTANCES,  pages  213  to  226. 

Soap. — Soap  is  a  combination  of  a  fatty  matter  and  an 
oxide,  but  the  name  is  usually  applied  to  the  compounds  of 
fatty  matters  with  potash  and  soda  only.  Soap  is  manufactured 
by  heating  together  some  fat  or  oil  with  dilute  caustic  alkali, 
until  they  coalesce  into  a  homogeneous  mass.  There  is  no  real 
difficulty  in  making  soap,  and  it  might  be  frequently  made  by 
the  consumer  to  advantage ;  many  printers  make  their  own 
soap,  and  where  much  madder  work  is  done  the  economy  is 
conspicuous.  The  most  valuable  soap  is  made  from  tallow  and 
olive  oil,  but  a  cheaper  and  excellent  soap  for  dyeing  and 
clearing  purposes  is  made  from  palm  oil ;  the  strong  yellow 
color  of  the  unbleached  palm-oil  is  not  found  to  be  any  dis- 
advantage in  its  use  for  madder  work,  or  for  bleaching  woollen 
or  delaine  goods.  For  use  on  print  works,  a  soap  may  be 
made  by  boiling  in  an  iron  pan  palm  oil  and  caustic  soda  at 
16°  Tw.,  in  the  proportion  of  about  two  and  a  half  pounds  of 
caustic  to  one  of  oil.  Combination  takes  place  in  two  or  three 
hours  ;  upon  cooling  the  mass  sets  as  a  soft  yellow  solid,  which 
is  very  suitable  for  dissolving  rapidly  in  the  becks  on  account 
of  the  large  amount  of  water  it  contains.  This  soap  contains 
all  the  glycerine  of  the  oil,  as  also  whatever  impurities  there 
may  exist  in  either  the  palm  oil  or  the  caustic  soda.  It  answers 
very  well  for  all  uses  on  a  print  works ;  but  its  peculiar  method 
of  manufacture  requires  a  nice  adjustment  of  the  quantity  of 
oil  and  alkali,  and  is  not  likely  to  be  successfully  carried  out 
without  some  chemical  knowledge. 

Soap  is  used  in  bleaching  silk,  some  qualities  of  woollen, 
and  some  fine  kind  of  cotton  goods.  It  is  used  in  several 
cases  of  dyeing,  either  to  soften  the  water  or  to  modify  the 
shade  of  color,  especially  in  silk  dyeing.  It  is  much  used  in 
madder  styles,  and  very  generally  employed  as  a  final  opera- 
tion to  modify  dyed  colors  and  to  clear  white  grounds.  The 
detergent  action  of  soap  depends  upon  its  power  of  dissolving 
or  rendering  fatty  matters  emulsive  and  removable  by  water. 


SOAP.  407 

Dirt  may  be  defined  as  dust,  with  some  oleaginous  matter, 
which  renders  it  adhesive;  the  grease  or  fat  being  acted  upon' 
the  dust  is  easily  removed  by  water.  For  simply  detergent 
purposes  very  alkaline  soaps  may  be  employed,  such  as  the 
rosin  soap  used  in  bleaching,  or  common  soft  soap  ;  but  when 
the  action  is  of  a  mixed  nature,  as  upon  dyed  goods,  the  soap 
must  be  of  a  mild,  neutral  character.  Soap  may  be  bad  or  de- 
fective by  being  deficient  in  alkali,  or  by  having  it  in  excess. 
A  good  soap  for  finishing  madder  work  should  be  slightly 
alkaline ;  it  is  more  economical  than  a  pure  neutral  soap,  and 
gives  as  good  or  better  results.  If  the  soap  be  too  alkaline,  it 
acts  harshly  upon  madder  colors  impoverishing  them,  espe- 
cially the  reds,  while  the  lilacs  and  purples  are  turned  to  a 
disagreeable  reddish  hue.  Pinks  soaped  with  a  too  alkaline 
soap  will  be  flat  and  dull,  without  bloom  ;  catechu  drabs  and 
browns  will  be  much  deteriorated.  Work  thus  injured  may 
sometimes  be  improved  by  passing  in  water  made  sour  with 
sulphuric  acid,  washing  and  re-soaping.  If  a  soap  is  deficient 
in  alkali  it  takes  a  greater  quantity  and  .longer  time  to  effect 
the  clearing  of  goods;  frequently  the  whites  are  left  dull,  and 
a  general  aspect  of  flatness  pervades  over  the  colors.  Such  a 
soap  is  improved  by  adding  eight  or  ten  ounces  of  soda  ash  to 
the  water  before  dissolving  the  soap  in  it.  An  alkaline  soap, 
on  the  contrary,  is  improved  by  the  addition  of  muriate  or 
oxymuriate  of  tin  in  small  quantity  to  the  water.  If  soap  made 
from  a  strong  smelling  oil  be  used  in  madder  work,  the  finished 
pieces  will  retain  the  smell  in  a  very  persistent  manner.  I 
made  a  large  quantity  of  soap  from  linseed  oil,  which  answered 
very  well,  but  was  objectionable  on  account  of  the  smell  of 
paint  which  the  pieces  emitted  when  kept  in  the  warehouse ; 
cod  oil  and  whale  oil  are  objectionable  on  the  same  account. 
As  a  rule,  any  smell  which  is  possessed  by  oil  applied  to  the 
pieces  is  retained  by  them,  and  especially  by  delaines  and 
woollens.  An  instance  came  under  my  notice  of  an  oil  intro- 
duced as  a  substitute  for  Gallipoli ;  I  examined  it  and  reported 
unfavorably  of  its  qualities — it  was  a  product  of  distillation, 
and  contained  many  bad  smelling  oils.  Its  cheapness  caused 
it  to  be  used,  however,  and  in  a  few  days  the  delaines  were 
complained  of  as  having  a  disagreeable  smell— they  were  re- 
turned from  the  warehouse  as  unsaleable.  There  was  no  clue 
to  the  cause  of  the  smell  ;  the  pieces  were  washed,  winced  and 
dashed,  without  removing  the  odor,  and  the  fault  was  variously 
laid  upon  the  gum,  the  water,  the  steaming,  and  the  drying. 
As  soon  as  the  pieces  were  submitted  to  me,  I  recognized  the 
odor  of  one  of  the  oils  separated  in  the  course  of  my  analysis 
of  the  new  oil.  Upon  inquiry  it  was  found  that  it  had  been 


408  SOAP. 

used  in  the   color  mixing;  Gallipoli    being   again    used,  the 
cause  of  complaint  disappeared. 

Soft  Soap. — Soft  soap  is  mostly  made  from  potash  instead  of 
soda ;  but  there  are  many  oils  which  give  soft  soaps  with  soda 
— the  fish  oils  particularly.  Soft  soap  is  commonly  a  stronger 
and  harsher  soap  than  the  hard  soaps.  Inferior  oils  are  mostly 
consumed  in  making  commercial  soft  soap,  but  very  fine  neu- 
tral soft  soaps  can  be  made  if  proper  care  is  taken,  and  suffi- 
ciently pure  materials  employed.  I  analyzed  a  very  good  soft 
soap  made  from  olive  oil.  It  answered  very  well  for  delaine 
bleaching,  but  was  expensive.  There  are  some  cases  where  a 
soft  soap  might  be  advantageous,  if  it  were  equally  as  good  as 
a  hard  soap.  Common  soft  soap  is  used  in  a  few  cases  of  color 
mixing ;  it  serves  to  dissolve  anotta,  and  to  make  some  resists. 
It  should  not  be  used  in  soaping  for  any  delicate  colors.  It 
may  be  employed  in  moderation  for  brightening  indigo  colors, 
as  China  blue.  The  quality  of  soft  soap  is  thought  to  depend 
in  some  measure  upon  the  existence  of  white  particles  diffused 
through  the  mass,  producing  the  appearance  called  "figgy," — 
but  this  is  no  real  test  of  its  quality  ;  first  rate  soaps  are  some- 
times quite  uniform',  and  the  figged  character  can  be  communi- 
cated to  an  article  of  an  inferior  nature,  containing  glue  and 
other  useless  matters. 

Substitutes  for  Soap. — Since  the  excise  duty  was  taken  off 
soap  a  vast  impetus  has  been  given  to  the  trade,  and  a  great 
number  of  patents  have  been  taken  out  for  adulterating  soap 
with  substances  more  or  less  hurtful  to  it.  The  result  is  the 
disappearance  of  soap,  properly  so  called,  from  ordinary  use, 
and  the  substitution  of  waxy  compounds  of  glue,  rosin,  ground 
bones,  gelatine,  earthy  matters,  and  similar  substances,  having 
but  little  soap  mixed  with  them.  Such  cheap  substitutes  as 
the  printer  or  dyer  is  likely  to  have  offered  to  him  will  be  of 
this  nature,  and  likely  to  prove  more  beneficial  to  the  maker 
than  the  consumer.  So  much  damage  can  be  done  by  the  use 
of  bad  soap  that  the  printer  ought  to  insist  upon  being  supplied 
with  a  soap  which  contains  nothing  but  water,  soda,  and  fat. 
Anything  else  will  be  only  an  addition  of  weight  without  value, 
and  likely  to  be  hurtful  and  useless.  I  have  made  many 
experiments  upon  substances  similar  to  soap,  with  a  view  to 
substituting  them  for  it,  but  with  no  notable  success ;  it  seems 
to  be  fatty  matter  which  is  wanted,  and  nothing  else  will  do  : 
even  a  small  percentage  of  rosin  appeared  to  be  hurtful.  I 
found  that  animal  black  could  be  made  to  clear  the  whites  of 
madder  work,  but  it  left  the  colors  very  dull  and  poor,  and 
even  soaping  afterwards  would  not  restore  them  to  a  proper 
shade.  All  alkaline  substances,  as  the  carbonates  of  potash 


SODA   AND   ITS  SALTS.  409 

and  soda,  ammonia,  the  alkaline  borates,  silicates,  and  phos- 
phates, give  bad  and  worthless  results  without  soap.  The  only 
way  in  which  soap  can  be  saved  with  advantage  to  the  work  is 
in  adding  a  little  soda  ash  to  the  water  in  the  beck  if  the  water 
is  hard.  Sometimes  a  beckful  of  water  will  destroy  a  pound 
or  more  of  soap  in  precipitating  the  lime;  eight  or  ten  ounces 
of  soda  ash,  added  before  the  soap  goes  into  the  beck,  will  fre- 
quently save  this. 

Analysis  of  Soap. — The  usual  test  for  soap  is  to  try  it  upon 
madder  work  comparatively  with  a  good  quality.  With  care, 
good  results  may  be  obtained  upon  small  quantities  of  soap — say 
half  an  ounce — but  when  a  sufficient  quantity  of  material  is  at 
disposal  the  trial  should  be  on  the  large  scale.  The  following 
method  may  be  pursued  in  the  analysis  of  soap — it.  gives  suffi- 
ciently close  results  for  technical  purposes,  and  does  not  take 
much  time.  In  all  genuine  samples  of  soaps  there  will  be 
nothing  but  water,  fatty  matters,  and  alkali.  The  water  can  be 
determined  by  taking  100  grains  of  the  soap  and  heating  it  in 
a  porcelain  dish,  with  a  gentle  heat,  until  all  the  water  is  dissi- 
pated ;  the  heat  may  be  pushed  as  high  as  260°  F.,  or  until  the 
dry  soap  begins  to  exhale  an  odor  of  fatty  matter  ;  this  will  take 
place  about  fifteen  minutes,  and  give  more  exact  results  than  a 
water  bath  or  oil  bath,  which  would  require  as  many  hours. 
For  the  determination  of  the  alkali  another  hundred  grains  may 
be  dissolved  in  about  three  ounces  of  water,  and  an  excess  of 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  of  a  known  strength,  added  to  it ;  there 
should  be  about  twice  as  much  acid  added  as  would  be  neces- 
sary to  wholly  decompose  the  soap.  The  solution  containing 
the  liberated  fatty  matter  must  be  kept  hot  until  all  milkiness 
has  disappeared,  and  the  oil  floats  clearly  upon  the  top ;  then 
a  weighed  quantity  of  pure  beeswax  (about  fifty  grains)  is  added 
to  the  solution,  and  all  kept  hot  until  the  wax  is  completely 
incorporated  with  the  fatty  matter ;  the  whole  is  then  allowed 
to  cool.  Upon  cooling,  the  wax  solidifies  along  with  the  fatty 
matter,  forming  a  well-cohering  cake,  which  may  be  removed 
from  thp  liquid,  washed  with  a  little  water,  and  the  washings 
added  |to  the  original  solution,  then  carefully  dried  and  weighed. 
The  e/cess  of  weight  above  that  of  the  beeswax  employed  is 
the  q'.antity  of  fatty  matter  present.  A  gradual  alkaline  solu- 
tioi^fis  then  added  to  the  first  liquid  until  it  is  neutral ;  it  is 
Jprfnd  how  much  of  the  acid  first  used  was  neutralized,  and  the 
amount  of  alkali  calculated  from  that. 

Soda  and  its  Salts.  — Caustic  soda  is  prepared  exactly  in 
.the  same  manner  as  caustic  potash,  and  possesses  properties 
which  are  very  similar  to  it.     Caustic  soda  is  sold  either  solid 
or  in  solution;  the  manufacture  of  solid  caustic  soda  upoa  the 
27 


410 


SODA    AND   ITS   SALTS. 


large  scale  is  of  very  recent  introduction.  The  product  sent 
out  by  some  of  the  large  firms  appears  perfectly  well  suited  to 
the  wants  of  a  dye  or  print  works.  Liquid  caustic  soda  is  sold 
in  carboys  at  a  strength  of  about  60°  Tw.  The  following  table 
shows  the  percentage  amount  of  real  dry  caustic  soda  in  100 
parts  by  weight  of  the  liquid  at  different  strengths  of  Tw. : — 


Twaddle. 

Dry  Soda.                        Twaddle. 

Dry  Soda. 

66 

23 

40 

13 

63 

22 

34 

IH 

60 

20£ 

29 

10 

56 

19 

24 

8 

53 

17J 

19 

H 

50 

16 

14 

5 

45 

M* 

10 

8* 

The  uses  of  caustic  soda  are  very  numerous,  being  cheaper  than 
potash  ;  it  is  used  whenever  a  strong  alkali  is  required,  whether 
for  raising  colors,  scouring,  soap  making,  neutralizing  acids,  or 
dissolving  coloring  matters. 

Soda  Ash. — Soda  ash,  which  is  extensively  used  in  bleaching, 
is  an  impure  carbonate  of  soda.  Its  whole  value  rests  upon 
the  amount  of  pure  carbonate  it  contains.  It  should  be  quite 
soluble  in  water,  of  a  good  color  when  opened,  and  not  inclined 
to  change  by  exposure  to  the  air.  Soda  ash  which  goes  yellow 
usually  contains  some  sulphuretted  compounds.  For  bleaching, 
an  ash  of  a  bluish  tint  is  preferred.  There  is  a  difference  of 
opinion  amongst  bleachers  as  to  whether  a  soda  ash  for  bleach- 
ing should  or  should  not  contain  soda  in  the  caustic  state.  It 
is  quite  certain  that  even  pure  caustic  soda  can  be  used  safely 
in  bleaching,  but  at  the  same  time  it  seems  proved  that  caustic 
soda  does  sometimes  weaken  cotton  in  a  very  remarkable  man- 
ner ;  what  the  conditions  of  this  apparently  contradictory 
behavior  of  the  fibre  may  be  due  to  is  not  clearly  known,  but 
it  is  evident  that  caution  must  be  used  in  employing  a  caustic 
kind  of  soda  ash.  Some  samples  of  soda  ash  contain  12  to  15 
per  cent,  caustic  soda,  and  must  assuredly  behave  very  differ- 
ently to  soda  ash  which  does  not  contain  any.  Soda  ash  is  sold 
at  different  prices  according  to  the  percentage  of  real  soda 
contained  in  it;  soda  ash  for  bleachers  and  printers'  purposes 
should  be  48  per  cent,  at  least ;  if  the  strength  is  lower  than 
this,  the  amount  of  common  salt  and  sulphate  of  soda  is  likely 
to  prove  embarrassing  in  some  operations. 

Crystals  of  Soda. — Crystals  of  soda  are  made  from  soda  ash, 
and  are  a  compound  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda  and  water.  In 
round  numbers,  three  pounds  of  crystals  contain  two  pounds 


SORGHO  RED— SPINEL  MORDANT.  411 

of  water  and  one  pound  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda.  In  most 
cases  the  carbonate  of  soda  in  the  crystals  is  less  contaminated 
with  other  salts  than  is  the  case  in  soda  ash,  and  it  should, 
consequently,  be  preferred  in  all  delicate  operations.  In  a  warm 
dry  situation  the  crystals  lose  water,  becoming  white  externally  ; 
they  are  not  chemically  changed  or  injured,  as  is  vulgarly  sup- 
posed, but  really  improved,  because  a  given  weight  contains 
more  of  the  alkali  than  previously.  Carbonate  of  potash  may 
be  distinguished  from  carbonate  of  soda  by  the  property  which" 
'the  former  has  of  absorbing  moisture  from  the  air,  becoming 
damp  ;  crystallized  carbonate  of  soda  has  the  opposite  tendency, 
to  give  up  its  water  to  the  atmosphere. 

Bicarbonate  of  Soda. — This  salt  differs  from  simple  carbonate 
of  soda  by  containing  twice  as  much  carbonic  acid.  It  is  a 
milder  alkali,  and  on  that  account  receives  a  few  applications 
in  dyeing,  where  the  more  energetic  carbonate  might  be  hurt- 
ful. Genuine  bicarbonate  of  soda  is  a  nearly  pure  salt,  and 
when  made  red  hot,  to  expel  its  water  equivalent  of  carbonic 
acid,  leaves  pure  carbonate  of  soda  used  for  analytical  purposes. 

Sulphate  of  Soda. — This  salt,  commonly  known  as  Glauber's 
salts  in  the  crystallized  state,  and  as  salt  cake  in  the  anhydrous 
condition,  is  employed  in  calico  printing  to  fix  lead  mordants 
preparatory  to  dyeing  them  orange  or  yellow.  The  only 
impurity  likely  to  be  injurious  in  sulphate  of  soda  is  sulphate 
of  iron,  which  I  have  known  to  spoil  work.  It  can  be  detected 
by  the  usual  tests  for  iron.  By  dissolving  such  impure  sulphate 
of  soda  in  hot  water,  and  adding  carbonate  of  soda,  all  the  iron 
may  be  precipitated,  and  a  pure  sulphate  obtained. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  is  sometimes  prescribed  in  color  mixing;  its 
utility  appears  to  be  owing  to  its  possessing  feeble  deliquescent 
properties  by  which  it  is  enabled  to  draw  moisture  from  the 
air ;  and  so  keep  the  color  it  is  mixed  with  soft. 

Common  Salt,  commonly  known  as  chloride  of  sodium  or 
muriate  of  soda,  is  also  sometimes  used  in  color  mixing  on 
account  of  its  deliquescent  properties. 

Sorgho  Red. — A  new  kind  of  red  to  which  attention  has 
been  drawn  ;  extracted  from  sorghum  saccharatum,  or  Chinese 
sugar-cane,  said  to  dye  good  and  durable  colors  upon  wool  and 
silk ;  a  tin  mordant  being  used.  From  the  nature  of  the 
reports  available  it  does  not  seem  likely  to  be  of  any  import- 
ance in  dyeing. 

Spinel  Mordant.— A  name  given  to  a  combination  of  alu- 
mina and  magnesia,  which  Wagner  recommends  as  a  mordant 
preferable  to  alumina  alone.  He  appears  to  have  derived  the 
idea  from  the  analysis  of  the  Indian  yellow  (see  EUXANTHIO 


412  SPIRIT   COLORS — STARCH. 

ACID),  in  .which  alumina  and  magnesia  exist  in  single  atoms, 
and  because  this  is  also  the  composition  of  the  mineral  called 
spinel,  he  gave  this  name  to  it.  There  are  no  accounts  of  this 
compound  mordant  having  been  practically  employed. 

Spirit  Colors,  Coukurs  cT  Application. — Several  spirit  color 
receipts  have  been  given  in  the  preceding  pages ;  the  name  is 
derived  from  the  use  of  the  oxymuriate  of  tin,  or  tin  spirits, 
in  their  composition.  They  are  low-class  colors  and  possess 
very  little  durability  ;  on  account  of  the  excessive  acidity  of 
the  colors  they  will  not  stand  steaming,  and  the  process  of 
fixing  simply  consists  in  hanging  the  pieces  for  three  or  four 
days  in  a  cool  place,  and  washing  out  the  excess  of  tin,  and 
thickening  by  passing  gently  through  cold  water. 

Stannate,  Stannic  Acid. — A  term  derived  from  stannum,  the 
Latin  name  for  tin.  The  only  stannate  in  use,  is  the  stannate 
of  soda,  extensively  used  as  a  prepare  for  steam  colors.  (See 
TIN  arid  PREPARING.) 

Starch. — Starch  is  a  widely-diffused  vegetable  product ;  it 
exists  in  a  vast  number  of  plants,  fruits,  and  trees,  and  seems 
to  be  one  of  the  fundamental  bodies  of  organic  life.  Its  com- 
position is  very  similar  to  that  of  sugar,  being  a  compound  of 
carbon  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  in  the  proportions  requisite 
to  form  water.  It  is  extensively  used  in  printing  and  finish- 
ing, but  does  not  in  either  case  exercise  any  actions  of  a  purely 
chemical  nature ;  as  a  thickening  it  is  only  a  vehicle  for  con- 
veying the  color  or  the  mordant  to  the  fibre ;  as  a  finish  it  is 
only  to  give  stiffness  or  fulness  to  the  cloth.  But  its  actions 
in  many  cases  involve  the  play  of  chemical  affinities,  and 
should  be  minutely  known.  Pure  wheaten  starch,  when  closely 
examined  under  the  microscope,  is  found  to  be  composed  of 
very  small  globules.  In  commerce  it  is  found  in  a  peculiar 
state  of  aggregation,  incorrectly  said  to  be  crystallized ;  the 
quality  of  the  starch  is  often  judged  and  determined  by  the 
appearance  of  these  columnar  masses  called  crystals.  No 
other  starch  but  that  from  wheat  takes  the  same  form  in  dry- 
ing. It  is  not  prudent,  however,  to  depend  too  much  upon  this 
as  a  test ;  for  I  believe  the  crystalline  character  can  be  com- 
municated to  other  starches,  and  that  it  is  not  an  essential  char- 
acter of  wheaten  starch,  but  rather  an  accidental  one,  due  to  a 
partial  decomposition  and  breaking  up  of  some  of  the  globules, 
which  communicate  a  gummy  nature  and  adhesive  character  to 
the  remainder,  or  to  a  residue  of  unremoved  glutinous  matters. 
Starch  does  not  dissolve  at  all  in  pure  water  when  cold,  it 
mixes  up,  but  then  settles  down,  leaving  the  liquid  clear;  it 
dissolves  in  hot  water,  swelling  out  to  a  great  extent ;  it  begins 
to  dissolve,  or  the  particles  to  burst,  at  about  150°  F.,  but  color 


STARCH.  413 

cannot  be  well  thickened  at  this  heat,  it  must  be  boiled  to  get  a 
good  result.  Starch  boiled  with  acids  or  acid  liquors  thickens 
at  first  but  afterwards  becomes  thin,  owing  to  the  destruction 
of  the  starch  and  its  conversion  into  sugar ;  colors  should  not 
therefore,  as  a  general  rule,  be  boiled  until  they  begin  to  grow 
thin  again— although  in  special  cases  this  is  prescrfbed,  and  is 
an  advantage,  but  it  is  usually  unnecessary,  and  likely  to  injure 
the  color. 

A  good  wheaten  starch  is  white  and  clear,  has  a  sweet  taste 
on  the  tongue,  or  at  least  an  absence  of  bad  taste,  and,  before 
dissolving  in  the  mouth,  shows  an  adhesiveness  to  the  tongue; 
when  mixed  with  water  it  should  give  a  white  milky  fluid, 
without  any  particles  of  dirt  floating  on  the  top,  and  should 
settle  down  quickly,  forming  a  solid  hard  mass  at  the  bottom 
of  the  fluid.  As  a  trial  for  its  thickening  powers  a  quantity 
may  be  boiled  with  water  in  the  usual  manner;  two  proportions 
should  be  taken,  one  thicker  than  is  generally  required,  and 
another  thinner — for  instance,  one  trial  at  one  pound  to  the 
gallon,  and  another  at  two  pounds  per  gallon,  and  both  boiled 
with  the  usual  precautions.  The  manner  in  which  it  behaves 
on  boiling,  as  well  as  its  appearance  when  boiled,  should  be 
observed.  A  good  starch  will  thicken  gradually  and  evenly 
throughout,  not  in  lumps;  it  will  keep  smooth  all  the  time 
with  only  a  moderate  amount  of  stirring,  and  when  boiled  will 
be  of  a  clear,  transparent,  gelatinous  appearance— not  milky 
and  opaque,  nor  breaking  off  short  when  lifted  with  a  stick. 
At  two  pounds  per  gallon  it  ought  to  be  pretty  stiff  while  hot, 
to  pour  out  slowly,  and  for  the  most  part  adhere  to  the  sides 
of  a  gallon  mug,  when  this  is  inverted  for  a  short  time  ;  at 
one  pound  per  gallon  it  should  flow  smooth  and  oily,  without 
appearance  of  water  or  breaks  in  it.  When  cold,  the  thick 
trial  should  be  very  stiff,  and  feel  tough  and  solid  in  the  hand  ; 
the  skin  should  be  of  a  tough  leathery  nature,  and  no  water 
should  be  floating  about — it  will  not  be  so  clear  as  when  hot, 
but  still  should  be  partially  transparent;  the  thinner  trial 
should  be  also  of  increased  consistence,  and  not  show  any  water ; 
it  should  be  smooth,  and  not  containing  lumps.  There  are 
besides  these  characters  a  great  number  of  others,  too  minute 
to  record,  which  are  combined  in  forming  the  opinion  as  to  the 
quality  of  a  sample  of  starch.  It  is  a  practical  question,  and 
nothing  but  a  number  of  trials,  upon  all  kinds  of  starches,  will 
enable  any  one  to  form  a  correct  opinion  upon  this  matter. 

Starch  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  mineral  substances,  as 
gypsum,  sulphate  of  baryta,  or  mineral  white,  China  clay,  etc. 
The  existence  of  these  substances  makes  a  starch  boil  rough 
and  opaque :  they  can  be  discovered  by  burning  some  of  the 


414  STEAM   COLORS. 

starch  in  a  proper  manner — if  much  earthy  matter  be  left  as  a 
residue,  it  will  be  a  sign  of  adulteration.  It  is  sometimes  un- 
derstood that  starch  for  finishing  contains  mineral  matters,  and 
a  proportionable  reduction  in  price  is  made,  but  oftener  there  is 
only  one  party  cognizant  of  it ;  at  any  rate,  a  starch  containing 
added  mineral  matter  ought  not  to  be  used  in  mixing  colors, 
however  good  it  may  be  as  a  finishing  starch.  Inferior  quali- 
ties of  starch,  under  the  names  of  seconds,  slimes,  and  hair 
powder  starch,  are  extensively  used  in  the  trade,  and  may  be 
economically  and  easily  employed  in  numerous  cases;  for  it  is 
not  necessary,  in  making  colors,  that  a  starch  as  pure  as  is  re- 
quired for  domestic  purposes  should  be  used;  what  is  required 
is  a  good  sound  article,  free  from  adulteration,  not  injured  by 
acids  or  fermentation,  and,  if  otherwise  good,  it  does  not  matter 
whether  it  be  in  powder  or  in  crystal,  perfect  white  or  a  little 
grayish.  Starch  is  sometimes  injured  by  some  of  the  gluten  of 
the  flour  being  left  in  it.  Such  a  starch  does  not  keep  well, 
soon  goes  watery,  or  putrefies,  emitting  bad  smells.  By  scat- 
tering a  little  of  this  kind  of  starch  upon  a  red.hot  iron  plate 
the  gluten  makes  itself  apparent,  by  giving  off  a  disagreeable 
animal  smell,  like  burning  woollen,  or  leather,  or  the  hoofs  of 
horses.  This  kind  of  starch  has  never  a  good  color,  and,  if  in 
crystals,  has  a  flinty  hardness.  Good  starch  does  not  contain 
more  than  ten  or  fifteen  per  cent,  of  water  ;  the  latter  is  the 
largest  quantity  it  should  lose  in  drying,  at  moderate  tempera- 
tures. 

There  are  other  kinds  of  starchy  substances  in  occasional 
use  for  printing  and  finishing  which  deserve  a  notice,  as  potato 
starch  or  farina,  rice  starch,  and  sago  flour — which  is  not  a  flour 
at  all,  but  nearly  pure  starch. 

Sago  Flour. — When  this  is  purified  from  chips,  leaves,  dirt, 
and  coloring  matter,  it  can  be  advantageously  used  in  finishing, 
as  a  partial  substitute  for  the  more  expensive  wheaten  starch. 
It  works  up  softer  as  a  paste  than  farina,  and  I  think  could  be 
used  in  color  mixing  with  safety  and  economy.  It  serves  to 
make  gum  from. 

Rice  Flour  Starch. —  This  has  been  employed  in  finishing  and 
thickening,  but  not  to  any  considerable  extent  I  believe.  It  is 
more  used  in  finishing  than  as  a  thickener.  It  is  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  artificial  gums. 

Steam  Colors, — Colors  which  are  developed  and  fixed  by 
steam.  The  method  of  fixing  colors  by  steaming  seems  to  have 
been  arrived  at  by  slow  degrees,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  name  a 
date  at  which  it  was  introduced.  The  French  admit  that  the 
first  experiments  in  this  direction  were  English,  but  claim  for 
themselves  the  practical  application  of  steam  colors  as  a  style. 


STEAM   COLORS.  415 

Nothing  now  seems  more  natural  than  that  printers  should 
have  tried  to  apply  the  dyers'  ingredients  in  a  more  concentra- 
ted state  to  cloth,  and  then  submitted  the  colors  to  heat.  In 
fact,  the  experiment  was  often 'tried,  but  always,  at  first,  with 
dry  heat;  the  pieces  were  hung  up  in  stoves  heated  by  red-hot 
flues,  or  the  printed  pieces  were  passed  over  hot  callenders,  or 
even  pressed  with  a  kind  of  smoothing-iron  made  hot.  The 
results,  of  course,  were  unsatisfactory,  and  it  is  easy  to  point 
out  now  that  the  absence  of  moisture  and  the  inequality  of 
the  heat  were  sufficient  causes  of  failure.  Upon  seeing  the 
process  of  steaming  colors  for  the  first  time,  every  one  who  has 
not  had  occasion  to  study  the  matter  expresses  surprise  that 
the  pieces  are  not  wet  and  the  colors  do  not  run  into  one  ano- 
ther. There  is  no  doubt  that  if  ever  it  occurred  to  the  earlier 
printers  to  use  steam  as  it  is  now  used,  they  would  be  deterred 
from  the  experiment  by  the  mistaken  apprehension  of  the  steam 
wetting  the  cloth  and  causing  the  running  of  the  colors.  As 
an  illustration  and  to  show  that  an  ingenious  experimentalist 
had  some  s^uch  idea,  we  may  quote  an  experiment  recorded  by 
Dr.  Bancroft ;  on  his  researches  upon  quercitron  bark,  shortly 
before  the  close  of  the  last  century,  the  idea  of  fixing  the  color 
by  the  heat  of  steam  occurred  to  him,  and  he  printed  some 
calico  with  a  mixture  of  tin  salt,  bark  liquor,  and  gum,  dried 
it,  and  having  wrapped  it  up  in  soft  paper  so  as  to  prevent 
marking  off,  he  put  it  into  a  bag  made  of  stout  drill  which  he 
had  carefully  saturated  with  wax,  so  that  no  steam  might  get 
into  it,  and  tied  and  waxed  it  up  and  then  suspended  it  up  in 
steam.  He  was  partially  successful,  but  of  course  he  would 
have  been  more  successful  if  he  had  not  taken  such  excessive 
pains  to  keep  the  steam  from  touching  his  printed  calico.  It 
does  not  appear  that  stearn  colors  were  much  worked  until 
about  the  year  1830. 

The  steam  has  no  other  action  than  that  which  is  due  to  its 
heat  and  the  presence  of  an  atmosphere  more  or  less  saturated 
with  moisture;  the  special  systems  of  steaming  which  are  in 
use  owe  their  adoption  to  differences  in  styles  or  manners  of 
working  which  it  is  impossible  to  treat  in  a  satisfactory  man- 
ner, depending  as  these  differences  do  upon  very  minute  points 
of  detail.  In  some  print  works  it  is  thought  necessary  to  hang 
the  pieces  twenty-four  hours  in  a  cool  place  before  steaming; 
in  others,  the  pieces,  hard  and  dry,  are  taken  direct  from  the 
printing  machine  to  be  steamed.  In  some  places  the  steam  is 
used  dry,  in  others  it  is  used  very  damp;  evidently  the  nature 
of  the  thickening  and  the  previous  state  of  the  cloth  as  well 
as  the  quality  of  the  colors  must  here  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion. Again,  one  house  steams  half  an  hour,  'takes  out,  airs 


416  SUBSTANTIVE   COLORS — SUGAR. 

and  steams  again  for  another  half  hour,  while  another  establish- 
ment steams  for  an  hour  at  once.  In  one  works  the  column 
alone  can  be  satisfactorily  used,  in  another  the  same  class  of 
work  is  found  to  be  best  done  in  the  ordinary  kennel.  The 
conditions  necessary  to  success  in  steaming  are,  consequently, 
not  definable  without  an 'exact  acquaintance  with  all  the  con- 
necting circumstances.  Some  general  principles,  however,  may 
be  laid  down.  There  must  be  as  much  free  moisture  either  in 
the  steam  or  in  the  cloth  as  will  suffice  at  least  to  take  the  hard- 
ness out  of  the  cloth  ;  if  the  pieces  come  off  the  steam  deci- 
dedly dry  there  will  be  irregularity,  except  in  light  work;  there 
must  be  sufficient  steam  to  keep  a  good  volume  passing  away  ; 
this  is  necessary  to  remove  all  free  acids  vapors,  which,  if 
allowed  to  collect  in  the  chambers,  may  injure  the  lighter  colors, 
or  the  cloth  itself.  The  damper  the  steam  the  sooner  will  the 
steaming  be  done,  but  (not  to  speak  of  steam  so  wet  as  to  cause 
the  colors  to  run),  steam  which  is  too  damp  causes  the  colors 
to  sink  too  far  into  the  cloth,  and  takes  the  bloom  off  them. 
The  more  quickly  the  steaming  can  be  fairly  accomplished  the 
better  the  result,  and  this  in  ratio  with  the  dampness  of  the 
steam,  which  should,  consequently,  be  so  regulated  as  to  hit  the 
medium  condition  as  nearly  as  possible. 

Substantive  Colors, — A  term  first  employed  by  Bancroft 
to  indicate  those  colors  produced  by  coloring  matters  which 
fixed  upon  fabrics  without  the  necessity  of  a  mordant.  Thus 
indigo,  turmeric,  and  safflower,  are  vegetable  substantive  colors, 
and  iron  buff  and  lead  puce  are  mineral  substantive  colors. 

Sugar. — Sugar  is  only  sparingly  employed  in  printing;  as 
mentioned  under  chromium,  it  is  used  to  reduce  the  chromic 
acid  in  forming  some  chrome  shades.  But,  though  it  is  not 
directly  employed,  it  is  often  present  in  cases  where  it  is 
not  suspected,  and  exercising  such  chemical  actions  as  it 
possesses.  A  kind  of  sugar,  known  as  grape  sugar,  from 
having  the  same  composition  as  the  natural  sugar  existing 
in  grapes,  is  easily  formed  from  vegetable  substances  by  the 
action  of  acids ;  and  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that 
saccharine  matters  exist  in  colors,  produced  from  the  pro- 
longed action  of  acid  and  heat  upon  the  thickening.  A  species 
of  sugar  is  found  in  madder  roots,  and  also  in  some  varieties 
of  artificial  gums,  particularly  the  light-colored  gums,  made 
by  the  action  of  acids.  The  presence  of  sugar  is  injurious  to 
the  fixing  of  mordants ;  saccharine  matter  acts,  like  many 
soluble  organic  substances,  as  if  it  suspended  the  chemical 
properties  of  the  salts  with  which  it  is  in  contact,  especially  in 
metallic  salts.  I  thickened  some  iron  liquor  with  molasses,  and 
different  mixtures  of  gum  and  molasses;  the  colors  printed 


SULPHUR.  417 

well,  but  when  hung  up  to  age  became  sticky  and  damp,  espe- 
cially the  one  which  had  no  other  thickening  but  the  molasses- 
when  dunged  and  dyed,  it  was  found  that  the  molasses  in  the 
pure  state*  had  entirely  prevented  the  fixation  of  the  iron 
The  outline  of  the  pattern  could  be  just  discerned  in  certain 
lights ;  the  others  were  bad  in  proportion  as  they  contained 
more  or  less  molasses.  The  influence  of  saccharine  matter  in 
dyeing  is  not  so  marked;  it  does  not  produce  any  visible 
effect  unless  in  excessive  quantity. 

The  kind  of  sugar  which  is  made  by  boiling  weak  sulphuric 
acid  with  potato  starch,  and  which  is  known  as  glucose,  or 
grape  sugar,  possesses  powerful  reducing  properties^  has 
been  long  known  that  it  would  dissolve  indigo  in  contact  with 
alkali,  as  orpiment  or  protosalts  of  tin  do,  making  a  kind  of 
pencil  blue.  A  patent  has  been  recently  taken  for  a  new 
method  of  fixing  indigo  by  means  of  glucose,  or  grape  sugar 
(see  GLUCOSE);  the  indigo,  finely  powdered,  being  mixed  with 
the  alkali,  and  the  glucose,  printed  and  steamed.  An  appli- 
cation of  the  same  glucose  is  mentioned  under  COPPER.  It 
seems  probable  that  this  substance,  at  present  almost  unknown 
in  printworks,  may  turn  out  useful  in  some  cases,  when  prac- 
tical men  are  more  familiar  with  its  properties,  and  probably 
serve  some  useful  purpose  in  the  direction  of  indigo  colors. 

Sulphur.— Sulphur  is  found  in  the  market  in  three  states, 
as  flour  of  brimstone,  which  is  the  purest  quality;  roll  sul- 
phur, the  second  quality ;  and  the  crude  sulphur,  as  it  is 
imported.  The  only  use  to  which  sulphur  is  applied  in  the 
arts  we  are  treating  of  is  in  the  bleaching  of  woollen  goods  or 
delaines;  for  this  purpose  the  crude  sulphur  answers  suffi- 
ciently well.  Sulphur  does  not  dissolve  in  water,  but  it  is  dis- 
solved by  slacked  lime  and  water,  and  by  caustic  potash  and 
soda,  with  boiling,  producing  compounds  called  sulphides  or 
sulphurets,  which  were  formerly  used  in  bleaching,  but  have 
been  long  in  disuse.  Sulphur  enters  into  the  composition  of 
wool  and  some  other  animal  fibres,  producing  special  pheno- 
mena with  some  colors.  In  the  author's  opinion  the  greater 
affinity  of  the  animal  fabrics  for  certain  colors  is  in  some  way 
connected  with  the  presence  of  sulphur  in  them,  if  they  are 
deprived  of  their  sulphur  they  are  usually  incapable  of  receiv- 
ing good  colors.  Various  attempts  made  to  incorporate  sul- 
phur artificially  in  vegetable  fabrics  have  been  unsuccessful, 
no  improvement  having  been  obtained.  A  good  quality  of 
sulphur  is  known  by  its  burning  freely,  and  not  leaving  much 
residue  unburnt.  The  actual  test  for  the  quality  of  sulphur  is 
to  burn  a  certain  quantity  and  observe  the  weight  of  incom- 
bustible matter  remaining.  Roll  brimstone  does  not  leave  one 


418  SULPHURIC  ACID. 

per  cent,  of  unburnt  matters;  crude  brimstone  leaves  more, 
according  to  its  degree  of  cleanness;  that  quality  is  to  be 
chosen  which  leaves  the  least  residue. 

Sulphuric  Acid,  or  Oil  of  Vitriol. — There  are  tfrree  varie- 
ties of  sulphuric  acid  to  be  met  with,  the  Nordhausen  or  fuming 
sulphuric  acid ;  rectified  sulphuric  acid  or  'ordinary  oil  of 
vitriol;  and  unrectified  sulphuric  acid,  of  a  dark  color,  known 
as  brown  vitriol.  The  Nordhausen  sulphuric  acid  is  seldom 
seen  in  England,  it  is  prepared  by  distilling  calcined  sulphate 
of  iron ;  its  manufacture  is  confined  to  a  few  places  on  the 
continent.  It  is  the  strongest  form  of  sulphuric  acid,  fumes 
in  dan^  air  like  muriatic  acid,  whence  it  is  called  fuming  or 
smoking  oil  of  vitriol.  It  is  said  to  be  better  for  making  sul- 
phate of  indigo  than  any  of  the  other  acids,  producing  a  blue 
of  a  rich  purplish  shade.  Whether  this  is  really  the  case  or 
not  is  doubtful;  a  couple  of  samples  of  Nordhausen  acid  that 
I  experimented  with  did  not  show  any  advantage  over  concen- 
trated English  vitriol. 

The  rectified  sulphuric  aeid  is  extensively  used  in  bleach- 
ing, and  also  in  dyeing  and  printing;  its  uses  are  too  familiar 
to  require  enumerating.  '  When  at  its  greatest  strength  it 
marks  from  169°  to  170°  Tw.,  it  should  not  be  below  166°. 
It  is  extremely  corrosive,  disorganizing  vegetable  textures  and 
organic  compounds  with  great  force.  This  it  is  supposed  to 
accomplish  by  means  of  its  great  affinity  for  water,  which 
causes  it  to  take  the  elements  oxygen1  and  hydrogen  from  com- 
pounds containing  them.  There  are  some  organic  substances 
which  resist  the  destructive  action  of  this  acid  in  a  remarkable 
manner,  amongst  these  are  many  of  the  pure  coloring  matters, 
especially  alizarine,  the  coloring  matter  of  madder.  When 
sulphuric  acid  is  diluted  with  water  its  corrosiveness  is  sus- 
pended; for  example,  cotton  cloth  may  be  kept  in  dilute  acid 
for  a  long  period  without  injury  to  its  strength.  But  if  a  piece 
of  calico  were  steepBd  in  dilute  acid,  and  then  exposed  to  the 
air,  the  water  would  evaporate  until  the  acid  in  the  fibres 
became  concentrated  enough  to  disorganize  them.  Concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid  withdraws  moisture  from  the  air,  and 
should  therefore  be  kept  in  covered  vessels. 

Brown  vitriol,  or  unrectified  sulphuric  acid,  is  not  so  strong 
a's  the  rectified,  and  is  colored;  there  is  no  reason  why  it 
should  otherwise  differ  from  the  stronger  sulphuric  acid,  but 
in  manufactories  where  both  qualities  are  produced  it  will 
usually  happen  that  it  is  inferior  in  purity.  Brown  vitriol  is 
usually  sold  at  150°  Tw.,  and  in  point  of  acidity  is  about  15 
per  cent,  in  value  below  rectified  vitriol;  it  is  not  worth  pur- 
chasing unless  it  is  20  per  cent,  cheaper  than  the  latter.  For 


SULPHURIC  ACID.  419 

all  purposes  where  great  purity  or  the  highest  degree  of  con- 
centration is  not  an  object,  it  can  be  used  with  advantage. 
Brown  vitriol  freezes  at  about  the  same  temperature,  as  water, 
while  the  strongest  vitriol  requires  a  much  lower  temperature, 
and  is  hardly  ever  frozen  in  England.  The  freezing  of  brown 
vitriol  is  rather  common  and  sometimes  productive  of  serious 
accidents ;  it  does  not  freeze  wholly,  but  at  the  bottom  of  the 
carboy,  as  if  it  were  a  crystallization;  upon  the  tilting  up 
the  carboy  the  solidified  mass  falls  against  the  neck  and  may 
break  it,  scattering  the  still  fluid  acid  around.  If  this  solidifi- 
cation is  detected,  the  carboys  should  be  placed  in  a  warm 
situation  in  warm  water;  it  is  not  prudent  to  pour  warm  water 
into  the  carboys.  I  am  informed  that  a  very  little  water  added 
to  brown  vitriol  effectually  prevents  the  soldification  by  cold; 
if  the  water  present  be  more  than  is  necessary  to  form  the 
deuto-hydrate,  no  freezing  takes  place. 

Impurities,  Analysis,  &c. — Sulphuric  acid  may  contain  several 
impurities  detrimental  to  its  use  in  the  arts.  It  may  contain 
lead  and  arsenic,  which,  though  poisonous,  are  not  likely  to  do 
any  injury  in  its  applications  in  printing  or  dyeing.  It  may 
contain  some  of  the  gas,  bioxide  of  nitrogen,  which  has  been 
known  to  injure  colors.  This  gas,  which  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  acid,  can  be  largely  absorbed  by  it  in  the  con- 
centrated state;  if  there  is  much  present  it  can  be  detected  by 
mixing  a  pint  or  so  of  the  acid  in  question  with  an  equal  bulk 
of  water,  when  the  peculiar  smell  of  nitrous  acid  will  be  per- 
ceived. A  more  delicate  test  is  to  pour  some  of  the  suspected 
acid  upon  clean  crystals  of  sulphate  of  iron;  a  pink  coloration, 
deepening  to  claret  and  brown,  will  take  place  if  any  of  the 
nitrous  compound  be  present.  Acid  containing  this  compound 
should  not  be  employed  in  garancine  making,  it  destroys 
coloring  matter;  such  an  impure  acid  has  been  known  to  com- 
pletely discharge  a  delicate  cochineal  pink  on  silk,  which  was 
being  passed  in  it  to  brighten  it.  A  solution  of  ammoniacal 
cochineal  is  proposed  as  a  test  for  this  nitrous  sulphuric  acid, 
but  it  is  not  as  good  as  the  sulphate  of  iron  test.  Some 
manufactures  add  the  contents  of  their  nitre  pots  to  the  brown 
vitriol;  so  that  sulphate  of  soda  may  be  looked  for.  In  all 
ordinary  cases  the  hydrometer  is  a  sufficient  test  for  the  good- 
ness of  sulphuric  acid.  I  subjoin  an  abridgment  of  Dr.  lire's 
table  of  the  strength  of  sulphuric  acid  at  different  densities:— 


420 


SULPHUROUS   ACID. 


Degree  Twaddle. 

Strong  sulphuric 

Degree  Twaddle. 

Strong  Sulphuric  acid, 

acid,  per  cent. 

per  cent. 

1700 

100 

600 

40 

162 

90 

43 

30 

140 

80 

28 

20 

120 

70 

13 

10 

97 

60 

5 

4 

77* 

50 

3 

2 

For  exact  purposes  the  sulphuric  acid  would  be  estimated  by 
the  amount  of  alkali  it  would  neutralize,  or  by  the  weight  of 
sulphate  of  baryta  produced  by  a  given  quantity  of  it.  The 
compounds  of  sulphuric  acid  with  the  metals  are  called  sul- 
phates. 

Sulphurous  Acid. — When  sulphur  burns  in  the  air  it 
produces  sulphurous  acid  gas.  It  is  this  acid  gas  which  is  the 
bleaching  agent  in  all  cases  where  sulphur  is  used  for  bleaching 
woollen,  silk,  or  straw.  This  gas  can  be  procured  by  other 
means  than  burning  sulphur,  but  not  so  economically.  When 
strong  sulphuric  acid  is  heated  along  with  charcoal,  it  is  de- 
composed, and  gives  off  all  its  sulphur  and  sulphurous  acid, 
the  charcoal  at  the  same  time  being  oxidized.  This  gas  is 
soluble  in  water  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  it  is  possible  to 
bleach  goods  with  such  a  solution.  The  bleaching  action  of 
this  gas  is  not  a  real  decolorizing  effect,  for  the  color  which 
it  appears  to  destroy  can  be  revived  by  either  neutralizing  or 
expelling  the  sulphurous  acid,  which  is  not  the  case  with 
chlorine  gas,  the  active  element  in  ordinary  bleaching  powder. 
The  effect  of  sulphuring  upon  woollen  goods  is  not  simply  that 
of  whitening,  it  gives  also  lustre  and  brilliancy,  and  communi- 
cates an  elasticity,  accompanied  by  a  degree  of  harshness,  easily 
perceptible  to  the  fingers.  A  large  quantity  of  this  gas  enters 
into  some  intimate  combination  with  the  woollen  fibres  ;  it 
cannot  be  removed  by  washing  in  cold  or  warm  water,  it  is 
not  expelled  by  a  temperature  at  212°  F.,  and  may  remain  un- 
changed in  the  fibre  for  the  space  of  six  months  at  least.  The 
sulphurous  acid  may  be  removed  by  alkalies  and  by  sulphuric 
acid  ;  it  can  be  changed  into  sulphuric  acid  by  the  action  of 
bleaching  powder  and  acids,  when  it  is  readily  washed  out  by 
water.  The  existence  of  this  acid  gas  in  delaines  is  unfavora-: 
ble  to  the  production  of  good  colors  ;  in  woollen  dyeing  it  is 
found  also  an  obstruction,  and  usually  it  is  only  the  finer 
goods,  for  dyeing  in  bright  light  shades,  which  are  sulphured. 

Sulphurous  acid  exists  in  the  air  of  those  towns  where  coal 
is  burned,  and  the  author  believes  he  traced  a  frequently  re- 
curring accident  in  dyehouses  to  its  presence.  In  dyehouses 


SULPHURETTED  HYDEOGEN.  421 

which  are  not  well  ventilated,  there  is  a  constant  dropping  of 
condensed  water  from  the  beams,  roof,  &c.;  if  these  drops  fall 
upon  mordanted  goods  before  dyeing,  they  cause  the  appear- 
ance of  light  spots  in  the  pattern,  due  to  the  removal  of  a 
portion  of  the  mordant.  The  drops  have  a.  lesser  effect  upon 
dyed  goods,  but  still  perceptible;  it  is  upon  light  lilac  grounds 
that  the  greatest  effect  is  visible,  frequently  sufficient  to  render 
the  piece  so  damaged  unsaleable.  This  effect  was  usually 
attributed  to  acetic  acid  from  the  mordants  arising  with  the 
steam  and,  becoming  condensed,  falling  down  again.  I  ob- 
tained a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  droppings  for  analysis,  and 
found  hardly  a  trace  of  acetic  acid,  but  instead  sulphuric  'acid, 
to  the  amount  of  11.8  grains  of  the  mono-hydrated  acid  to  a 
quart  of  the  droppings.  The  extraordinary  and  unexpected 
nature  of  this  result  caused  the  analysis  to  be  questioned,  but 
it  was  confirmed  by  a  second  analysis,  made  about  a  month 
afterwards.  This  is,  no  doubt,  an  unusually  bad  case;  the 
dyehouse  was  old,  in  the  city,  and  a  sulphuring  stove  was  ia 
constant  work  within  fifty  yards  of  it.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  sulphuric  acid  .resulted  from  the  oxidation  of 
sulphurous  acid  carried  by  the  air;  the  constant  moisture, 
elevated  temperature,  and  porousness  of  the  old  beams,  being 
conditions  well  calculated  to  facilitate  the  change.  Dr.  Angus 
Smith  states  that  he  has  found  sulphuric  acid  as  well  as  sul- 
phurous in  the  air  of  towns.  Some  of  the  acid  may,  therefore, 
have  been  condensed  upon  the  beams  as  such.  The  remedy 
for  such  a  case  as  this  is  ventilation  and  frequent  washing  of 
the  roof  and  walls  of  the  dyehouse.  Sulphurous  acid  combines 
with  bases  forming  sulphites;  strong  acids  decompose  these 
compounds,  the  sulphurous  acid  being  evolved.  Sulphites  are 
antiseptic,  and  are  used  to  preserve  animal  matters  from  putre- 
faction. A  small  quantity  of  sulphite  of  soda  will  preserve  a 
solution  of  albumen  and  cochineal  sweet  much  longer  than  they 
would  naturally  remain  so. 

Sulphuretted  Hydrogen, — This  body  is  frequently  found 
in  nature.  It  is  the  active  principle  of  the  medicinal  sul- 
phuretted waters,  and  is  produced  in  most  cases  of  putrefaction 
of  animal  matters,  giving  rise  to  offensive  odors.  It  is  some- 
times found  in  steam  boilers,  and,  rising  from  the  steam,  occa- 
sions accidents  to  steam  colors.  Colors  containing  lead  or 
copper  are  blackened  by  this  gas  ;  chrome  oranges  having  lead 
bases  are  blackened  by  steam  which  contains  sulphuretted 
hydrogen ;  and  the  durk  metallic  reflection  upon  some  colors 
containing  copper  is  owing  to  the  same  cause.  Fents  dipped 
in  acetate  or  nitrate  of  lead  are  frequently  up  in  the  steaming 
chambers  to  absorb  this  gas.  The  addition  of  sal  ammoniac, 


422  SUMAC. 

oil,  and  turpentine  to  colors  appears  to  make  them  less  easily 
acted  upon  by  it.  It  is  generally  in  water  containing  sulphate 
of  lime  and  organic  matter  that  this  inconvenience  is  felt.  It 
is  worst  after  the  water  has  rested  for  some  time,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, all  night;  it  is  only  a  common  precaution  to  blow  off  a 
good  quantity  of  steam  each  morning  before  using  it  for  goods. 
The  water  in  the  boiler  should  also  be  more  frequently  blown 
off  when  it  is  in  this  state. 

The  "coppering"  of  steam  colors  above  mentioned  cannot, 
in  every  case,  be  traced  to  the  presence  of  sulphuretted  hy- 
drogen, because  it  has  been  known  to  take  place  when  leaded 
fents  were  not  blackened.  It  is  very  probable  that  some  or- 
ganic vapors  or  gases  of  a  strongly  reducing  nature  may  be 
the  cause.  It  has  been  suggested  also  that  the  metallic  ap- 
pearance may  not  be  due  to  the  reduced  metal  at  all,  nor  to 
its  sulphide,  but  to  a  peculiar  formation  of  the  colored  lake. 
This  idea  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  most  of  the  organic  color- 
ing matters  do,  in  some  well-known  form  or  other,  acquire  a 
quasi  metallic  reflection,  and  in  the  steaming  some  unknown 
causes  operate  to  throw  them  into  this  peculiar  condition. 

Sumac. — This  coloring  matter  is  the  ground  up  leaves  and 
smaller  branches  of  a  shrub  which  grows  in  many  parts  of  the 
world.  That  which  comes  from  Sicily  is  the  most  esteemed, 
and  brings  the  highest  price,  but  several  other  countries  pro- 
duce an  useable  article.  It  has  a  greenish-yellow  color,  bitter 
astringent  taste,  and,  when  good,  a  smell  reminding  of  tea,  or 
sometimes  of  new  hay.  Its  quality  can  be  judged  of  by  its 
color  to  a  considerable  extent;  it  should  be  bright  and  clear; 
some  samples  are  dull  and  have  a  brown  faded  look.  These 
are  nearly  always  inferior.  The  difference  of  shade  can  only 
be  discovered  by  an  experienced  eye,  or  when  there  is  a  good 
sample  to  compare  with. 

Sumac  has  the  same  chemical  properties  as  galls,  containing 
the  same  acids,  tannic  and  gallic;  but,  in  addition,  it  has  a 
certain  amount  of  yellow  coloring  matter,  which,  though  nearly 
worthless  in  itself,  modifies  its  effects  upon  mordanted  cloth. 
Surnac  being  much  cheaper  than  galls  is  extensively  used  as  a 
substitute,  and  in  dyeing  it  answers  the  purpose  very  well,  but 
in  printing  it  as  an  extract  its  yellow  color  would  interfere  too 
much  with  the  effects  of  the  tannin  matter  contained  in  it. 
Sumac  is  used  as  an  addition  to  the  garancine  dye.  It  is  em- 
ployed in  the  production  of  many  shades  of  colors  in  dyeing, 
as  drabs,  olives,  grays,  etc.  There  are  W  reliable  determina- 
tions of  the  quantity  of  the  various  principles  in  sumac.  Davy 
has  certainly  given  some  results,  but  the  method  he  pursued 


TANNERS'  BARK — TANNIC  ACID.  423 

was  not  likely  to  yield  trustworthy  numbers;  his  statement  is 
as  follows : — 

Sicilian  sumac  contains     .     .     16.2  per  cent,  tannin, 
Malaga  sumac  contains      .      .     10.4  per  cent,  tannin, 

while  he  gives  gull  nuts  as  containing  27.0  per  cent,  of  tannin, 
which  is  below  the  truth,  even  for  very  inferior  qualities. 

The  chief  consumption  of  sumac  is  probably  in  cotton  dyeing, 
where  it  is  the  preliminary  treatment  for  nearly  all  the  fancy 
shades  to  steep  the  cotton  for  some  hours  in  decoction  of  sumac. 
The  astringent  matter  of  the  sumac  is  thus  firmly  combined 
with  the  cotton,  which  can  now  be  easily  mordanted  with 
either  tin  or  alumina,  which  form  the  basis  of  the  colors. 
Sumac  liquors  have  a  strong  tendency  to  become  acid,  which 
must  be  guarded  against  in  those  cases  where  an  iron  or  alumina 
mordant  is  concerned,  since  the  acidity  is  sometimes  strong 
enough  to  dissolve  out  weak  iron  mordants. 


Tanner's  Bark. — This  is  an  astringent  material,  of  variable 
nature.  It  is  mentioned  as  being  used  for  the  production  of  a 
gray  color.  The  cloth  is  mordanted  in  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  iron  and  red  liquors,  aged,  cleansed,  and  dyed  with 
about  two  pounds  of  tan  per  piece.  When  cleared  by  a  slight 
soaping,  and  a  subsequent  passage  on  very  dilute  acetic  acid, 
agreeable  shades  of  gray  are  obtained. 

Tannic  Acid,  Tannin. — The  substance  called  tan  is  well 
known  for  its  us.es  in  converting  skin  into  leather.  There  are 
a  great  many  substances  capable  of  tanning  skin,  but  it  is  found 
that  they  all  possess  an  astringent  or  acid  body,  nearly  the 
same  in  properties  and  composition,  and  it  is  this  body  which 
is  called  tannin,  or  tannic  acid.  However,  the  name  is  more 
generally  intended  to  represent  the  pure  astringent  principle 
of  gall  nuts,  which  is  now  an  article  of  commerce,  and  exten- 
sively employed  by  calico  printers  for  fixing  the  aniline  colors. 
Tannic  acid  is  prepared  from  gall  nuts  by  digesting  them  with 
aqueous  ether,  which  dissolves  out  scarcely  anything  but  the 
pure  tannic  acid.  Rather  more  than  half  the  weight  of  good 
galls  is  obtained.  When  dry,  the  tannic  acid  has  a  brownish- 
yellow  color,  and  an  intensely  astringent  taste,  but  no  percep- 
tible acidity  to  the  tongue.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  and  gives 
precipitates  with  nearly  all  the  metals  and  coloring  matters. 
Its  chief  characters,  with  reference  to  fibrous  matters  and  drugs, 


424  TARTARIC   ACID. 

will  be  found  in  the  articles  upon  GALL  NUTS,  ASTRINGENT 
MATTERS,  etc. 

Tartaric  Acid, — This  acid  is  very  extensively  used  in 
calico  printing  for  the  class  of  steam  colors;  it  is  not  much 
used  in  dyeing  in  the  free  state,  but  in  combination  with  potash, 
as  tartrate  of  potash  or  cream  of  tartar,  it  is  very  largely  em- 
ployed in  woollen  dyeing. 

Tartaric  acid  exists  in  the  juice  of  the  grape,  which  is  the  only 
practical  source  of  it ;    it  falls  out  of  wine  in  the  state  of  red 
tartar,  impure  cream  of  tartar,  or  bitartrate  of  potash  ;  the  pure 
acid  is  obtained  by  converting  this  salt  into  tartrate  of  lime, 
decomposing  it  with  sulphuric  acid,  so  as  to  combine  all  the 
lime  with  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  leave  the  tartaric  acid  free. 
It  crystallizes  in  large  clear  crystals;  they  are  very  soluble  in 
water,  dissolving  to  a  syrup ;  their  taste  is  agreeably  acid.     As 
obtained  from  respectable  nouses  tartaric  acid  is  in  nearly  a 
pure  state,  but  .it  is  said  to  be  occasionally  adulterated  with 
the  bisulphate  of  potash.     This  adulteration  may  be  discovered 
by  taking  some  of  the  pounded  crystals  and  heating  them  to 
low  redness ;  if  the  tartaric  acid  is  reasonably  pure  there  will 
be  nothing  but  a  black  coal  left,  which  would  burn  away  at  an 
increased  heat,  and  which  has  no  taste ;  if  there  be  any  bisul- 
phate of  potash  present  it  will  show  as  a  white  ash,  which  will 
have  the  well  known  acid  taste  of  the  bisulphate,  and  which 
will  not  burn  away  at  any  heat,  or  with  any  length  of  time.* 
A  sample  of  acid  can  be  judged  of  by  simple  inspection  if  it  is 
in  crystals,  but  if  ground,  only  testing  can  tell  what  its  quality 
is.     Tartaric  acid  is  at  once  a  strong  and  a  mild  acid  ;  it  has 
powerful  affinities,  but  it  is  not  corrosive,  and  does  not  injure 
the  finest  fabric  to  which  it  is  applied.     Besides  its  acid  pro- 
perties, tartaric  acid  possesses  properties  of  a  singular  nature, 
in  masking  or  hiding  the  characters  of  metals  with  which  it  is 
mixed :  for  example,  if  caustic  potash  be  mixed  with  the  sul- 
phate of  copper  dissolved  in  water,  it  will  precipitate  or  throw 
out  all  the  copper,  but  if  tartaric  acid  be  previously  mixed  with 
the  sulphate  of  copper,  potash  will  not  produce  any  precipitate; 
many  other  metals  behave  with  it  in  just  the  same  manner. 
Tartaric  acid  is  used  principally  in  steam  colors  for  blue  and 
green  ;  its  effect  in  steam  blue  is  to  take  potash  from  the  yellow 
prussiate  and  leave  its  acid,  the  ferrocyanic,  at  liberty  to  react 
upon  the  other  components  and  upon  itself  to  produce  the 
blue;  the  tartaric  acid  forms  bitartrate  of  potash,  which  con- 
tinues the  action,  being  itself  an  acid  salt.     It  is  also  much 
employed  as  a  discharge  on  dipped  blues  and  Turkey  red. 

Ormm  of  Tartar. — Tartaric   acid  combines  with  potash  to 
form  two  compounds,  known  respectively  as  the  tartrate  and 


TARTAEIC  ACID  SUBSTITUTES.  425 

bitartrate,  the  first  containing  only  half  as  much  acid  with 
reference  to  the  potash  as  the  other.  The  simple  tartrate  is 
very  little  known  in  practice,  it  is  a  neutral,  and  very  soluble 
salt.  The  bitartrate  is  the  form  in  which  the  wine  deposits  the 
tartar  mixed  with  other  substances,  and  with  the  coloring  mat- 
ter of  the  wine ;  in  this  state  it  is  called  either  simply  tartar, 
red  tartar,  or  argols.  It  can  be  used  in  dyeing  in  this  state, 
but  it  is  usually  purified  by  dissolving  in  water,  separating  the 
impurities  and  re-crystallizing,  in  which  state  it  is  called  cream 
of  tartar ;  it  is  in  crystals  of  small  size,  hard  and  gritty  to  the 
teeth,  and  having  a  slightly  acid  taste.  A  further  purification 
brings  it  into  a  white  crystalline  powder,  and  it  is  thus  used 
in  the  finer  styles  of  printing  and  dyeing.  It  is  very  little 
soluble  in  water,  and  cannot  be  made  to  mark  more  than  two 
degrees  Twaddle  at  natural  temperatures.  It  dissolves  much 
more  if  mixed  with  potash  or  soda,  but  then  it  loses  some  of 
its  principal  properties.  In  calico  printing  its  uses  are  few, 
and  mostly  such  as  could  be  replaced  by  tartaric  acid,  but  the 
cream  of  tartar  is  thought  to  act  more  mildly  upon  some  deli- 
cate shades,  as  cochineal  pink.  In  dyeing  it  is  used  for  mor- 
danting woollen  goods  in  conjunction  with  alum  and  the  salts 
of  tin.  It  is  not  quite  clear  in  what  the  chemical  action  of  the 
crearn  of  tartar  consists  in  this  case ;  in  the  first  place,  it  seems 
to  correct  bad  waters ;  if  they  are  very  hard,  and  contain  much 
lime,  it  appears  to  prevent  its  falling  on  the  cloth  to  its  injury; 
if  the  water  contains  iron  it  forms  combinations  with  it  which 
keep  it  from  injuring  the  stuffs  to  be  mordanted,  probably  by 
holding  the  iron  in  some  condition  in  which  its  active  proper- 
ties are  for  the  time  being  suspended;  it  may  take  some  part 
in  the  saturation  of  the  strong  acid  of  the  alum  or  muriate  of 
tin,  permitting  their  bases  to  pass  more  easily  into  the  fibre  of 
the  wool.  As  an  addition  to  the  actual  dyeing,  tartar  acts,  no 
doubt,  in  two  ways:  first,  as  a  corrective  with  regard  to  lime 
and  iron  in  the  water,  and  second,  as  a  mild  acidifying  agent; 
for  wool  does  not  take  colors  well  unless  the  bath  is  slightly 
acid,  and  tartaric  acid  and  cream  of  tartar  are  the  best  acids 
which  can  be  used  for  the  purpose. 

Tartaric  Acid  Substitutes.— The  cost  of  tartaric  acid  and 
the  irregularity  of  its  supply,  have  led  many  persons  to  seek 
for  a  substitute.  Several  have  been  patented,  and  others  pri- 
vately offered  in  the  market.  Arsenic  acid  has  been  proposed, 
but  has  not  answered,  and  in  low  class  printing  the  bisulphate 
of  potash  is  frequently  used  instead  of  tartaric  acid. 

I  have  had  occasion  to  analyze  several  of  the  substitutes 
offered  for  sale.  The  majority  of  them  were  of  the  most  worth- 
less character,  consisting  simply  of  sulphuric  acid  with  some 
28 


426  TEA   COLOE— THERMOMETER. 

common  salt,  with  sometimes  addition  of  oxalic  acid,  alum 
muriate  of  tin,  and  other  similar  substances.  There  are,  doubt- 
less, many  cases  in  which  dyers  use  tartaric  acid  or  tartar,  when 
nearly  any  other  acid  would  answer  as  well.  In  such  cases 
these  pretended  substitutes  might  pass,  but  for  most  of  the 
uses  of  tartar  these  substitutes  could  not  be  employed  with 
safety.  Some  other  substitutes  contained  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  tartaric  acid  in  a  crude  form,  and  were  worth  the 
price  asked  for  them. 

Tea  Color. — A  dull  green  color,  similar  to  that  of  dried  tea 
leaves.  The  chief  color,  known  as  tea  green,  is  that  obtained 
from  salts  of  chromium,  according  to  the  methods  given  in  page 
146.  I  give  here  one  or  two  recipes,  in  which  the  same  shade 
is  obtained  by  different  means : — 

A  tea  color  for  raising  in  lime  may  be  obtained  by  making 
a  mixture  of  nitrate  of  lead  and  nitrate  of  copper,  padding  or 
printing  the  piece  with  the  mixture,  and  raising  in  chrome. 

Tea  Drab  Color —  Calico  or  Delaine. 

1  gallon  bark  liquor,  at  3°, 

1  quart  copperas  liquor,  at  30°  Tw., 

5  oz.  nitrate  of  copper,  at  80°, 

5  oz.  extract  of  indigo, 

Ij  gallons  thick  gum  water. 

The  above  and  the  following  have  not  much  green  in  their 
composition,  and  might  perhaps  be  more  correctly  called  olive 
drabs. 

Tea  Drab,  for  Wool 

1  gallon  catechu  liquor,  at  20°, 

|  gallon  peachwood  liquor,  at  12°, 
3  oz.  extract  of  indigo, 

6  oz.  alum, 

6  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

2  quarts  thick  gum  water, 

1  pint  cochineal,  crimson  color. 

Thermometer,  Heat  Glass.— The  degree  of  heat  which  is 
employed  in  the  operations  of  color  mixing  and  dyeing  has  so 
great  an  influence  upon  the  results,  that  it  is  necessary  to  have 
some  measure  of  temperature  less  uncertain  than  its  effects 
upon  the  senses.  Some  dyers  and  color  mixers  may  be  able 
to  accomplish  their  work  by  ascertaining  the  temperature  of 
fluids  by  the  hand,  or  similar  means;  but  those  who  aim  at 
accuracy  and  regularity  should  be  familiar  with  the  thermome- 
ter or  heat-glass. 


THEKMOMETER.  427 

The  action  of  the  thermometer  in  ordinary  use  is  based  upon 
the  expansibility  by  heat  of  the  mercury  contained  in  the  bulb ; 
when  the  medium  surrounding  it  is  warmer  than  usual,  the 
expansion  of  the  mass  of  metal  below  forces  a  column  of  it  up 
the  narrow  or  capillary  tube  above ;  when  the  medium  is  colder 
than  usual,  the  contraction  of  the  bulk  causes  the  entry  of  that 
in  the  tube  into  the  bulb,  and  a  consequent  fall  of  the  column ; 
and  as  this  expansion  and  contraction  are  constant  for  the  same 
variations  of  heat,  a  good  measure  of  actual  temperature  is 
obtained.     On  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  the  scale  runs  from 
32°,  or  the  freezing  point,  to  212°,  the  boiling  point,  of  water. 
The  only  precaution  required  in  using  the  thermometer  is  not 
to  plunge  it  too  suddenly  from  a  hot  to  a  cold  liquid;  there  is 
a  risk  of  breaking  the  instrument,  or  of  interrupting  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  column  in  the  hair  tube;    when  this  latter 
accident  occurs,  it  may  be  remedied  by  gently  tapping  the 
instrument,  or  by  tying  a  cord  securely  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  instrument  and  whirling  it  round  with  velocity.     The  scales 
of  thermometers  used  on  the  continent  differ  very  much  from 
that  of  Fahrenheit.     The  one  chiefly  used,  called  the  Centi- 
grade, has  the  freezing  point  marked  0°,  and  the  boiling  point 
100°;  another  one,  used  in  the  northern  and  central  countries 
of  Europe,  Keaumur's,  has  the  freezing  point  at  0°,  and  the 
boiling  point  at  80°.     To  convert  the  degrees  upon  the  scales 
of  these  thermometers  into  the  corresponding  ones  upon  Fah- 
renheit requires  only  simple  multiplication ;  each  degree  of  the 
Centigrade  thermometer  is  equivalent  to  a  degree  and  four- 
fifths  of  a  degree  of  Fahrenheit's,  and  each  degree  of  Eeaumur's 
is  equal  to  two  degrees  and  a  quarter  of  Fahrenheit's ;  by  mul- 
tiplying the  degree  of  either  of  these  thermometers  by  the 
proper  numbers,  and  adding  32°  to  the  product,  the  equivalent 
degree  of  Fahrenheit  will  be  found.    Eeceipts  and  processes 
frequently  arriving  in  England  from   France  and  Germany, 
with  the  temperatures  marked  in  degrees  of  one  of  these  ther- 
mometers, a  table  is  here  given  showing  the  correspondence 
between   the    three  instruments  for   a   sufficient   number   of 
degrees;  the  fractional  parts  of  a  degree  are  omitted  in  the 
Fahrenheit  column : — 


428 


THICKENINGS. 


Table  showing  the  Corresponding  Degrees  upon  the  Centigrade, 
Reaumur,  and  Fahrenheit  Thermometers. 


Cent. 

Beau. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Eeau. 

Fahr. 

100 

80 

212 

50 

40.0 

122 

98 

78.4 

208 

48 

38.6 

118 

96 

76.8 

205 

46 

36.8 

115 

94 

75.2 

201 

44 

35.2 

111 

92 

73.6 

198 

42 

33.2 

108 

90 

72.0 

194 

40 

32.0 

104 

88 

70.4 

190 

38 

30.4 

100 

86 

68.8 

187 

36 

28.8 

97 

84 

67.2 

183 

34 

27.2 

93 

82 

65.6 

180 

32 

25.6 

90 

80 

64.0 

176 

30 

24.0 

86 

78 

62.4 

172 

28 

22.4 

82 

76 

60.8 

169 

26 

20.8 

79 

74 

59.2 

165 

24 

19.2 

75 

72 

57.6 

162 

22 

17.6 

72 

70 

56.0 

158 

20 

16.0 

68 

68 

54.4 

154 

18 

14.4 

64 

66 

52.8 

151 

16 

12.8 

61 

64 

51.2 

147 

14 

11.2 

57 

62 

49.6 

144 

12 

9.6 

54 

60 

48.0 

140 

10 

8.0 

50 

58 

46.4 

136 

8 

6.4 

46 

56 

44.8 

133 

6 

4.8 

43 

54 

43.2 

129 

4 

3.2 

39 

52 

41.6 

126 

2 

1.6 

36 

Thickenings, — In  piece  or  yarn  dyeing  the  mordant  is 
applied  in  a  simple  fluid  state,  the  object  being  only  to  impreg- 
nate every  part  of  the  fibre  in  an  equal  manner  with  the  mor- 
dant or  coloring  matter.  But  in  printing,  it  is  required  that 
the  mordant  shall  be  applied  only  to  certain  parts  of  the  cloth, 
the  remaining  part  being  either  left  white  or  occupied  by  some 
other  mordant  or  coloring  matter.  The  capillary  attraction  of 
the  fibres  is  such,  that  if  a  drop  of  mordant  in  its  fluid  state  be 
applied  to  a  piece  of  cloth,  it  spreads  in  a  circular  form  far 
beyond  the  size  of  the  drop  placed  on,  but  not  in  an  equable 
manner  ;  the  spot  upon  which  the  drop  was  first  placed  holding 
the  greater  part  of  the  fluid,  and  the  surrounding  portions  less 
and  less  as  they  are  further  removed  from  the  first  boundaries 
of  the  drop.  This  inclination  of  liquids  to  spread  beyond  the 
limits  of  their  first  application  is  overcome  by  the  addition  of 
various  matters  to  them  called  thickenings,  such  as  gum,  starch, 
etc.  These  substances  act  by  themselves,  setting  up  an  attrac- 
tion which  disputes  more  or  less  successfully  the  capillary 
attraction  of  the  fibre,  and  retains  the  applied  mordant  within 
the  limits  of  the  design. 


THICKENINGS.  429 

This  is  the  first  use  of  thickening  matters ;  a  second  is  to 
permit  the  application  of  a  larger  quantity  of  mordant  to  the 
cloth  than  could  be  managed  with  thin  liquors:  this  property 
of  thickenings  is  sometimes  taken  advantage  of  in  dyeing  where 
no  design  is  required. 

The  use  of  the  thickening  matters  employed  in  calico  print- 
ing is  simply  transitory ;  while  most  of  the  other  substances 
employed  carry  some  traces  of  themselves  on  the  finished  pro- 
duct, the  gum,  starch,  red  flour  employed  as  thickenings  are 
only  temporary  in  their  application,  and  have  to  be  all  removed 
before  the  colors  are  finished.  The  great  expense  of  the  thick- 
ening matters,  and  the  complete  loss  of  all  the  raw  material, 
should  draw  the  attention  of  printers  particularly  to  this  point 
to  see  if  it  is  not  possible  by  mechanical  means  to  dispense  with 
the  use  and  waste  of  such  large  quantities  of  substances  which 
are  for  the  most  part  derived  from  articles  of  human  food.  The 
Industrial  Society  of  Mulhouse,  always  alive  to  the  wants  and 
necessities  of  printing,  having  offered  a  prize  to  any  one  intro- 
ducing into  the  market  thickening  matters  capable  of  replacing 
those  now  in  use  and  not  made  from  articles  used  as  human 
food.  I  believe  it  is  possible  to  go  higher  than  this,  and  to  ask 
for  some  means  of  doing  without  thickenings  altogether.  I  am 
convinced  that  this  is  possible  and  practical,  and  that  the  skill 
and  ingenuity  of  mechanical  science  will  not  be  long  turned  in 
this  direction  without  reward. 

The  art  of  thickening  colors  lies  at  the  very  root  of  calico 
printing ;  upon  it  depends  so  much  in  the  way  of  obtaining 
good  results  that  it  may  be  considered  as  the  most  important 
part  of  color  mixing,  and  that  a  color  mixer  will  be  good,  bad, 
or  indifferent,  as  he  intuitively  perceives  the  importance  of  this 
branch  of  his  art,  and  is  successful  in  carrying  it  out.  To  give 
receipts  and  furnish  the  best  materials  is  nothing  without  there 
exists  at  the  same  time  an  intelligence  to  comprehend  the 
action  of  the  various  materials,  and  an  ability  to  put  them 
together  in  such  a  way  that  they  can  produce  their  full  effect. 
Food  receipts  fail  in  the  hands  of  unskilful  color  mixers,  and 
the  purest  and  most  expensive  drugs  are  only  thrown  away ; 
while  an  expert  hand  can  produce  good  colors  from  inferior 
articles  and  at  less  price.  The  difference  all  lies  in  the  putting 
together  of  the  materials,  and  the  properly  blending  them  with 
the  thickening  matter  most  suitable  to  them  and  the  particular 
styles  they  are  intended  for.  It  is  not  possible  in  a  book  to 
enter  into  all  these  matters  with  the  minuteness  they  deserve, 
nor  to  communicate  all  the  knowledge  necessary  to  success ;  it 
is  so  much  a  practical  matter  that  after  all  has  been  said  that 
can  be  upon  the  subject,  a  great  deal  more  that  is  essential  will 


430  THICKENINGS. 

be  left  unsaid,  for  no  description  or  formulae  can  explain  what 
the  finger  and  thumb  can  feel,  or  the  accustomed  eye  perceive, 
in  a  made-up  color.  Such  generalities  upon  thickenings  as  will 
lead  to  the  understanding  of  particular  cases  will  be  given 
here,  and  other  connected  matters  may  be  found  in  the  section 
on  gums. 

Many  mineral  matters,  such  as  pipeclay,  white  lead,  gypsum, 
and  the  like,  could  prevent  the  spreading  of  a  fluid  mixed  up 
with  them  ;  but  all  mineral  matters  of  this  nature  are  heavy, 
not  soluble  in  the  fluids,  and  consequently  fall  to  the  bottom, 
leaving  the  supernatant  liquor  thin,  and  of  course  producing 
irregular  results.  Such  substances  cannot  be  generally  used 
by  themselves ;  when  in  combination  with  some  of  the  vege- 
table thickenings  they  are  frequently  employed  to  give  density 
and  toughness  to  the  paste,  and  are  thus  particularly  useful  in 
resists.  There  may  be  colors  of  such  an  excessive  chemical 
activity,  that  the  vegetable  substances  employed  in  ordinary 
circumstances  are  acted  upon  to  the  mutual  destruction  of  both 
the  thickening  and  color.  Such  are  chromic  acid  and  the  per- 
manganate of  potash  ;  if  the  application  of  these  is  necessary 
or  useful  it  will  have  to  be  through  the  medium  of  some  mineral 
thickening  like  pipeclay. 

The  vegetable  substances  used  for  thickening  colors  may  be 
divided  into  three  classes  :  first,  starches,  flour,  and  thickenings 
insoluble  in  cold  water  ;  secondly,  gums  proper,  whether  natural 
or  artificial,  which  are  soluble  in  cold  water;  and,  thirdly, 
artificially  made-up  mixtures  of  the  first  and  second  classes, 
partly  soluble  and  partly  insoluble,  partly  gummy  and  partly 
pasty. 

The  thickenings  of  the  first  class  require  a  much  less  weight 
per  gallon  to  give  the  desired  viscosity  to  a  mordant  than  those 
of  the  other  two  classes.  This  is  their  first  and  most  striking 
characteristic,  and  it  will  be  well  to  consider  here  the  influence 
which  the  weight  or  mass  of  thickening  has  upon  a  color  with- 
out taking  any  of  the  other  properties  into  consideration. 
Good  starch  thickens  sufficiently  well  for  most  purposes  at 
twenty  ounces  per  gallon  of  water,  flour  at  about  the  same  or 
a  little  more,  and  gum  tragacanth  gives  a  consistent  color  with 
only  one-half  this  quantity  ;  on  the  opposite  side,  calcined  farina 
requires  eight  or  nine  pounds  to  be  added  to  a  gallon  of  water 
to  bring  it  to  a  proper  state  of  viscosity.  Is  it  indifferent 
whether  a  color  or  a  mordant  be  thickened  with  starch  or 
calcined  farina  ?  It  is  not  only  not  indifferent  but  a  matter  of  the 
greatest  importance.  As  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  stated  that 
the  smaller  the  quantity  of  thickening  in  a  color  the  darker  the 
shades  produced.  If  iron  liquor  at  six  or  seven  degrees  Tw. 


THICKENINGS.  431 

be  thickened  with  starch  or  flour,  a  good  black  may  be  obtained 
from  it  in  the  madder  dye ;  if  the  same  strength  of  iron  liquor 
be  thickened  with  calcined  farina,  it  will  not  dye  up  a  black 
but  only  a  shade  of  purple.  To  obtain  a  black  from  calcined 
farina  thickening  would  require  the  iron  liquor  to  be  at  least 
double  the  strength  given.  The  same  rule  holds  in  other 
colors  ;  the  depth  of  shade  is  always  in  some  ratio  to  the  amount 
of  thickening  matter.  The  mass  of  thickening  impedes  the 
access  of  the  particles  of  the  mordant  or  color  to  the  fibrous 
substances  intended  to  receive  them.  It  is  evident  that  if  the 
color  was  made  of  an  excessive  degree  of  thickness,  none  of  it 
would  leave  the  thickening  to  go  to  the  fibre ;  it  is  only  because 
the  thickenings  contract  upon  drying  that  the  fibre  receives 
from  them  any  of  the  color  or  mordant  enveloped  by  them ; 
and  in  proportion  as  this  contraction  is  greater  or  less  in  rela- 
tion to  the  original  bulk  of  the  matter  when  applied,  so  is  the 
amount  of  color  or  mordant  communicated  to  the  fibre.  Starch 
swells  out  when  boiled  into  a  bulky  vesicular  mass,  which  may 
be  looked  upon  as  a  sponge  holding  the  liquor  with  which  it  was 
boiled  ;  the  drying  of  the  starch  on  the  cloth  is  equivalent  to 
the  squeezing  of  the  sponge,  the  liquor  leaves  it  because  it  can 
be  dried  up  into  a  small  compass.  Calcined  farina,  when  dis- 
solved, may  be  looked  upon  as  a  sponge  also,  but  one  of  a 
denser  kind,  with  less  room  for  liquids  and  more  difficult  to 
squeeze  dry  because  of  its  solidity.  When  it  dries  on  the  cloth 
a  good  share  of  the  mordant  or  color  never  touches  the  fibre, 
being  entangled  by  the  intervening  mass  of  the  thickening  with 
which  it  remains  in  contact  until  washed  away  in  the  cleansing 
or  dunging. 

Another  and  dependent  effect  may  be  noticed,  that  is,  the 
penetrating  power  of  the  different  thickenings.  Printed  with 
rollers  of  an  equal  depth  of  engraving,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  starch  or  flour  thickened  color  has  penetrated  through  the 
cloth,  and  shows  plainly  and  strongly  upon  the  reverse  side  of 
the  piece,  while  the  calcined  farina  thickened  color  has  pene- 
trated much  less,  and  may  not  be  at  all  percepible  upon  the 
back  of  the  piece.  The  observation  of  this,  and  the  knowledge 
that  the  coloring  matter,  which  is  visible  on  the  wrong  side 
of  the  piece,  costs  the  printer  money  without  adding  to  the 
effects  produced,  leads  to  questions  concerning  the  economy  of 
thickening  matters  in  a  comparative  point  of  view.  One 
pound  of  starch  will  cost  less  than  five  pounds  of  calcined 
farina  or  other  gum ;  but  there  is  a  possibility  of  this  differ- 
ence being  wholly  or  partially  made  up  in  the  quantity  of 
madder  required.  If  the  watery  starch  color  permits  the 
metallic  mordants  to  penetrate  to  parts  where  they  exhaust  the 


432  THICKENINGS. 

dyeing  material  without  adding  to  the  color,  it  becomes  simply 
a  matter  of  calculation  and  trial  to  ascertain  if  this  does  not 
overbalance  the  difference  in  the  cost  of  the  gum  and  starch. 
In  madder  dyeing  it  is  not  only  a  question  of  economy,  but  of 
goodness  of  color,  not  to  let  the  mordant  penetrate  too  deep 
into  the  centre  of  the  fibre;  for  the  deposition  of  the  coloring 
matter  only  takes  place  in  a  perfect  manner  upon  or  near  the 
surface:  it  is  there  only  that  the  mordant  becomes  saturated, 
and  its  natural  color  overcome  by  the  true  lake  formed.  Below 
the  surface  an  imperfect  combination  only  takes  place,  which, 
in  the  case  of  alumina,  results  in  brick-colored  reds,  and  with 
iron  mordants,  in  rusty  snuff  colors.  These  form  a  bad  basis 
for  the  real  madder  colors  and  injure  their  shades.  Beyond  a 
small  extent  it  is,  therefore,  injurious  to  the  colors  to  have 
them  deep  seated  in  the  cloth;  the  whiteness  of  the  cotton  is 
the  best  ground  for  them  to  show  upon,  and  a  color  is  better 
in  proportion  as  it  is  upon  the  surface,  or  even  appearing  to 
stand  in  relief.  These  remarks  apply  principally  to  madder 
purples  and  pinks,  but  are  equally  true  of  all  light  dyed  colors. 
For  dark  shades  it  is  necessary  sometimes  to  penetrate  the 
cloth,  or,  at  least,  it  seems  necessary  ;  but,  I  believe,  with  man- 
agement, better  and  cheaper  colors  could  be  obtained  by  keep- 
ing on  the  face  side  only. 

Only  two  extreme  cases  of  thickness  have  been  mentioned, 
but  there  are  many  intermediate  degrees  from  which  the  color 
mixer  can  choose,  to  accommodate  his  colors  to  the  necessities  of 
printing.  The  second  class  of  thickenings  are  those  which 
are  best  adapted  for  all  light  shades  of  color.  They  appear  to 
be  less  subject  to  irregularity  than  paste  and  starch  colors, 
and  give  better  furnished  and  fuller  shades,  at  the  same  time 
they  are  livelier  and  brighter,  which  may  be  attributed  to  their 
being  more  superficial  than  the  paste  colors  would  be.  The 
third  class,  or  mixed  thickenings,  form  a  very  useful  class, 
capable  of  valuable  application.  By  a  judicious  use  of  them 
the  valuable  qualities  of  both  paste  and  gum  may  be  in  a 
great  measure  combined,  and  economy  of  thickening  matters 
secured,  without  waste  of  dyewood.  Gum  manufacturers  send 
such  gums  or  mixtures  out  into  the  trade,  some  of  which  are 
good  and  some  are  bad.  A  color  mixer  has  it  in  his  own  power 
to  make  nearly  all  useful  mixtures  of  this  class  from  the  bona 
fide  gums,  sold  by  respectable  manufacturers,  and  the  starch  and 
flour  with  which  he  is  supplied.  In  making  mixtures  of  various 
thickening  substances,  it  should  be  taken  as  a  principle  that 
those  will  work  best  together  which  have  separately  the  greatest 
similarity  in  properties.  It  is  not  well,  for  example,  to  mix 
starch  with  calcined  farina ;  they  are  at  the  opposite  ends  of 


TIN.  433 

the  scale,  and  are  too  widely  different  in  their  properties  to 
work  smoothly  together.  The  mixture  will  separate,  the  thick 
part  leave  the  thin,  and  work  rough  and  curdy  in  the  machine 
Ef  a  mixture  of  starch  and  gum  is  wanted,  some  gum  should  be 
chosen  whose  thickening  power  is  about  four  pounds  per  gal- 
lon, and  there  ought  to  be  more  of  it  by  weight  than  the  starch 
to  form  a  good  mixture.  If  it  is  required  to  strengthen  cal- 
cined farina  with  some  substance  thickening  further  than  it,  a 
gum  should  be  chosen  thickening  at  from  four  to  five  pounds 
per  gallon.  A  mixture  of  calcined  farina  and  flour  will  work 
well  if  it  contain  also  a  certain  quantity  of  gum  whose  actual 
thickening  point  is  about  the  same  as  the  calculated  mean  of 
those  two  substances.  It  acts  as  a  medium,  holding  the  ex- 
tremes together.  Two  gums  which  are  perfect  gums  will 
mix  and  unite  in  any  proportion  without  subsequent  separa- 
tion, and  whatever  their  respective  thickening  powers  may  be. 
In  mixtures  of  various  thickenings  it  will  be  found  that  flour 
and  starch  give  body  and  firmness— the  natural  gums  give  tena- 
city, and  among  these  tragacanth  is  conspicuous — the  true  artifi- 
cial gums  give  solidity  or  density.  There  is  much  good  to  be 
done  by  this  method  of  mixtures;  it  often  happens  that  two 
or  three  individual  gums  of  an  inferior  quality  will,  give,  by 
proper  mixture,  a  good  useable  gum. 

The  adaptation  of  the  thickening  to  the  design  is  so  much  a 
practical  matter  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  go  into  details. 
The  lighter  and  finer  the  engraving  the  smoother  and  solider 
the  thickening  should  be;  for  fine  outlines  a  good  paste  color 
is  suitable,  or  else  a  smooth  dense  gum  color ;  a  soft  puffy  color 
would  not  answer,  although  this  latter  might  pass  for  open 
blotch  work.  For  fine  covers,  on  light  shades,  gum  colors  are 
best  adapted ;  but  paste  colors,  made  from  finely  sieved  flour, 
can  be  often  used  with  advantage. 

Tin. — Tin  is  a  very  important  metal  to  the  dyer  and  printer 
from  the  affinity  which  it  shows  both  for  fibres  and  colors,  and 
the  brilliancy  of  the  shade  it  gives.  As  a  metal  its  expense 
prevents  it  being  much  used  in  the  way  of  vessels  or  utensils  ; 
what  is  commonly  called  tin,  being  only  iron  coated  with  tin: 
tin  vessels  are  usually  distinguished  as  of  block-tin.  It  is 
used,  however,  in  some  dye-houses,  especially  where  scarlets 
from  cochineal  or  lac  dye  are  dyed.  It  is  found  that  copper 
does  very  well  except  where  the  air  comes  in  contact  with  the 
liquor,  and  I  believe  the  pans  are  made  of  copper  at  the  bottom 
to  stand  the  fire,  and  of  block  tin  on  the  upper  part  where  the 
air  acts  and  where  the  pieces  would  come  in  contact  with  the 
bare  metal.  For  experimental  purposes  of  dyeing,  and  espe- 
cially for  mordanting  in  tin  solutions  with  heat,  block-tin  ves- 


434  TIN". 

sels  are  by  far  the  best.  Tin  melts  at  low  beat,  and  consequently 
vessels  made  of  it  must  never  be  exposed  to  fierce  fires. 

Tin  combines  with  oxygen  in  two  proportions,  forming  the 
protoxide,  which  has  one  atom  of  tin  to  one  atom  of  oxygen,  and 
the  bioxide  or  peroxide,  which  has  two  atoms  of  oxygen  to  one 
of  tin ;  this  last,  from  its  sometimes  acting  the  part  of  an  acid,  is 
called  also  stannic  acid,  the  Latin  name  for  tin  being  stannnm. 
Tin  in  the  metallic  state  is  used  in  preparing  one  color  for 
printing,  that  is,  a  kind  of  indigo  blue  called  "  fast  blue."  The 
tin  for  this  purpose,  and  for  all  purposes  of  dissolving,  is  first 
granulated  by  pouring  it  from  a  height  when  melted,  into  cold 
water;  in  this  case  the  granulated  tin  is  boiled  with  caustic 
soda  and  the  powdered  indigo,  the  metal  takes  oxygen  from 
the  indigo  under  the  influence  of  the  alkali,  and  the  coloring 
matter  is  thus  brought  into  solution;  the  same,  or  an  equally 
good  color,  can  be  prepared  in  other  and  better  manners.  The 
protoxide  of  tin,  like  many  other  protoxides,  has  an  affinity 
for  more  oxygen  to  change  itself  into  the  peroxide,  and  it  will 
take  this  oxygen,  under  favorable  circumstances,  from  bodies 
put  into  contact  with  it ;  it  is  this  property  which  enables  it  to 
dissolve  indigo  when  mixed  with  caustic  alkalies.  The  pro- 
toxide mjty  be  made  by  adding  the  proper  quantity  of  caustic 
soda  to  solution  of  crystals  of  tin :  too  much  caustic  will  re- 
dissolve  the  oxide;  it  falls  down  as  a  white  pulp,  which  can  be 
drained  and  washed  on  a  filter.  It  is  not  necessary  to  separate 
the  oxide  of  tin  from  the  liquor  for  most  practical  purposes, 
and  the  necessary  quantity  of  indigo,  caustic,  and  tin  solution 
are  mixed  and  all  heated  up  together.  The  peroxide  of  tin 
has  no  inclination  to  take  any  more  oxygen  than  it  already 
possesses,  and  cannot  aid  in  the  solution  of  indigo.  Both  of 
these  oxides  combine  with  acids,  and  thev  have  different  pro- 
perties, though  both  answer  nearly  equally  well  as  mordants. 

Chloride  of  Tin,  Muriate  of  Tin,  Crystals  of  Tin.— The  crystals 
of  tin  are  a  compound  of  chlorine,  tin,  and  water;  they  are 
made  by  dissolving  tin,  by  means  of  heat,  in  spirits  of  salts, 
boiling  down  and  crystallizing.  They  are  supplied  by  respect- 
able chemical  manufacturers  in  a  state  of  almost  chemical 
furity,  but  they  are  said  to  be  sometimes  adulterated  with  zinc, 
doubt  this  with  regard  to  the  crystals.  I  never  found  any 
such  adulteration,  and  I  think  it  would  spoil  the  appearance  of 
the  crystals  so  much  as  to  make  it  apparent  to  any  one  that 
something  was  wrong.  The  crystals  may  be  bad  by  age  and 
by  being  too  wet,  and  their  apppearance  shows  this;  they 
should  be  clean  and  glistening,  slippery  and  greasy  feeling  to 
the  finger,  and  have  no  white  powder  or  white  slime  about 
them.  When  a  couple  of  ounces  are  mixed  with  a  gill  of  com- 


TIN.  435 

mon  water,  the  liquor  should  be  clear,  but  when  the  same 
weight  is  mixed  with  a  gallon  of  water,  the  liquor  ought  to 
become  white  with  a  white  sediment  forming;  this  test  shows 
in  the  first  case  that  they  are  acid  enough,  and  in  the  second 
that  they  are  not  too  acid. 

Crystals  of  tin  are  largely  employed  in  dyeing  and  printing  • 
in  dyeing,  as  a  mordant;  in  printing,  as  helping  to  form  colors 
and  to  communicate  to  them  peculiar  properties;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, mixed  with  strong  red  liquor,  it  enables  the  red  mor- 
dant to  resist  light  covers  of  chocolate  or  purple  mordants ;  it 
acts  as  a  discharge  on  some  colors,  as  iron  buffs,  manganese 
browns,  etc.,  and  has  many  other  uses. 

Liquid  Muriate  of  Tin.— This  compound  is  chemically  the 
same  as  the  crystals  of  tin,  and  is  made  in  the  same  manner, 
except  that  it  is  not  boiled  down  to  the  crystallizing  point.  It 
is  decidedly  more  acid  in  its  behavior  than  the  crystals,  and 
herein  lies  the  only  difference,  if  the  liquid  muriate  is  a  genuine 
article.  Weight  for  weight  is  not  much  more  than  one  half  of 
the  strength  in  tin  of  the  crystals.  It  is  liable  to  be  adulterated 
with  several  cheaper  solutions,  and  I  do  not  know  any  good 
practical  test,  except  trying  it  in  colors  against  a  sample  of 
known  goodness.  By  chemical  analysis  it  is  easy  to  ascertain 
its  exact  value.  It  is  used  in  dyeing  for  much  the  same  pur- 
poses as  the  crystals,  in  color  mixing  also;  this  is  the  salt 
mostly  used  for  preparing  tin  pulp  or  prussiate  of  tin  for  steam 
blues. 

Sulphate  of  Tin  is  hardly  at  all  used  in  dyeing  as  a  pure 
salt,  but  there  are  cases  in  which  a  mixture  of  vitriol  and 
crystals  of  tin  is  employed,  and  probably  sulphate  of  tin  is 
formed  here ;  but  the  process  never  goes  to  the  extent  of 
driving  off  the  muriatic  acid,  so  it  is  not  certain  what  the  re- 
sulting product  is,  probably  a  sulphate  of  tin  kept  in  solution 
by  the  muriatic  acid.  Sulphate  of  tin  itself  is  not  easily  made, 
and  is  too  expensive  for  general  use.  It  can  be  made  by  stir- 
rfng  up  granulated  tin  in  water  with  sulphate  of  copper  ;  the 
copper  falls  down,  and  the  tin  takes  its  place  with  the  sul- 
phuric acid.  There  are  solutions  of  tin  made  by  dissolving 
the  metal  in  mixtures  of  vitriol,  water,  and  common  salt,  or, 
instead  of  common  salt,  sal  ammoniac,  sometimes  spirits  of 
salts  and  vitriol ;  there  is  very  likely  formation  of  sulphate  of 
tin  in  these  cases.  When  strong  sulphuric  acid  acts  upon  tin 
with  the  assistance  of  heat,  various  gases  are  evolved,  and  a 
compound  of  the  peroxide  is  left,  which  requires  a  good  excess 
of  acid  to  keep  it  in  solution  ;  I  have  found  no  protoxide  salt 
even  when  a  good  deal  of  the  metal  has  been  left  unacted  upon. 

Bichloride  of  Tin  ;  Double  Muriate  of  Tin.— This  differs  from 


436  TIN. 

common  muriate  of  tin  by  having  the  metal  in  the  higher 
state  of  oxidation  ;  it  requires  a  special  method  of  preparing, 
and  possesses  quite  different  properties  from  the  muriate. 
When  a  few  drops  of  this  bichloride  of  tin  are  mixed  with  a 
solution  of  bichrome,  it  ought  not  to  change  the  red  color  to 
green,  which  it  will  if  it  is  not  well  made,  or  if  it  contains  any 
of  the  common  muriate.  The  bichloride  of  tin  is  not  largely 
used  either  in  dyeing  or  printing.  It  serves  as  a  prepare  for 
woollens  and  delaines  to  make  them  take  colors  better  in  print- 
ing ;  it  is  for  this  purpose  mostly  mixed  with  some  of  the  com- 
mon muriate,  and  is  an  ingredient  in  some  colors  and  in  some 
dyes.  It  can  be  made  by  dissolving  grain  tin  in  a  mixture  of 
two  parts  spirits  of  salts,  one  part  aquafortis,  and  one  part 
water,  till  no  more  dissolves. 

Oxymuriate  of  Tin  (Proto-per  Chloride  of  Tin.) — This  liquor  is 
made  in  general  by  dissolving  granulated  or  block  tin  by  de- 
grees, in  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  muriatic  acids;  it  is  for  the 
most  part  a  bichloride  of  tin,  but  frequently  containing  some 
of  the  protochloride  or  common  muriate ;  it  is  generally  well 
saturated,  that  is,  with  little  excess  of  acid.  It  is  also  generally 
of  a  milky  appearance,  from  a  quantity  of  undissolved  oxide 
of  tin  held  in  suspension.  It  can  be  made  from  the  common 
muriate  of  tin,  or  from  the  crystals,  by  heating  them  in  a  nlug, 
and  adding  strong  aquafortis  by  degrees,  so  long  as  red  nitrous 
fumes  are  given  off.  It  is  extensively  used  in  making  spirit 
colors  by  calico  printers;  it  is  employed  in  Turkey  red  and 
madder  pink  dyeing,  to  reduce  the  shade  to  a  bluer  tone,  and 
in  several  cases  of  dyeing. 

Dyers'  Spirits. — These  are  solutions  of  tin  in  endless  variety, 
and  with  hundreds  of  modifications ;  every  dyer  or  maker 
thinks  he  has  the  best  method  of  preparing  the  spirits,  and 
usually  guards  his  secret  as  valuable.  They  are  all  of  them  a 
mixture  of  protochloride  and  perchloride  of  tin,  some  with  sul- 
phuric acid  ;  nitric  acid  almost  always  enters  as  a  constituent, 
but  is  doubtless  all  destroyed  in  the  oxidation  of  the  tin. 
Common  salt,  sal  ammoniac,  saltpetre,  nitrate  of  soda,  and  other 
salts,  are  used  in  conjunction  with  the  acids,  and  possibly 
modify  the  product,  so  as  to  make  it  better  adapted  to  the  pecu- 
liar office  it  has  to  fulfil ;  more  frequently  these  additions  are 
the  effects  of  caprice,  and  the  advantages  they  confer  entirely 
imaginary. 

Stannate  of  Soda  (Preparing  Salts). — This  salt  is  compounded 
of  the  peroxide  of  tin,  mentioned  above,  and  caustic  soda ;  its 
value  and  its  applications  depend  upon  its  giving  up  the 
stannic  acid,  or  peroxide,  when  an  acid  is  mixed  with  it.  The 
method  of  preparing  pieces  with  it,  either  for  printing  or  dye- 


TIN.  437 

ing,  is  to  pad  them  in  a  solution  of  it,  and  then  pass  them  into 
sours;  the  sulphuric  acid  takes  the  soda,  forming  sulphate  of 
soda,  while  the  stannic  acid  remains  attached  to  the  cloth.  The 
value  of  the  preparing  salt  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  tin 
which  it  contains,  which  quantity  can  only  be  ascertained  by 
means  of  analysis.  A  practical  test  p  to  prepare  fents  with  it 
against  other  fents  prepared  with  a  salt  of  known  quality. 
The  strength  of  the  hydrometer,  which  a  certain  quantity  gives 
to  a  gallon  of  water,  is  little  or  no  test.  I  had  occasion  to 
analyze  a  sample  of  preparing  salt  said  to  be  of  double  strength  ; 
it  only  contained  as  much  tin  as  the  regular  quality,  but  it  had 
about  twenty-eight  per  cent,  of  common  salt  in  it,  and  was 
quite  dry,  whereas  the  ordinary  good  stannate  has  from  twenty- 
five  to  thirty  per  cent,  of  water  in  it,  and  no  comman  salt ;  the 
sample,  which  was  of  double  strength,  and  was  to  be  charged 
considerably  higher,  had  been  made  by  driving  the  water  away 
from  the  ordinary  quality,  and  putting  salt  instead  ;  one  pound 
of  it  in  a  gallon  of  water  stood  several  degrees  higher  than  a 
pound  of  the  common  stannate — and  this  was  the  test  the 
manufacturer  desired  to  be  applied — but  chemical  analysis 
demonstrated  that  it  was  not  worth  any  more  than  the  stannate 
with  water,  and  was  likely  to  be  worth  much  less,  as  so  great 
a  quantity  of  useless  substance  might  impede  the  fixation  of 
the  tin  upon  the  cloth.  Some  very  good  preparing  salts  con- 
tain a  portion  of  arsenic,  in 'the  state  of  arsenic  acid  combined 
with  soda,  and  the  makers  consider  it  as  important  in  yielding 
good  results.  It  appears  to  combine  with  the  tin,  and  fix  with 
it  upon  the  cloth.  I  have  made  experiments  with  preparing 
salts  with  and  without  arsenic  in  them,  and,  if  the  conditions 
were  otherwise  equal,  I  could  never  find  that  arsenic  was  an 
improvement.  I  consider  that  the  good  quality  of  these  salts 
is  attributable  to  the  care  exercised  in  their  manufacture,  and 
not  in  any  manner  to  the  arsenic  present;  at  the  same  time 
it  should  be  understood  that,  while  in  some  cases  a  certain  in- 
gredient seems  unnecessary  and  useless,  it  acts  an  essential 
part  in  other  cases,  where  perhaps  the  general  conditions  are 
not  so  favorable,  or,  at  any  rate,  not  the  same.  Tungsten  in 
the  shape  of  tungstate  of  soda  is  sometimes  mixed  with  stan- 
nate, and  is  thought  by  some  printers  to  give  improved  re- 
sults. Many  experiments  I  made  on  that  point  gave  only 
negative  results,  no  improvement  was  visible. 

I  give  here  a  number  of  receipts  for  preparing  tin  solutions 
as  used  in  various  cases.  A  great  deal  depends  upon  the  fit- 
ness of  the  tin  solution  in  producing  the  best  shades  of  color, 
but  it  is  not  clear  in  what  this  fitness  itself  consists;  it  is  only 
known  that  tin  solutions  are  very  much  changed  in  their 


438  TIN. 

bearings  towards  cloth  by  slight  alterations  in  the  manner  of 
their  preparation.  Chemistry  teaches  us  that  the  oxide  of  tin 
is  capable  of  assuming  several  widely  different  physical  aspects, 
according  to  the  manner  in  which  it  is  produced  ;  but  we  are 
not  yet  informed  as  to  the  exact  conditions  which  govern  the 
formation  of  the  different  isomeric  oxides,  and  can  only  there- 
fore exercise  a  general  precaution  against  accidents. 

Red  Spirits. — Three  parts  muriatic  acid,  one  part  nitric  acid, 
one  part  water ;  granulated  tin,  to  the  amount  of  2  oz.  per 
pound  of  the  mixed  acid,  added  in  small  portions,  so  that  the 
liquid  does  not  get  hot. 

Yellow  Spirits. — Three  parts  muriatic  acid,  one  part  sul- 
phuric acid,  one  part  water  ;  add  granulated  tin  as  much  as  it 
will  dissolve,  not  allowing  the  heat  to  rise  above  60°. 

Barwood  Red  Spirits. — Five  parts  muriatic  acid,  one  part 
nitric  acid  ;  add  granulated  tin  to  the  extent  of  1  oz.  metal  to 
1  Ib.  mixed  acids. 

Plum  Spirits. — Six  parts  muriatic  acid,  one  part  nitric  acid, 
and  one  part  water;  add  granulated  tin  to  the  extent  of  1J  oz. 
for  each  pound  of  the  mixed  acids. 

The  above  quantities  are  by  measure,  and  are  for  the  ordi- 
nary strength  of  acids  sold  under  the  above  names. 

The  following  oxymuriate  contains,  added  sal  ammoniac: 
20  Ibs.  muriatic  acid,  20  Ibs.  nitric  acid,  in  which  has  been  pre- 
viously dissolved  5  Ibs.  sal  ammoniac ;  dissolve  in  10  Ibs  tin. 
This  preparation  is  suitable  for  printers'  purposes. 

Oxymuriate  for  Cutting  Pinks. — 16  Ibs.  crystals  of  tin,  melted 
in  a  mug,  placed  in  hot  water,  20  Ibs.  nitric  acid,  added  by  de- 


Another. — 60  Ibs.  crystals  of  tin,  one  quart  water,  heat  in  a 
water  bath  until  melted,  then  add  by  portions  92  Ibs.  nitric 
acid  at  60°. 

Woollen  Dyers'  Spirits. — Two  gallons  water,  15  Ibs.  nitric 
acid  at  62°,  12  oz.  common  salt,  If  Ib.  granulated  tin.  There 
should  be  no  effervescence,  and  the  liquor  should  be  perfectly 
clear  and  of  a  pale  yellow  color.  Not  safe  after  a  week  old, 
and  should  be  kept  cool. 

For  Spirit  Colors. — 11  Ibs.  muriatic  acid  at  34°,  5  Ibs.  nitric 
acid  at  62°,  2  Ibs.  granulated  tin,  added  by  degrees. 

Sulpho-muriate  of  Tin  Spirits. — 2  Ibs.  sulphuric  acid,  3  Ibs. 
muriatic  acid.  Pour  the  muriatic  acid  upon  an  excess  of  granu- 
lated tin,  and  when  it  has  ceased  to  act,  add  the  sulphuric  acid 
and  leave  them  for  a  day  or  two  upon  the  tin  without  heat.  If 
heated,  the  sulpho-muriate  may  be  formed  in  less  time,  but 
does  not  seem  to  be  so  good  or  regular  in  its  results. 

Tin  Salts  as  Mordants.— The  affinity  of  the  oxides  of  tin  for 


TIN.  439 

coloring  matters,  and  for  textile  fibres,  is  not  inferior  to  that  of 
any  other  oxide,  and  in  some  respects  seems  superior  to  all 
others.  There  are,  as  already  stated,  two  distinct  oxides  of 
tin,  the  protoxide  and  the  peroxide,  the  latter  containing  twice 
as  much  oxygen  as  the  former ;  and  although  the  protosalts 
are  generally  applied  as  mordants— as  the  crystals  of  tin  and 
common  liquid  muriate  of  tin — it  seems  probable  that  it  is  as 
the  higher  oxide  that  it  acts  eventually  as  the  bond  between 
the  coloring  matter  and  fibre. 

Each  of  the  oxides  of  tin  has  a  general  affinity  for  all  the 
varieties  of  fibre,  and  combines  equally  well  with  cotton,  wool, 
and  silk ;  but  the  combinations  are  not  of  the  same  perma- 
nency in  each  case.  They  are  more  permanent  on  wool  than 
on  silk  and  cotton,  and  more  powerful  on  the  former  than  the 
latter.  Tin  mordants,  upon  cotton,  give  a  class  of  colors  which 
are  called  "  spirit  colors,"  from  the  old  name  for  solutions  of 
tin ;  they  are  easily  made,  look  very  well,  but  are  not  fast. 
Tin,  upon  cotton,  should  be  employed  rather  as  an  useful 
auxiliary  than  as  a  sole  mordant ;  it  serves  to  brighten  colors, 
but  it  ought  not  to  be  depended  upon  for  giving  permanent 
colors.  In  dyeing,  various  salts  of  tin  are  largely  used  for 
producing  fancy  shades  upon  cotton.  The  method  of  applica- 
tion usually  consists  in  mixing  the  solution  of  tin  with  the 
coloring  matter,  and  running  the  piece  through  the  mixture 
until  it  has  taken  up  as  much  as  is  required.  Colors  so  pro- 
duced do  not  possess  much  stability.  A  better  method  would 
be  to  prepare  the  cloth  first  with  tin,  by  means  of  the  stannate 
of  soda,  and  then  run  it  through  the  mixture  of  tin  solution 
and  dyewood.  The  basis  of  tin  being  more  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  fibre  in  this  case,  the  adhesion  of  the  colored 
compound  is  the  more  perfect. 

Salts  of  tin  cannot  be  advantageously  used  as  mordants  in 
the  way  that  red  liquor  and  iron  liquor  are  used  in  calico  print- 
ing. They  take  colors,  but  not  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  and 
the  shades  which  are  produced  are  very  loose  indeed,  so  that 
they  will  not  even  resist  the  clearing  operations  necessary  to 
obtain  good  whites.  Strong  red  mordant  is  often  mixed  with 
crystals  of  tin,  sometimes  with  a  view  of  enabling  it  to  resist 
colors  printed  over  it,  sometimes  with  the  intention  of  bright- 
ening the  color.  Such  a  mixture  is  subject  to  irregularities  in 
the  dye,  depending  apparently  upon  the  quality  of  the  red 
liquor  used.  There  are  cases  in  which  the  alumina  seems  to 
be  nearly  all  displaced  by  the  tin.  The  red  looks  very  well 
out  of  the  dye,  but  is  much  injured  in  the  soaping  and  clearing. 

Salts  of  tin  are  much  used  in  woollen  dyeing  and  printing ; 
and,  owing  probably  to  the  difference  in  structural  arrange- 


440  TOBACCO   COLOR— TURMERIC. 

ment  of  the  fibres,  produce  colors  which  for  permanence  leave 
little  to  desire.  The  stannate  of  soda  cannot  be  beneficially 
applied  to  woollen  goods  as  a  prepare,  on  account  of  its  alka- 
linity, which  is  detrimental  to  the  fibre.  It  is  usual  to  employ 
the  acid  solutions  of  tin,  as  the  oxymuriate,  sulpho-muriate, 
etc.,  from  which  the  woollen  fibre  easily  abstracts  the  required 
amount  of  oxide.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  silk,  which, 
however,  is  very  rarely  submitted  to  such  a  preparatory  mor- 
danting. 

The  colors  produced  by  tin  oxides  differ  from  those  of  alu- 
mina and  iron,  bearing  more  analogy  to  those  from  alumina 
than  to  the  iron  colors.  Solutions  of  tin  decompose  with 
greater  facility  than  those  of  either  iron  or  alumina,  and  the 
oxide  will  become  attached  to  cloth  under  circumstances  in 
which  not  a  particle  of  the  other  oxides  could  be  deposited. 
But  cotton  cloth  does  not  seem  capable  of  holding  it  in  a  large 
quantity ;  a  small  quantity  it  retains  with  a  pertinacity  which 
has  no  analogy  in  the  cases  of  the  other  mordants.  Similarly, 
tin  has  no  great  capacity  for  colors,  or  it  has  no  strong  retaining 
hold  of  them.  A  tin  mordant  can  be  dyed  up  and  the  color 
almost  soaped  out,  and  the  mordant  left  able  to  dye  again.  Tin 
is  most  useful,  and  forms  the  best  colors,  when  in  presence  of 
a  large  excess  of  coloring  principle. 

Tobacco  Color. — Any  shade  of  brown  resembling  the  color 
of  tobacco  may  be  so  called.  In  calico  printing  the  name  has 
been  used  for  a  brown  produced  by  a  double  dyeing  in  bark 
and  madder.  The  mordant  is  a  mixture  of  iron  and  red  liquor, 
printed,  dunged,  and  dyed  in  bark,  and  then  dyed  over  again 
in  a  small  quantity  of  madder.  The  bark  and  madder  may  be 
mixed  at  once,  instead  of  using  them  separately,  but  then  the 
results  are  not  so  certain. 

Turpentine,  Spirits  of  Turpentine. — Turpentine  is  somewhat 
largely  used  in  calico  printing,  at  least  it  is  employed  in  many 
colors.  Its  action  is  supposed  to  be  entirely  of  a  physical  na- 
ture, giving  smoothness  to  the  paste,  preventing  frothing,  etc. 
In  some  colors  where  spermaceti  or  oil  of  any  kind  is  an  in- 
gredient, the  use  of  turpentine  is  to  assist  in  diffusing  the  fatty 
matter  through  the  thickening.  In  some  few  cases,  as  in  albu- 
men colors,  and  in  cochineal  liquor,  turpentine  acts  as  an  anti- 
septic, and  preserves  the  animal  matter  from  putrefaction.  The 
addition  of  turpentine  to  steam  colors  is  thought  also  to  pre- 
vent the  "coppering"  alluded  to  on  page  422.  The  quantity  of 
turpentine  added  to  steam  colors  seldom  exceeds  ^  part  of 
their  bulk. 

Turmeric.— This  yellow  coloring  matter  is  the  root  of 
a  plant,  curcuma  longa,  growing  in  the  East  Indies.  Its  color- 


TUNGSTEN-ULTRAMARINE   BLUE  441 

:    T^Ste,       Th  ?T-g  matter  is  Called  curcumine. 

lungsten.— -  I  he  ore  of  this  metal  exists  in  tolerablv  lor™ 
quantities    m    Cornwall    in    conjunction    with  t^^     111 
through    its   compounds   it  has  a  resemblance  to  tin      Som 
years  ago  tungstate  of  soda  was  sent  into  commerce  to  be  used 
as  a  substitute  for  stannate  of  soda,  but  it  Tuld  no   answe 
and  all  attempts   to  apply  it  as  a  mordant   for  colo  s  failed 
Some  of  the   compounds  of   tungsten  have  good  colors  but 
they  vanish  m  trying  to  fix  them.°  If  some  tungstate  of  'soda 
be  put  into  a  vessel,  an  excess  of  muriatic  acid  added  and  hen 
some  slips  of  thin  zinc,  a  fine  blue  powder  will  be  formed  in  a 
short  time,  the  composition  of  which  is  not  very  well  known 
If  this  be  collected  on  a  filter  and  washed  it  soon  loses  color' 

llrJ6:  t'T8  If  ^  ""^  White*  Ma^  attemp"  ^ich 
I  made  to  put  this  blue  compound  into  something  like  an  in- 
active  state,  or  to  produce  it  upon  the  cloth  itself,  were  without 
any  practical  result.  It  appears  from  all  my  trials  that  tuner. 
sten  would  be  of  no  use  in  dyeing  or  printing,  however  cheap 
or  plentiful  it  might  be. 


u. 


Ultramarine  Blue.— An  artificial  preparation  closely  re- 
sembling both  m  hue  and  chemical  composition;  the  natural 
and  high  priced  ultramarine  blue  is  now  extensively  manu- 
factured. It  is  a  powder  quite  insoluble  in  water  or  any  other 
known  menstruum,  withstands  exposure  to  air  and  light  without 
any  injury  to  its  brightness  ;  is  not  altered  by  alkalies,  but  its 
color  is  immediately  destroyed  by  acids  with  evolution  of  a 
sulphuretted  gas.  It  is  only  a  fast  color  when  worked  with 
albumen  or  lactarine;  for  the  calico  printers'  purposes  it  must 
be  in  a  very  fine  powder,  and  when  mixed  with  albumen  or 
lactarine  solution,  it  must  be  well  stirred  up  with  it  so  as  to 
thoroughly  incorporate  every  particle  of  the  powder  with  the 
thickening.  Not  being  a  solution,  it  will,  of  course,  gradually 
deposit  unless  the  mixture  is  very  thick ;  it  is  necessary  there- 
fore to  keep  it  occasionally  stirred  when  workino-  either  by 

mar.hinp  nr  HW.L- 


machine  or  block. 
29 


442  URINE — URANIUM. 

Ultramarine  blue  has  also  been  employed  in  finishing,  where 
it  gives  an  agreeable  purplish  blue  cast  to  the  white  pieces. 

Urine. — Urine  is  of  very  ancient  use  in  connection  with 
dyeing,  and  is  yet  employed,  but  not  to  the  same  extent  as  for- 
merly; because  for  many  of  its  uses  substitutes  are  found  in 
chemical  drugs,  which,  if  not  cheaper,  are  more  regular,  more 
easily  kept,  and  pleasanter  to  work  with.  Fresh  urine  is  of 
no  use  for  the  dyer's  purposes;  it  is  only  when  it  has  been 
kept  for  some  time,  and  after  fermentation  or  putrefaction  has 
commenced,  that  it  begins  to  possess  the  properties  on  account 
of  which  it  is  valued.  In  this  state  it  is  called  lant.  Urine 
contains  a  substance  known  as  urea  ;  it  is  a  crystalline  mat- 
ter, neither  acid  nor  alkaline  itself,  but  of  a  basic  nature,  com- 
bining with  acids.  It  is  of  a  complex  composition,  and  its 
elements  are  so  arranged  that  it  takes  very  little  to  change  their 
order.  This  is  done  by  the  fermentation  which  naturally  com- 
mences in  urine,  and  all  the  urea  is  changed  into  carbonate  of 
ammonia,  which,  remaining  in  the  liquor,  communicates  to  it 
its  soapy  or  alkaline  properties.  The  strong  smell  of  old  urine 
is  due  to  this  carbonate  of  ammonia,  which  is  in  composition 
the  same  as  ordinary  smelling  salts ;  and  if  the  smell  of  old 
lant  is  not  quite  so  agreeable  as  these  salts,  it  is  because  there 
are  animal  matters  of  another  nature  present  in  it,  which  mix 
their  odors  with  that  of  the  ammonia.  Lant  is  therefore  of  an 
alkaline  nature,  and  its  action  upon  substances  can  be  partly 
predicated  from  that  knowledge  ;  it  will  tend  to  neutralize  and 
kill  acids,  and  generally  to  act  as  a  weak  solution  of  crystals 
of  soda  would.  It  is  employed  in  bleaching  wood,  in  several 
cases  of  dyeing  to  modify  and  change  the  shade,  and  to  moisten 
dyewoods  with  before  using.  It  is  used  to  develop  some  color- 
ing matter,  as  those  of  archil,  litmus,  and  cudbear,  and  is  still 
employed  in  the  composition  of  the  indigo  vat. 

Uric  Acid. — .This  acid  may  be  mentioned  in  connection 
with  urine,  because  it  is  very  frequently  present  in  it,  but 
always  in  small  quantities,  except  in  cases  of  disease.  It  is  not 
worth  while  extracting  it  from  urine,  but  it  can  be  obtained  in 
good  quantity  from  the,  excrement  of  birds  and  serpents. 
Guano,  in  a  genuine  state,  contains  a  good  deal  of  uric  acid, 
and  the  white  excrement  of  the  boa  constrictor  is  a  nearly  pure 
compound  of  uric  acid  and  ammonia.  Uric  acid  has  created  a 
high  interest  within  these  few  years,  on  account  of  a  splendid 
purple  color  which  can  be  obtained  from  it,  and  which  has  been 
applied  to  some  extent  upon  silk,  wool,  and  cotton.  The  color- 
ing matter  is  called  MUREXIDE,  which  see. 

Uranium. — This  is  the  name  of  a  metal  which,  up  to  the 
present  time,  has  been  found  but  in  small  quantities,  and  is, 


VALONIA  -WALNUT  PEELS.  443 


for  coloring  matters      It  seem, 
applications  in 


—* 


V. 

Valonia,   Valonia  Nuts— 


„ 

made  to  employ  the  valonif  nuts  in  do 


= 


more  success  in  some  branches  of  silk  dyeing 

yanadmm.-This  metal  is  said  to  have  some  resemblances 
in  ,ts  combmat.ons  to  the  compounds  of  chromium  an7hopes 

beYbt  i^eTif  w?l?  Vf  TF  a  Plentifd  SU^]y  o"  Hs  oreTan 
oe  oDtained  it  will  be  of  some  use  in  printing  and  dveine- 
The  late  Dr.  Ure  stated  that  an  ink  could  be  prepared  from  ft 
of  very  superior  color  and  durability.  It  is  exc 

7          '  "^  ^  ket  aS  a  chemical  ° 


specmen  °r 

Vermilion.—  This  brilliant  pigment  is  a  compound  of  sul 
phur  and  mercury.  It  is  too  dense,  and  too  deficient  in  ^ver 
mg  power,  to  be  employed  in  calico  printing. 

Vitriol.—  This  is  the  old  name  given  to  sulphate  of  iron 
or  green  copperas  and  seems  also  to  have  been  generally  ap- 
plied to  the  meta  he  sulphates,  as  vitriol  of  copper;  of  zinc,  etc 

White  Vitriol  is  sulphate  of  zrnc. 

Blue  Vitriol  is  sulphate  of  copper. 

Green  Vitriol  is  sulphate  of  iron. 

Oil  of  Vitriol,  or  Vitriol,  is  the  still  common  name  of  sul- 
phuric acid.  • 


W. 


Walnut  Peels.— The  rinds  or  husks  of  fresh  walnuts  are 

known  to  contain  a  colorable  matter,  for  though  white 

when  freshly  opened  the  air  soon  causes  them  to  turn  brown 

black ;  and  if  the  juice  fall  upon  the  skin  it  speedily  dyes 


444  WATER. 

it  a  dark  brown  color  not  .easily  removed.  It  does  not  appear 
that  the  British  dyers  make  any  general  use  of  walnut  peels, 
but  on  the  continent  they  are  much  employed  for  saddened 
shades  upon  wool.  Berthollet  says  the  peels  are  gathered 
when  the  nut  is  entirely  ripe,  if  taken  from  unripe  nuts  they 
are  still  applicable,  but  do  not  keep  so  long;  they  are  stored 
in  casks  which  are  filled  with  water,  and  not  used  until  one  or 
two  years  old.  Woollen  requires  no  mordant  for  dyeing  in 
the  decoction,  and  is  simply  wetted  out  and  worked  in  until 
the  desired  shade  is  obtained.  The  shades  obtained  from  wal- 
nut peels  are  esteemed  on  account  of  their  softness,  and  the 
absence  of  a  harsh  feel,  which  colors  saddened  with  green  cop- 
peras always  possess. 

The  root  of  the  walnut  tree  gives  the  same  colors,  but 
being  less  rich  in  coloring  principle  a  greater  quantity  has  to 
be  employed. 

Water. — Water  is  the  most  important  substance  which  is 
used  by  the  dyer  and  printer,  it  enters  into  all  his  processes, 
and  its  quality  so  much  influences /the  results  which  can  be 
obtained,  that  every  precaution  should  be  used  to  procure  a 
good  supply  in  the  first  instance,  and  to  provide  against  the 
entrance  of  any  contaminating  matters  into  it.  If  the  situation 
of  the  print  or  dye  works  compels  the  use  of  an  inferior  water, 
great  pains  should  be  taken  to  ascertain  its  composition,  the 
nature  of  its  variations,  and  the  probability  of  being  able  to 
improve  it  by  chemical  treatment.  A  volume  might  be  writ- 
ten upon  this  subject,  but  its  applicability  would  not  be  gene- 
ral. There  are  some  print  and  dye  works  so  fortunately 
situated  as  never  to  have  any  difficulty  upon  this  matter, 
requiring  no  lodges,  no  reservoirs,  no  filters,  and  hardly  any 
pipes  beyond  wooden  spouts  to  supply  all  the  needs  of  the 
Works.  There  are  others  who  are  never  for  a  day  without 
anxiety  about  the  state  of  their  water,  and  to  whom  the  filter- 
ing and  purifying  of  a  supply,  over  the  quality  of  which  they 
have  little  or  no  control,  is  a  constant  source  of  trouble  and 
expense. 

Perfectly  pure  water  does  not  appear  to  exist  in  nature ;  it 
is  artificially  prepared  by  distilling  ordinary  water,  with 
several  precautions,  in  vessels  of  silver  or  platinum.  Steam 
is  pure  water  in  the  gaseous  state,  and  when  it  is  condensed, 
the  water  is  obtained  pure.  Ordinary  steam,  or  condensed 
water,  is  subject  to  be  contaminated  by  several  impurities  :  iron 
from  the  pipes  is  sometimes  found;  ammonia,  from  vegetable 
or  animal  matter  present  in  the  water;  and  very  generally  a 
certain  volatile  oily  matter,  probably  originating  from  the  tal- 
low or  other  grease  used  in  the  boiler,  as  well  as  impurities 


WATER.  44.5 

derived  from  the  packings  of  the  steam  pipes.  But  when  the 
pipes  are  well  seasoned  and  the  original  water  not  very  impure 
steam  water  is  nearly  pure  water,  and  for  all  practical  purposes 
may  be  taken  as  such.  All  the  natural  sources  of  water  are 
derived  from  ram,  which  is  produced  by  the  condensation  of 
vapor  originally  rising  from  the  waters  of  the  ocean.  This 
being  a  great  natural  distillation,  it  will  be  anticipated  that 
rain  water  is  the  purest  of  all  kinds  of  water.  When  care- 
fully collected  at  a  distance  from  human  habitations,  rain 
water  only  differs  from  the  purest  distilled  water  by  contain- 
ing minute  quantities  of  organic  matter,  and  certain  gaseous 
bodies  which  it  has  imbibed  from  the  atmosphere.  But  the 
moment  it  touches  the  earth,  its  solvent  powers  are  so  consid- 
erable, that  it  is  instantly  contaminated  with  earthy  matters  to 
a  greater  or  less  degree,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the 
ground.  The  impurities  of  water  consist  in  the  mineral  or 
vegetable  matters  which  it  has  extracted  from  the  earth  over 
or  through  which  it  has  passed  from  its  first  fall.  If  the 
ground  be  composed  of  hard  insoluble  rocks,  the  water  passes 
over  or  through  them,  taking  up  very  little  of  their  constitu- 
ents in  its  passage,  even  though  the  contact  may  have  been  a 
prolonged  one ;  such  a  water  will  be  a  soft  and  pure  water, 
whether  it  flow  as  a  river  or  rise  as  a  spring.  If,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  ground  be  composed  of  substances  dissolvable  by 
water,  the  water  will  soon  become  saturated  with  the  soluble 
principles ;  if  a  current  of  pure  water  meet  a  bed  of  rock  salt 
it  becomes  brine;  if  it  pass  through  or  over  a  strata  of  lime- 
stone or  gypsum,  it  soon  becomes  charged  with  those  sub- 
stances constituting  a  hard,  limy,  or  calcareous  water.  If  the 
land  from  which  the  water  drains  be  peaty  or  boggy,  contain- 
ing much  vegetable  matter,  a  small  portion  of  this  will  be  dis- 
solved. Though  the  quantity  of  these  adventitious  matters  is 
small  when  compared  with  the  water  itself,  they  influence  its 
quality  to  a  remarkable  extent  as  a  medium  of  communicating 
colors.  Perfectly  pure  water  would  be  the  best  for  all  manu- 
facturing purposes,  if  it  were  procurable.  The  preference  for 
any  particular  source  of-  water  is  always  traceable  to  the 
absence  of  injurious  components,  or  to  the  fortuitous  occur- 
rence of  some  substance  which  acts  as  a  corrective  of  a  natural 
impurity,  and  not  to  the  existence  of  the  impurity  itself.  There 
are,  however,  some  colors  which  can  be  dyed  very  well  in 
water  strongly  impregnated  with  mineral  matters,  and  it  is 
thought  with  better  results  than  in  pure  water;  but  in  all 
known  cases  it  is  possible  to  add  such  chemicals  to  pure  water 
so  as  to  produce  equally  good  results.  But  it  is  not  possible 
so  to  remove  the  impurities  from  water,  as  to  make  it  in  every 


446  WATEE. 

case  equal  to  a  naturally  good  supply.  In  making  choice  of  a 
source  of  water,  not  only  the  quantity  but  the  peculiar  nature 
of  the  impurities  must  be  taken  into  account.  Some  impuri- 
ties are  readily  removed  by  filtration  and  exposure  to  the  air, 
others  are  not  affected  by  such  a  treatment ;  spme  can  be 
readily  purified  by  lime,  others  are  not  in  the  least  improved 
by  it;  one  class  of  impurities  is  injurious  to  one  style  of  pro- 
duction, but  not  to  another,  and  so  on.  As  a  general  rule  it 
may  be  laid  down  that  river  water,  that  is,  surface  drainage 
water,  contains  the  least  amount  of  mineral  matters  and  the 
largest  amount  of  vegetable  matter,  and  that  spring  or  well 
water  contains  the  greatest  quantity  of  mineral  substance,  with 
a  minimum  of  organic  matter. 

Up  to  the  present  time  the  following  substances  have  been 
detected  in  natural  waters: — 

Adds. — Carbonic,  sulphuric,  sulphurous,  nitric,  phosphoric, 

boracic,  silicic,  and  hydro-sulphuric. 
Bases. — Soda,  potash,  lithia,  ammonia,  lime,  magnesia,  strontia, 

baryta.alumina  protoxides  of  iron  and  manganese^  oxides  of 

zinc  and  copper,  tin,  lead,  silver,  antimony,  arsenic,  nickel, 

and  cobalt. 
Also,  Not  Being  Bases,  are  found  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine, 

fluorine,  sulphur,  and  hydrogen. 

Any  given  sample  of  water  would  only  contain  a  few  of  the 
above  substances,  but  it  is  possible  for  any  of  them  to  be  there. 
The  mineral  substances  mostly  found  in  river,  spring,  and  well 
water,  are  as  follows : — 

Lime,  combined  with  carbonic  acid,  and  with  sulphuric  acid, 
as  bicarbonate  and  sulphate  of  lime;  'magnesia  combined  fre- 
quently with  muriatic  acid,  sometimes  with  carbonic  acid ; 
potash  and  soda  usually  in  very  small  quantities ;  iron  in  the  state 
of  a  carbonate  held  in  solution  by  carbonic  acid,  or  in  some 
other  form ;  silicic  acid,  either  in  the  free  state  or  combined 
with  the  potash,  generally  the  former.  Those  which  chiefly 
concern  the  dyer  are  the  lime,  the  iron,  and  the  magnesia,  the 
remainder  are  of  little  consequence.- 

Lime  in  Water. — A  .practical  man  knows  when  his  water 
contains  lime  by  several  characters,  the  most  striking  of  which 
is  the  way  in  which  it  acts  with  soap:  a  calcareous  or  limy 
water  destroys  the  soap,  throws  it  up  as  a  curd,  and  does  not 
give  a  lather  until  as  much  soap  has  been  put  in  as  takes  up 
all  the  lime.  All  this  soap  is  wasted,  and  may  even  injure 
cloth  by  the  earthy  soap  produced,  not  being  washed  off  easily. 
But  the  soap  test  is  not  precisely  a  chemical  test  for  lime, 
because  there  are  many  other  substances  which  would  act  in  the 


WATER.  44.7 

same  manner;  but  these  substances  are  not  likely  to  be  present 
in  water,  unless  it  be  magnesia,  and  this  not  often,  so  that 
whenever  a  water  does  curd  soap,  it  may  be  looked  upon  as  a 
sure  indication  of  the  presence  of  lime.  The  quantity  of  soap 
which  a  given  bulk  of  water  can  destroy,  is  also  a  good  test 
of  the  quantity  of  lime  in  the  water;  it  may  be  used  roughly 
to  compare  two  different  waters,  or  the  same  water  at  different 
times;  an  exact  method  of  doing  this  is  given  further  on.  The 
reason  why  soap  is  destroyed  by  a  hard  water  is,  that  being  a 
compound  of  fatty  matter  with  soda,  the  whole  dissolves  in 
pure  water,  but  the  fatty  matter  is  said  to  have  a  stronger 
desire  to  go  to  the  lime  than  to  remain  with  the  soda ;  a^d 
when  in  contact  with  the  lime  it  combines  with  it,  leaving  the 
soda,  and  because  the  compound  of  lime  and  fatty  matter 
cannot  dissolve  in  water,  it  rises  as  a  greasy  curd  until  all  the 
lime  is  combined  with  the  fatty  matter.  A  hard  water  can  be 
made  soft  for  some  purposes  by  the  addition  of  soda  ash,  or 
soda  crystals :  if  the  water  be  brought  to  a  boil  after  addition 
of  soda,  most  of  the  lime  will  rise  up  as  a  scum  to  the  surface, 
which  must  of  course  be  taken  off*  before  any  goods  are  entered. 
The  proper  chemical  test  for  lime  in  water  is  the  salt  called 
oxalate  of  ammonia;  when  a  clear  solution  of  this  is  poured 
into  a  water  containing  even  a  very  small  quantity  of  lime,  it 
indicates  it  by  producing  a  milkiness,  which  on  standing,  settles 
down  as  white  sediment,  the  quantity  of  this  sediment  or  pre- 
cipitate will  be  proportionate  to  the  amount  of  lime  in  the 
water.  But  neither  this  nor  the  soap  test  will  show  what  kind 
of  salt  of  lime  is  in  the  water;  they  show  the  same  characters 
whether  it  be  gypsum  (sulphate  of  lime),  chalk,  or  muriate  of 
lime.  Further  tests  are  required  to  ascertain  which  is  really 
present.  If  about  a  pint  of  water,  containing  lime  salts,  be 
boiled  down  in  a  glass  flask  until  it  is  reduced  to  half  a  noggin, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  water  is  turbid,  and  that  the  sides  of  the 
flask  are  covered  with  a  white  pellicle.  This  indicates  that 
either  sulphate  of  lime,  or  carbonate  of  lime,  or  both,  are  pre- 
sent; to  the  fluid  in  the  flask  let  a  few  drops  of  spirits  of  salts 
be  added ;  if  there  is  an  effervescence,  and  the  liquid  becomes 
quite  clear,  it  shows  that  all  the  lime  is  present  as  carbonate 
of  lime;  if  there  is  no  effervescence  and  no  clearing  of  the 
liquid,  it  may  be  judged  that  it  is  sulphate  of  lime;  and  if,  as 
usually  happens,  there  is  an  effervescence  and  only  a  partial 
clearing,  it  proves  that  there  is  a  mixture  of  both  salts  of  lime ; 
to  determine  how  much  of  each  requires  analytical  processes. 
If  there  is  no  deposit  or  milkiness  in  the  flask  after  the  boiling 
down,  either  there  is  no  lime  at  all,  or  else  it  is  in  the  very 
unusual  condition  of  muriate,  or  nitrate  of  lime. 


44-8  WATER. 

With  regard  to  the  different  actions  of  these  two  salts  of 
lime,  that  is,  the  carbonate  of  lime  and  the  sulphate  of  lime,  in 
dyeing,  it  may  be  said  that  they  are  both  injurious  to  fine 
colors,  but  neither  of  them  hurtful  to  saddened  or  dark  colors, 
unless  the  water  be  impregnated  to  a  very  great  extent.  Car- 
bonate of  lime  in  water  is  thought  to  be  advantageous  in  mad- 
der dyeing,  especially  with  certain  kinds  of  madder,  and  very 
frequently  ground  chalk  is  added  to  the  water  before  dyeing 
with  it,  to  make  up  any  deficiency.  Sulphate  of  lime  in  con- 
siderable quantity  is  injurious  to  madder  dyeing,  and  indeed  to 
sill  kinds  of  dyeing  with  woods,  causing  a  waste  of  coloring 
matter  and  giving  inferior  results ;  it  is  hardly  possible  to  dye 
good  bright  light  shades  in  such  a  water. 

Magnesia  in  Water. — If  the  magnesia  be  in  the  water  in  the 
state  of  muriate  or  chloride,  and  not  inclined  to  become  carbo- 
nate by  boiling  (which  it  does  if  much  carbonate  of  lime  be  in 
the  water),  it  will  not  be  hurtful,  the  same  if  it  exist  as  sul- 
phate. But  if  it  exist  in  the  water  as  carbonate,  or  can  be 
transformed  to  such,  it  may  prove  very  detrimental  indeed, 
completely  preventing  the  dyeing  of  certain  colors,  and  spoiling 
others.  It  appears  from  my  experiments  that  magnesia  is 
much  more  injurious  in  water  for  madder  dyeing  than  lime, 
and  that,  in  fact,  in  the  state  of  bicarbonate  or  carbonate,  either 
actual  or  possible,  it  is  more  to  be  feared  than  any  other  com- 
mon ingredient  of  natural  water. 

Iron  in  Water. — Most  waters  contain  a  small  quantity  of 
iron  ;  it  usually  exists  as  a  bicarbonate  of  iron  ;  some  waters 
contain  so  much  that  the  stream  is  quite  of  a  rusty  color,  and 
the  bottom  and  sides  perfectly  yellow  with  the  iron  rust  which 
has  deposited  from  the  water.  It  is  fortunate  that  this  metal 
has  a  great  tendency  to  fall  out  of  water  spontaneously,  that  is, 
simply  by  contact  with  the  air,  because  many  spring  waters 
contain  iron  and  are  quite  unfit  for  dyeing  and  bleaching  pur- 
poses ;  but  by  a  process  of  filtration  and  exposure  to  the  air  the 
iron  may  be  completely  separated.  The  best  test  for  iron  in 
water  is  tincture  of  logwood  or  logwood  liquor;  when  a  single 
drop  of  strong  logwood  liquor  is  put  into  a  wineglass  full  of 
water  free  from  iron,  it  gives  either  a  sherry  color  or  a  claret, 
depending  upon  the  amount  of  lime  present;  but  if  there  be 
any  iron  the  color  changes  to  blue,  blue  black,  and  finally  to 
inky  black,  depending  upon  the  quantity  of  that  metal  con- 
tained in  the  water.  This  test  must  be  judged  of  within  a 
short  interval  of  time,  for  if  the  glasses  be  left  exposed  to  the 
air,  the  logwood  becomes  altered,  turning  darker,  and  might  be 
supposed  to  indicate  iron  when  in  reality  there  was  none.  In 
testing  a  spring  water  for  iron  in  this  way,  it  is  necessary  that 


WATER.  449 

the  water  should  be  freshly  drawn ;  if  it  be  some  days  or  even 
hours  old,  especially  if  it  be  carried  far  in  a  bottle,  all  the  iron 
is  thrown  out  as  insoluble  oxide,  and  the  change  of  color  does 
not  take  place.  The  influence  of  a  water  holding  iron  in  sola- 
tion,  upon  dyeing  is  very  marked;  it  turns  pinks  into  drabs, 
and  reds  into  dull  browns  and  chocolates;  if  much  iron  be 
present  it  prevents  dyeing  altogether,  for  the  iron  in  the  water 
combines  with  the  coloring  matters  and  the  cloth  receives  none 
or  only  a  feeble  proportion.  An  exaggerated  specimen  of  a 
ferruginous  water  may  be  obtained  for  experiments  from  an 
iron  steampipe  where  condensed  water  has  stood  for  a,  day  or 
two;  it  will  be  quite  clear  and  bright  looking,  but  if  left  in  an 
open  basin  for  a  few  hours,  the  iron  rust  will  be  seen  to  separate 
or  if  a  bleached  fent  be  dipped  in  it,  and  hung  up,  it  will  soon 
become  of  a  light  buff  color;  in  such  a  water  madder  refuses 
to  dye,  all  colors  are  injured  except  blacks  and  saddened  shades, 
and  under  no  circumstances  will  it  leave  the  whites  of  printed 
cloth  clear,  or  possible  to  be  cleared,  without  almost  destroying 
the  dyed  color. 

Other  Substances  in  Water. — The  potash  and  soda  salts  which 
often  exist  in  water  are  usually  without  any  marked  effect  in 
dyeing  or  bleaching,  being  present  in  very  small  quantities  and 
generally  of  a  neutral  nature.  The  silicic  acid,  which  is  a  fre- 
quent constituent  of  water,  but  in  small  quantities,  is  likewise 
without  any  marked  action  in  dyeing;  from  the  author's  ex- 
periments, it  appears  that  pure  hydrated  silicic  acid  is  injurious 
in  madder  dyeing,  but  not  strikingly  so.  The  organic  matter 
which  is  contained  in  some  waters,  and  which  has  received  the 
names  of  crenic  and  apocrenic  acid,  is  not  without  influence  in 
dyeing;  but  it  is  more  in  bleaching,  and  especially  in  clearing 
printed  goods  that  the  presence  of  organic  matter  is  trouble- 
some. It  prevents  the  brilliant  white  finish  on  bleached 
goods,  and  often  in  the  chemicking  causes  them  to  take  a  yellow 
cast  very  difficult  to  remove.  In  clearing  madder  prints  in. 
the  beck  with  solution  of  bleaching  powder,  and  water  charged 
with  organic  matter,  the  reaction  between  the  chemic  and  the 
vegetable  matter  when  the  temperature  is  raised  causes  the 
formation  of  a  yellow  or  brownish  matter  which  falls  upon  the 
cloth  and  spoils  the  whites,  and  is  not  easily  removed  ;  at  the 
same  time  the  color  is  injured.  A  good  test  for  this  condition 
of  vegetable  matter  in  water  consists  in  taking  about  a  pint  of 
the  water  and  mixing  with  it  about  half  an  ounce  of  clear 
bleaching  powder  solution  standing  at  2°  Tw.,  and  warming  in 
a  glass  flask  to  about  160°  F.;  if  it  goes  yellowish,  and  in  a 
short  time  deposits  a  buff  colored  deposit,  it  may  be  considered 
certain  that  it  is  not  fit  to  clear  pieces  by  the  old  plan ;  for 


450  WATER. 

clearing  in  the  padding  machine  and  steam  box,  much  less 
water  being  used,  it  does  not  matter  so  much.  Nitrate  of 
silver,  chloride  of  gold,  and  permanganate  of  potash  are  also 
used  as  tests  for  the  presence  of  vegetable  matter  in  water. 

Purification  of  Water. — Few  works  are  so  fortunately  situated 
as  to  be  able  to  use  water  without  some  purifying  process,  and 
none  should  be  without  the  means  of  purifying  in  case  of  ne- 
cessity, for  the  best  streams  are  at  times  unfit  for  working  with, 
and  unless  filters  are  at  hand,  the  works  must  stop  until  the 
water  becomes  clear  again.  The  purifying  agents  to  be  em- 
ployed /ire  principally  those  of  nature — exposure  to  air  and 
light,  and  a  straining  out  of  suspended  matters  by  filtration. 
The  methods  employed  are  too  well  known  to  need  description 
in  detail.  The  water  from  the  source  is  led  or  pumped  into  a 
reservoir  of  size  proportionate  to  the  wants  of  the  works,  the 
larger  the  better,  and  preferably  long  and  narrow,  so  that  as 
much  distance  as  possible  may  exist  between  the  water  coming 
in  and  that  flowing  out  to  the  filters.  This  reservoir  is  meant 
to  keep  up  a  stock,  and  to  allow  mud,  etc.,  to  settle  out;  some- 
times two  are  used  alternating,  to  allow  the  water  some  hours 
of  quietness.  From  this  depositing  reservoir  the  water  goes 
on  to  the  filters.  In  many  works,  where  the  stream  of  water 
is  not  clear  enough  to  be  used  without  settling,  and  yet  settles 
very  clear,  filters  are  not  thought  necessary.  This  will  answer 
for  many  kinds  of  water,  but  not  with  all,  because  even  per- 
fectly clear  water  may  contain  so  much  iron  or  organic  matter 
as  to  give  very  inferior  results  in  the  dyehouse.  The  object 
of  filtration  is  something  more  than  to  remove  visible  foreign 
matters  in  the  water,  and  if  it  should  turn  out  that  the  water, 
even  when  quite  clear,  is  not  giving  good  work,  filtration 
should  be  tried.  The  filter  is  essentially  a  bed  of  coarse  sand, 
supported  upon  pebbles  and  boulders.  The  filtration  being 
downwards,  the  water  passes  through  the  sand  and  on  to  the 
works  by  proper  arrangements,  as  is  well  understood.  The 
surface  of  the  filters  should  be  as  large  as  the  space  at  com- 
mand will  allow,  both  because  they  will  then  filter  more  water 
and  filter  it  better.  The  sand  acts  partly  as  a  strainer  to  keep 
back  the  mechanically  suspended  impurities,  but  its  most  im- 
portant action  is  of  another  nature — the  exposition  of  the  water 
more  completely  to  the  action  of  the  air.  Each  particle  of  sand 
becomes  covered  with  a  film  of  water  so  thin  that  the  air  can 
act  very  completely  upon  it,  penetrating  it  as  it  were  through 
and  through.  The  vegetable,  and  some  of  the  mineral  impu- 
rities, are  changed  by  the  action  of  the  air;  they  become  in- 
soluble in  the  water,  and,  instead  of  passing  through  the  filter, 
they  adhere  to  the  particles  of  sand,  in  the  form  of  a  slimy, 


WATER.  451 

glairy  substance.  If  the  water  be  bad,  this  slime  collects  in 
such  quantity  as  to  stop  the  action  of  the  filter,  either  not 
letting  the  water  pass  through  at  all,  or  letting  it  pass  through 
without  purifying  it.  The  remedy  consists  in  scraping  the  top 
sand  off  the  filter  deep  enough  to  remove  that  portion  saturated 
with  impurities,  when  the  filtration  will  go  on  again.  The 
depth  of  sand  required  to  filter  well  depends  a  good  deal  upon 
its  quality  or  fineness,  and  the  kind  of  water  to  be  filtered.  A 
bed  twelve  inches  thick  should  be  sufficient  under  all  ordinary 
circumstances,  and  it  should  not  be  reduced  to  less  than  four 
inches  by  scraping.  When  the  sand,  after  being  used,  is  well 
washed  with  violent  agitation,  the  impurities  of  the  water  are 
in  a  great  measure  detached,  and  it  can  be  employed  over  again, 
but  it  is  best  to  leave  the  washed  sand  several  weeks  exposed 
to  the  air  before  spreading  it  on  the  filters.  When  water  is 
highly  charged  with  vegetable  impurities,  the  filter  does  not 
seem  to  remove  them,  but,  by  paying  attention  to  a  few  points, 
the  water  may  generally  be  made  useable.  First,  as  above 
stated,  it  is  the  air  which  purities  the  water,  the  sand  being 
the  instrument  or  apparatus  for  exposing  the  water  to  the  air° 
the  worse  the  water,  the  greater  pains  must  be  taken  to  let  the 
air  have  access  to  it;  the  filter  bed  must  not  be  overcharged 
with  water,  that  is,  it  must  not  have  several  inches  of  water, 
floating  over  the  sand,  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  surface  of  the 
sand  should  be  exposed  to  the  air,  the  water  only  flowing  on 
to  it  as'  fast  as  it  passes  through  ;  and,  secondly,  the  water 
should  not  be  allowed  to  collect  under  the  sand,  but  be  drawn 
off  nearly  as  fast  as  it  filters;  by  this  means  the  foundation  of 
the  filter  is  kept  full  of  air,  and,  after  passing  through  the  sand, 
the  water  gets  a  subsequent  purification  in  trickling  over  the 
pebbles  and  boulders  below.  If  the  water  is  not  good  after 
this  treatment,  it  must  be  bad,  indeed,  and  the  lime  treatment 
should  be  tried. 

Purification  of  Water  ly  Lime, — Lime  has  been  used  for  a 
long  time 'to  purify  water;  and,  though  it  was  patented  a  few 
years  ago,  by  Mr.  Clarke,  it  was  practised  long  previously, 
sometimes  by  throwing  lumps  of  lime  into  the  pits  or  lodges, 
sometimes  by  slacking  the  lime  in  a  tub,  and  throwing  it  in, 
as  milk  of  lime,  with  a  scope,  but  it  is  probable  that  Mr.  Clarke 
may  have  been  the  first  to  apply  it  to  water  for  domestic  pur- 
poses. The  action  of  lime  upon  water  is  twofold  ;  in  the  first 
place,  water  which  contains  the  bicarbonate  of  lime  is  deprived 
of  this  substance  by  the  addition  of  lime,  for,  though  it  may 
seem  paradoxical  that  lime  should  throw  out  lime,  it  is  never- 
theless quite  true,  and  easily  proved,  that  such  a  water  contains 
less  lime  after  the  addition  of  a  proper  quantity  of  lirne  than 


452  WATER. 

previously,  that  is,  after  settling  and  filtration  ;  the  lime  added 
combines  with  the  lime  in  the  water,  and  both  together  fall 
down  as  a  sediment.  If  any  bicarbonate  of  magnesia  be  in  the 
water,  it  will  also  be  precipitated.  The  second  action  of  lime 
is  to  throw  out  vegetable  matters,  and  whether  it  accomplishes 
this  by  combining  with  them  itself  and  carrying  them  down, 
or  whether  it  i*  that  the  bicarbonate  of  lime  in  the  water 
keeps  them  in  solution,  and  upon  its  being  destroyed,  they 
fall  out,  or  whether  the  action  is  made  up  of  both  these  is  not 
clearly  known,  but  it  is  a  fact  that  lime  tends  to  diminish  the 
quantity  of  organic  or  vegetable  matter  in  water.  There  need- 
be  little  fear  of  applying  an  excess  of  lime,  or,  at  any  rate,  of 
that  excess  doing  any  harm.  It  is  not  possible  to  say  what 
the  quantity  is  that  should  be  used,  circumstances  varying  so 
much;  but  the  author  has  known  seven  hundred  pounds 
weight  of  quick  lime  applied,  in  ten  hours,  to  about  three 
hundred  thousand  gallons  of  water,  and  with  good  effect,  but 
as  a  daily  addition  one  quarter  of  this  quantity  should  suffice. 
The  lime  should  be  added  to  the  water  in  such  a  state  as  to 
ensure  its  utmost  action,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  it  may  be 
thoroughly  mixed,  therefore  it  should  not  be  thrown  in  in 
lumps,  but  carefully  slacked  and  mixed  into  a  kind  of  cream 
with  water.  If  practicable,  it  should  be  added  to  the  water  as 
it  runs  in  the  channel  from  the  source  to  the  first  reservoir, 
letting  the  milk  of  lime  flow  from  a  tub  into  the  water  in  a 
regular  small  stream,  then,  both  running  together,  they  will  be 
well  mixed,  and  the  lime  exercise  its  full  action.  The  lirne 
should  be  allowed  time  to  perform  its  duty,  and  space  enough 
to  settle  in  before  arriving  at  the  filter,  or  else  it  will  be 
troublesome,  by  choking  the  filter.  As  before  remarked,  it  is 
hardly  possible  for  an  injurious  excess  of  lime  to  be  added,  or 
to  pass  through  the  filter,  the  air  removing  an  excess  very 
quickly ;  but  if  an  excess  is  suspected  it  can  be  tested  by  red 
litmus  paper,  which  is  turned  blue  by  lime-water,  or  better,  by 
adding  a  drop  of  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  to  a  wine  glass 
full  of  it,  when,  if  it  gives  a  brown  precipitate,  an  excess  of 
lime  may  be  considered  as  present.  Lime  should  not  be  used 
excepting  the  ordinary  means  of  purification  have  failed.  The 
great  point  is  to  imitate  nature,  as  far  as  possible,  in  her  method 
of  purifying  water,  and  that  is  exposing  it  to  the  air.  The  deep 
and  silently  flowing  rivers  are  never  so  brilliant  and  pure  as  the 
shallow  stream  which  runs  amongst  large  boulders,  over  gravel, 
and  sand,  the  waters  of  which  are  continually  broken  into  sheets, 
and  thrown  up  into  contact  with  the  air.  The  power  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  a  physical  agent  like  sand,  to  remove  sub- 
stances from  water  is  far  greater  than  is  generally  supposed, 


WATER.  453 

rendering  bodies  insoluble  and  inert  which  are  little  suspected 
of  being  acted  upon  by  it;  it  is,  on  a  large  scale,  what  animal 
black  is  in  the  laboratory,  or  even  that  more  powerful  a^ent, 
platinum  black,  the  properties  of  which  all  students  of  chem- 
istry are  acquainted  with. 

Other  Methods  of  Purifying  Water.— Several  methods  of  puri- 
fying water  have  been  patented  within  these  few  years,  but 
none  of  them  have  been  applied  on  a  sufficiently  extensive 
scale  to  enable  us  to  see  if  they  are  real  improvements.  The 
only  real  improvement  that  seems  possible  to  be  introduced, 
will  be  some  apparatus  that  shall  purify  and  filter  large  quan- 
tities  of  water  in  a  small  space.  At  present,  the  filters  and 
water  lodges  take  up  a  good  deal  of  ground,  which  could  be 
otherwise  employed  if  any  such  apparatus  was  to  be  intro- 
duced. There  is  not  much  inducement  to  spend  money  or 
time  in  such  a  matter  as  far  as  regards  dyeing,  bleaching,  etc.; 
because  the  works  are  usually  in  places  where  land  is  cheap,  and 
the  present  method  of  filtering  requires  very  little  attention'  and 
expense  to  keep  it  in  action;  but  a  compact  and  efficacious  filter- 
ing apparatus  would  doubtless  be  a  valuable  property, and  sooner 
or  later  be  adopted  by  all  who  use  large  quantities  of  water. 

Testing  and  Analysis  of  Water. — An  accurate  chemical  analysis 
of  water  requires  great  care,  ar?d  can  only  be  undertaken  by  a 
skilful  chemist  who  has  access  to  all  the  appliances  of  a  labora- 
tory ;  but  there  are  some  chemical  tests  which  may  be  applied 
and  give  useful  information  without  pretensions  to  absolute 
accuracy.  The  quantity  of  solid  matter  in  water  can  be  ascer- 
tained by  evaporating  a  thousand  or  ten  thousand  grains  to  dry- 
ness,  and  weighing  the  residue;  five  grains  of  solid  matter  per 
gallon  of  water  is  thought  small,  ten  grains  medium,  and  twenty 
grains  a  large  quantity.  Pure  water  contains  no  solid  matter, 
and  river  or  spring  water  is  better  the  less  it  contains,  con- 
sequently one  containing  five  grains  would  be  preferred  to  one 
containing  twenty  grains  per  gallon,  but  this  is  only  strictly 
true  when  the  contained  matters  are  similar  in  chemical  corn- 
position.  If  the  five  grains  in  the  one  case  were  mixed  car- 
bonates of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  the  twenty  grains  in  the 
other  common  salt,  then  the  five-grain  water  would  be  a  bad 
one,  and  tventy-grain  water  a  good  one.  Instances  are  com- 
mon enough  of  water  containing  twelve  to  fifteen  grains  of 
solid  matter  per  gallon  being  successfully  used  in  printing  and 
dyeing,  and  of  other  waters  not  containing  five  grains  being 
very  inferior.  The  quantity  of  solid  matter  alone  is  not  therefore 
a  good  ground  for  comparing  two  samples  of  water.  But  it  may 
be  taken  as  a  principle  that  that  solid  matter  in  water  which, 
after  having  been  dried,  is  again  dissoluble  by  pure  water  is 


454  .  WATER. 

not  a  kind  of  matter  hurtful  in  dyeing.  Thus,  sulphate  of 
soda,  carbonate  of  soda,  common  salt,  muriate  of  lime,  sulphate 
of  magnesia,  and  salts  of  potash,  when  dissolved  in  water,  may 
be  evaporated  to  dryness,  but  will  dissolve  again  if  mixed 
with  pure  water.  On  the  other  hand,  carbonate  of  lime,  car- 
bonate of  magnesia,  sulphate  of  lime,  oxide  of  iron,  and  other 
bodies  may  be  perfectly  dissolved  in  the  water  before  evapora- 
tion to  dryness,  but  by  the  evaporation  have  become  insoluble, 
and  are  no  longer  capable  of  forming  a  clear  solution  in  pure 
water. 

The  former  materials  are  not  hurtful  in  dyeing,  while  the 
latter  are  generally  very  hurtful.  An  additional  test,  there- 
fore, would  be  to  ascertain  how  much  of  the  solid  matter  was 
again  soluble  in  cold  water,  and  compare  the  amounts  of  the 
insoluble  residues;  but  this  would  not  be  conclusive,  because 
we  may  have  any  of  the  three  substances — iron,  magnesia,  and 
lime,  left  insoluble;  if  the  residue  was  all  iron  or  all  magnesia 
the  water  could  not  be  good,  while,  if  it  were  all  lime,  it  might 
be  suitable  for  many  styles  of  dyeing.  The  task  of  distin- 
guishing the  qualities  of  these  matters  must  be  left  to  the 
analytical  chemist,  being  entirely  a  laboratory  matter.  To 
obtain  some  information  as  to  the  comparative  amounts  of 
substances  in  two  or  more  samples  of  water,  glasses  may  be 
filled,  and  the  following  tests  applied,  comparing  the  effects 
produced: — 

Oxalate  of  Ammonia.* — A  white  precipitate  indicates  lime. 

Nitrate  of  Silver. — A  white  precipitate,  not  dissolved  by  pure 
nitric  acid,  indicates  chlorides. 

Nitrate  of  Baryta. — A  white  precipitate,  not  dissolved  by 
pure  nitric  acid,  indicates  sulphates. 

Lime  Water. — A  white  precipitate  indicates  carbonates. 

Phosphate  of  Soda,  with  addition  of  Ammonia. — Produces  a 
white  crystalline  precipitate  if  magnesia  be  present.  Be- 
fore testing  for  magnesia  the  lime  should  be  all  removed. 

Yellow  Prussiate  of  Potash.— A  blue  precipitate  indicates 
iron. 

Logwood  Solution. — A  dark  purplish  black  indicates  iron  ;  a 
deep  claret  indicates  carbonated  alkalies,  or  earths  in  solu- 
tion. 

The  greater  or  less  abundance  of  the  precipitates  produced 
will  be  in  ratio  with  the  quantity  of  substance  present. 

Test  for  Hardness  of  Water. — The  soap  test  for  ascertaining 
the  hardness  of  water  is  a  tincture  of  the  best  curd  soap,  made 
by  dissolving  one  part  of  it  in  75  parts  of  warm  distilled  water, 
and  then  adding  an  equal  volume  of  rectified  alcohol.  This 


WATER.  455 

strength  of  soap  tincture  is  not  the  only  one  which  can  be  used) 
but  it  is  convenient ;  it  does  not  gelatinize  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, which  it  would  do  if  made  stronger  or  without  alcohol ; 
it  keeps  well  if  there  be  no  acid  in  the  alcohol.  On  account  of 
the  variable  quality  of  the  soap  the  precise  quantity  of  lime 
required  to  curd  it  must  be  ascertained  by  experiment.  Take 
five  grains  of  marble  in  a  capacious  porcelain  dish,  and  dissolve, 
it  in  pure  hydrochloric  acid,  heat  to  expel  the  excess  of  acid, 
and  then  add  forty  ounces  of  distilled  water :  this  produces  an 
artificial  calcareous  water  representing  in  its  action  upon  the 
soap  twenty  grains  of  carbonate  of  lime  per  gallon  of  water ; 
it  should  be  again  mixed  with  one  or  two  volumes  of  distilled 
water,  because  the  action  of  the  test  is  not  clear  in  waters  con- 
taining an  excessive  amount  of  lime.  On  this  account  it  is 
often  advisable  to  mix  a  natural  water  to  be  tested  with  an 
equal  volume  of  pure  water.  The  water  to  be  tested  should  be 
put  in  a  phial,  which  it  should  not  fill  more  than  a  third,  and 
the  soap  tincture  added  slowly  from  a  graduated  measure,  with 
occasional  stoppages  for  the  purpose  of  violently  shaking  the 
mixture  ;  as  soon  as  the  soap  bubbles  remain  permanent  on  the 
surface  of  the  water  the  operation  is  finished.  Of  a  hard  water 
five  hundred  grains  is  sufficient  to  take  at  once,  mixed  with  an 
equal  volume  of  distilled  water;  of  a  less  hard  sample,  a  thousand 
grains  may  be  taken  without  admixture. 

A  soap  tincture  made  from  a  good  specimen  of  white  curd 
soap,  gave  the  following  results  in  the  author's  hands,  which 
may  serve  for  comparison  with  those  obtained  from  any  other 
good  soap.  The  quantity  of  water  used  in  each  case  was  one 
thousand  grains,  and  the  numbers  indicate  the  measures  of  soap 
tincture  required  to  produce  a  permanent  froth  or  lather,  each 
measure  equalling  ten  grains  of  water: — 

Distilled  water 2  to  3 

Eiver  water,  Cheshire 8 

Corporation  supply  to  Manchester 9 

River  near  Manchester 16 

Water  from  the  Thames ,30 

A  spring  water  in  Manchester 56 

Same  water  after  being  treated  with  lime  and 

filtered 32 

Mixed  spring  and  drainage  water,  neighborhood 

of  Manchester 34 

The  same  after  treatment  with  lime     .;-.'.  17 
A  spring  water  from  a  dye  works  near*  Man- 
chester       35 

Water  containing  chloride  of  calcium,  equal  to 

16  grains  carb.  lime-per  gal 26 


456  WATER. 

Water  which  will  not  froth  with  less  than  thirty  measures  of  a 
soap  tincture  is  not  well  suited  for  general  dyeing  purposes. 
I  would  not  recommend  a  dependence  upon  this  test  altogether, 
and  especially  independent  and  separate  observations  are  not 
of  much  value  ;  it  is  only  useful  as  a  comparative  test,  and,  as 
before  stated,  indicates  not  only  lime  salts^  but  all  other  salts 
of  oxides  which  form  insoluble  soaps  with  fatty  matters. 

It  has  been  stated  that  such  and  such  substances  are  injurious 
in  a  water  for  dyeing.  It  would  be  very  satisfactory  to  be  able 
to  define  the  precise  action  of  these  substances  in  the  dyeing, 
but  a  great  deal  must  be  left  to  conjecture  on  account  of  the 
absence  of  exact  information.  All  testimony  seems  to  concur 
in  proving  that  any  water,  which  upon  heating  or  boiling  pro- 
duces %  precipitate,  is  a  bad  water  for  dyeing;  further  than  that, 
water  which  is  conspicuous  for  producing  incrustations  in 
steam  boilers  is  a  bad  water,  both  because  it  must  contain  a 
large  proportion  of  mineral  matter  to  produce  this  effect,  and 
it  must  be  of  a  nature  to  fall  readily  out  of  solution.  Now, 
all  precipitates  formed  in  a  colored  liquor  combine  with  a 
greater  or  less  quantity  of  the  coloring  matter  and  render  it 
insoluble,  forming  a  species  of  lake;  and  this,  which  is  a  char- 
acteristic and  conspicuous  property  of  some  oxides,  as  iron, 
alumina,  and  tin,  when  so  precipitated,  is  true  in  a  less  degree 
not  only  of  all  other  oxides  but  also  of  insoluble  saline  com- 
pounds. Upon  these  grounds,  I  am  led  to  believe  that  the 
injurious  action  of  these  substances  in  water  is  owing  to  their 
abstracting  the  coloring  matter  from  the  solution,  which  they 
are  enabled  to  do  by  being  thrown  into  an  insoluble  and  basic 
state,  and  not  to  their  destroying  the  coloring  matter.  Thus 
magnesia  and  lime  in  the  state  of  bicarbonate  lose  carbonic  acid 
upon  heating  and  become  precipitates,  combining  with  the 
coloring  matter  and  impoverishing  the  bath  ;  in  the  same  way 
carbonate  of  iron  acts,  similarly  also  sulphate  of  lirne,  which 
seems  capable  of  forming  insoluble  compounds  with  coloring 
matters,  with  or  without  decomposition.  So  I  explain  why 
salts  such  as  sulphate  of  magnesia  and  muriate  of  lime  do  not, 
under  certain  circumstances,  appear  to  be  at  all  injurious  :  they 
are  not  capable  of  being  rendered  insoluble.  Beyond  this  view, 
however,  it  is  evident  that  coloring  matters  are  not  so  soluble 
in  certain  saline  solutions  as  in  pure  water,  or  in  other  saline 
solutions;  and  then,  consequently,  impure  waters  are  often 
defective  by  not  dissolving  the  coloring  matter  from  the  root 
or  wood. 

Some  waters  may  be  corrected  by  chemical  means,  but  there 
is  always  a  risk  in  attempting  it,  because  the  remedial  agents, 
if  used  in  excess,  would  prove  more  injurious  than  the  original 
defect.  Thus,  an  extremely  calcareous  water,  which  contains 


WATER.  457 

only  bicarbonate  of  lime,  may  be  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid  or 
oxalic  acid,  to  neutralize  the  lime,  and  this  is  frequently  done. 
With  some  qualities  of  madder  a  limy  water  dyes  very  well, 
because  the  madder  is  of  a  very  acid  nature  and  neutralizes  the 
lime ;  but  with  another  kind  of  madder  or  with  garancine,  the 
same  water  would  yield  very  bad  results. 

Solvent  Powers  of  Water.— Water  is  a  physical  rather  than  a 
chemical  agent  in  bleaching  and  dyeing ;  it  is  the  vehicle  which 
carries  the  chemical  substance  to  the  cloth  to  be  operated  upon, 
or  which  removes  the  matters  necessary  to  be  removed  from  it. 
When  a  substance  is  mixed  with  water,  it  may  either  be  dis- 
solved by  it,  and  disappear,  as  salt  does ;  or  it  may  remain  in 
suspension,  as  chalk  does.  Nothing  is  considered  to  be  actually 
dissolved  in  water  if  it  can  settle  out  again,  or  if  it  will  not 
pass  with  the  water  through  a  filter  made  of  paper  or  calico : 
thus,  to  talk  of  dissolving  ground  chalk  in  water  is  incorrect, 
for  if  allowed  to  stand  it  would  settle  out ;  or,  if  the  mixture 
were  filtered,  the  water  would  pass  clear  while  the  chalk  would 
remain  upon  the  calico ;  but  blue  vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper), 
for  example,  does  really  dissolve  in  water,  and  the  liquor  all 
filters  through  together :  to  deprive  the  water  of  the  blue  vitriol 
would  require  chemical  means  different  in  kind  from  filtration. 
Water,  therefore,  dissolves  some  substances  and  not  others. 
Water  does  not  dissolve  the  same  quantity  of  all  soluble  sub- 
stances; of  some  it  can  dissolve  its  own  weight,  and  more;  of 
others,  a  smaller  portion  ;  and  of  some,  extremely  little.  As  a 
rule,  hot  water  dissolves  more  than  cold,  and  more  quickly  than 
cold ;  but,  upon  cooling,  the  excess  mostly  falls  out  as  crystals. 
This  point  deserves  notice,  for  a  liquor,  which  is  of  right  strength 
when  a  little  warm,  may  be  too  weak  when  it  becomes  cold  ; 
left  in  a  carboy,  for  example,  in  a  cold  place,  because  the  salt 
crystallizes  out;  this  is  the  case  only  with  those  salts  that  are 
but  sparingly  soluble,  as  chlorate  of  potash,  cream  of  tartar, 
sulphate  of  potash,  etc.  This  crystallizing  is  sometimes 
troublesome  in  stearn  colors  which,  right  enough  when  freshly 
made,  become  filled  with  small  crystals  on  cooling,  and  work 
rough  in  the  machine :  it  is  felt  in  the  case  of  an  ageing  liquor, 
which  contains  chlorate  of  potash,  as  an  active  agent,  which, 
crystallizing  out,  leaves  the  liquor  weak  and  not  able  to  do  its 
work.  As  an  usual  thing,  the  drugroom  upon  a  printing  or 
dyeing  works  should  be  cool,  but  there  are  some  liquors  better 
in  a  moderately  warm  place;  brown  vitriol,  for  example,  in 
winter  time  is  apt  to  go  solid  in  the  carboys,  if  kept  in  an 
exposed  place.  In  the  following  table  will  be  found  most  of 
the  substances  used  in  bleaching,  dyeing,  and  calico  printing, 
with  useful  information  as  to  how  they  behave  themselves  with 


458 


WATER. 


water :  the  results  are  from  the  author's  experiments,  and  exact 
enough  for  pratical  purposes.  The  second  column  gives,  in 
comparative  expressions,  the  degree  of  solubility  of  the  sub- 
stances ;  the  third,  gives  the  degree  of  Twaddle  which  16  oz. 
of  the  substance  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  water  stands  at ;  and, 
in  the  fourth  column,  are  remarks  proper  to  the  particular 
substance.  By  this  table  one  can  calculate,  in  a  rough  practical 
kind  of  way,  how  much  of  a  salt  there  is  in  a  gallon  of  water 
by  knowing  its  strength  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  can  tell  how 
much  of  a  drug  to  use  to  make  a  liquor  at  a  certain  given 
strength  : — 

Tables  showing  the  Action  of  Water  upon  Various  Bodies,  and 
Strengths  of  Solutions  of  some  of  them. 


Substance. 

Action  of 
water. 

Strength 
of  a  sol. 
at  16  oz. 
per  gal. 

General  Remarks. 

Acid,  arsenious  
"     citric     

little  sol. 
very  sol. 
soluble 
very  sol. 
soluble 
soluble 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
soluble 
very  sol. 
soluble 
very  sol. 
soluble 
insoluble 
soluble 
soluble 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
soluble 

soluble 
insoluble 
insoluble 
soluble 
soluble 
soluble 
soluble 
soluble 
soluble 
soluble 
soluble 
soluble 
soluble 
soluble 
soluble 
soluble 
soluble 

Tw. 

ii] 
I 

10* 

10 
10 
10 

M 

BJ 
101 
y 

N 

UJ 

12 

11 

12 
10 
11 

sp  gr. 

1034 
1031 
1052 
1050 
1050 
1050 

1027 
1042 
1052 
1035 
1040 
1047 
1067 
1060 

1055 

1060 
1050 
1055 

Some  varieties   dissolve  easier  than 
[others. 
Saturated  solution. 

Nearly  saturated  in  the  cold. 
Coagulated  by  hot  water. 

Mineral  white,  heavy  spar.        [ment. 
Does  not  dissolve  clear,  always  sedi- 
Some  kinds  do  not   dissolve  without 
[acid. 
Mostly  sold  as  a  liquid. 

Sold  as  a  liquid. 
Dissolves  in  turpentine,  spirits,  oils. 
Dissolves  in  alkali,  soda. 
Coloring  matter  very  soluble. 
Dissolves  completely  in  water. 

Of  these  dyeing  matters  not  one  dis- 
solves completely  in  water.  Water 
only  extracts  certain  soluble  prin- 
ciples, including  the  actual  color- 
ing matter,  and  leaves  undissolved 
the  great  bulk,  which  is  fibrous 
and  woody  matter. 

Alum  (potash)  
Alum  (ammonia)  
Alumina,  sulphate  
Albumen  
Ammonia,  muriate  
<           carb  

'           sulph  
•'           oxalate  
•<•          nitrate  
tartrate  

"      -sulphate  
Bleaching  powder  

ii       eWoride 

Dyewoods  and  Stuffs  :  — 
Archil 

Alkanet  

Annatto  .«.  
Berries  

Catechu    

Cudbear  
Camwood  
'Cochineal  

:Fustic  
Litmus  / 

Quercitron  bark  
Peachwood  
Gall  nuts  
Madder  

Sumac  •  .. 

WATER. 


459 


Substance. 

Action  of 
water. 

Strength 
of  a  sol. 
at  16  oz. 
per  gal. 

General  Remarks. 

Farina                

insoluble 

TTT. 

•P.gr. 

Soluble  in  boiling  water. 
Soluble  imperfectly  in  boiling  water. 
Some  kinds  thick,  and  some  thin,  at 
[1  Ib.  per  gallon. 
Depends  upon  method  of  manufacture. 
Sold  as  liquid  at  from  24°  to  28°  Tw. 
Sold  as  a  liquid,  at  80°  Tw. 
Sold  as  a  liquid,  at  90=  Tw. 

Gives  a  milky  solution  with  common 
[water. 
Dissolves  in  some  saline  solutions. 
Partly  dissolved  by  nitric  acid. 
Partly  dissolved  by  nitric  acid. 
Lime  water  contains  very  little  lime. 

Ground  chalk  ;  dissolves  in  acids. 
One  part  dissolved  by  400  parts  water. 
Mostly  sold  in  solution. 

Sold  in  the  liquid  state. 
Sold  in  the  liquid  state. 

Not  dissolved  by  cold  acids. 
Dissolved  by  acids. 
Quite  saturated  at  1  Ib.  per  gallon. 

Solution  nearly  saturated. 

Cannot  be  made  stronger  than  about 
[two  degrees. 
Very  soluble  in  hot  water. 

Water  does  not  dissolve  one-tenth  its 
[weight. 
Saturated,  marks  2J°  Twaddle. 

Varies  in  its  composition. 

Varies  according  to  its  composition. 

Decomposed  by  much  water. 

Sold  generally  as  a  liquid. 
Dissolved  by  acids. 

Flour  

Glue  

Gums  (foreign)  
"      (British)  

soluble 
soluble 
sol.&insol. 
soluble 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
insoluble 
insoluble 
insoluble 
little  sol. 

i'o 

12 
17 

:::::: 

1050 
1060, 
1084 

"     muriate  
"     nitrate  

"     sulphate  

"    nitrate 

"    litharge  

Lime,  quick  

very  sol. 
insoluble 
verylit.sol. 

10i 

1052 

"     carbonate  
"    sulphate  

Magnesia  sulphate  
Manganese,  acetate  
"            muriate  
"           sulphate  .... 
blk.  oxide... 
Mercury,  metallic  
Mercury,  bichloride  
Murexide  
Potash  hydrate   ... 

very  sol. 
very  sol. 
soluble 
soluble 
insoluble 
insoluble 
little  sol. 
soluble 
very  sol. 

10 
13 

17 

15] 
135 
131 

15 

"ei 
iii 

10 

11 
is 

14i 
12 

"7 

13 
9 
13 
13 
10 
12 
15£ 
10 
9 
61 
12 
13 

15* 

11 

1050 
1064 

1085 

1077 
1067 
1068 
1075 

1031 
1057 
1051 
1055 

1065 

1072 
1060 

1035 
1065 
1045 
1065 
1064 
1040 
1061 
1077 
1050 
1046 
10.32 
1060 
1065 

1077 
1055 

bichromate  
yel.  chromate.... 
bitartrate  
chlorate  
nitrate  

soluble 
very  sol. 
little  sol. 
little  sol. 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
soluble 
little  sol. 
very  sol. 
little  sol. 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
soluble 
soluble 
very  sol. 
soluble 
soluble 
soluble 
soluble 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
soluble 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
very  sol. 
insoluble 

red  prussiate  
yel.  prussiate.... 
sulphate  
bisulphate  

oxalate  ...»  
iodide  
arseniate  
Soda,  ash  

"     bicarbonate  

"      ho  rate 

"     nitrate  

"     sulphate  
"     stannate  

"     hyposulphite  

"     phosphate  

Zinc,  acetate  
"     chloride  
"     sulph 

460  WELD— WOOL. 

Weld,  Wold. — This  was  the  chief  yellow  dyeing  substance 
employed  in  Europe  before  the  introduction  of  quercitron  bark  ; 
it  is  still  cultivated  on  the  continent  and  used  in  dyeing,  but 
it  is  nearly  unknown  in  England.  It  is  a  reedy  plant,  and 
sold  in  the  sheaf  like  straw :  the  whole  of  the  plant  except  the 
roots  were  employed  in  dyeing,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  color 
resides  in  the  seeds  and  upper  extremity.  In  dyeing  with  it, 
its  coloring  matter  is  extracted  by  boiling  in  water,  and  the 
decoction  only  added  to  the  goods.  With  alumina  it  dyes  up 
a  very  fine  clear  yellow  color,  tolerably  permanent  in  soap, 
but  not  well  resisting  air  and  light.  It  has  not  more  than  one- 
fourth  the  power  of  quercitron  bark  as  a  color,  and  on  this 
account,  as  well  as  the  difficulty  and  cost  of  carriage,  it  has 
been  driven  from  the  English  market.  Its  pure  coloring  mat- 
ter is  called  luteoline,  from  the  botanical  name  of  the  plant 
reseda  luteola. 

Woad. — This  dyeing  matter,  which  was  employed  from  the 
most  ancient  times,  is  now  nearly  unknown  in  this  country.  It  is 
yet  cultivated  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  where  it  goes  under  the 
name  of  pastel.  The  coloring  matter  it  contains  is  chemically 
and  practically  the  same  as  indigo :  it  is  still  used  in  setting 
the  indigo  vats  for  dyeing  woollen,  but  always  in  conjunction 
with  indigo.  It  appears  that  the  woad  plant,  as  sold  to  the 
indigo  dyer,  readily  enters  into  fermentation,  and  in  that  state 
is  useful  in  deoxidizing  or  reducing  the  indigo  to  the  soluble 
condition  ;  but  it  contains  very  little  coloring  matter  itself,  so 
that  it  was  hardly  possible  to  dye  a  deep  blue  with  it.  The 
blue  colors,  however,  which  it  did  yield  to  cloth  were  very 
durable  and  permanent.  Its  principal  use  was  in  giving  a  fast 
blue  basis  upon  broad  cloth  which  was  to  be  afterwards  dyed 
b]ack.  From  its  name  came  the  term  woaded  colors,  still  in 
common  use  for  colors  which  are  supposed  to  be  dyed  upon  a 
basis  of  woad  blue. 

Wongshy.— A  new  coloring  matter  under  this  name  has 
been  reported  upon  the  chemical  journals.  It  dyes  up  shades 
of  yellow  and  orange  upon  woollen  and  silk,  which  do  not 
appear  to  be  possessed  of  much  stability.  In  some  of  its  reac- 
tions it  bears  a  resemblance  to  anotta,  but  in  its  general 
properties  it  is  very  distinct.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
put  into  practical  use. 

Woods. — The  term  wood  is  used  among  the  dyers  to  indicate 
the  dye  stuffs,  like  logwood,  peach  wood,  etc.,  which  are  hard 
and  solid;  but  many  dyers  use  the  term  loosely,  and  include 
all  the  dye  stuffs,  as  cochineal  and  indigo,  under  this  term. 

Wool. — The  fibre  of  wool  is  different  in  many  respects  from 
that  of  cotton  or  silk.  Its  quality  varies  greatly ;  its  length  is 


WOOL.  461 

between  three  and  eight  inches,  and  the  diameter  of  single 
fibres  is  from  the  thousandth  to  the  fifteen  hundredth  part  of 
an  inch.  Under  the  microscope  it  appears  as  a  tube,  circular 
and  hollow,  and  at  intervals,  of  which  there  are  three  hundred 
in  an  inch,  are  seen  rings  or  projections  in  regular  order,  which, 
in  arrangement,  have  been  compared  to  the  scales  of  a  fish,  the 
skin  of  a  serpent,  or  as  if  a  number  of  hollow  cones,  were  placed 
one  inside  of  the  other.  It  is  as  if  the  growth  of  wool  were 
not  in  one  even,  constant  progression,  but  more  rapid  at  one 
time  than  another,  the  concentric  rings  representing  a  state  of 
rest  or  inactivity,  which  follows  on  the  active  period.  Several 
peculiar  properties  of  wool  are  attributed  to  the  character  of 
the  fibre — the  felting  or  adhering  together  of  fibres  of  wool  by 
simple  working  together,  the  harshness  which  is  felt  by  the 
finger  or  lips  when  a  fibre  of  wool  is  drawn  in  one  direction 
but  not  in  another ;  a  property  stronger  in  hairs  than  in  wool, 
but  the  same  in  character  and  origin.  In  working  woollen 
cloths,  they  are,  as  is  well  known,  liable  to  run  up,*contract  in 
certain  dimensions,  becoming  thicker  at  the  same  time.  This 
is  what  takes  place  purposely  in  fulling,  and  accidentally  in  too 
much  or  too  roughly  handling  woollen  goods  in  washing  and 
dyeing ;  such  runnings  up  are  familiar  in  domestic  economy. 
They  are  attributable  to  this  construction  of  the  fibre  of  wool ; 
each  fibre  may  be  looked  upon  as  barbed  like  an  arrow  or  a 
fish  hook,  easily  going  one  direction,  but  not  able  to  return  on 
account  of  these  projections  holding  it,  and  generally  all  kind 
of  motion  among  the  fibres,  as  rubbing,  beating,  or  stamping, 
causes  them  to  advance  in  the  direction  of  the  small  end  of  the 
cone,  and  remain  there  unless  pulled  back  by  force.  In  woollen 
goods  and  muslin  delaines  much  injury  may  be  done  to  the 
general  appearance  of  the  cloth  and  goodness  of  the  colors  if 
the  pieces  are  too  roughly  used,  or  allowed  to  remain  loose 
when  in  a  wet  state. 

It  is  on  the  same  account  that  wool  is  soaked  in  oil  in  order 
to  spin  it ;  the  oil  appears  to  fill  up  the  concentric  ridges  to  a 
certain  extent  and  facilitate  the  working  of  the  fibre.  Kaw 
wool  contains  a  large  quantity  of  fatty  matter,  which  is  natural 
to  it;  but  this  is  not  the  same  as  that  which  has  to  be  removed 
from  spun  or  woven  goods  before  they  can  be  dyed.  The 
affinity  which  wool  exhibits  for  coloring  matters,  and  other 
substances,  is  treated  of  in  the  articles  on  FIBROUS  SUBSTANCES, 
page  213. 

The  superior  affinity  which  woollen  cloth  enjoys  for  many 
colors  may  cause  it  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  natural  mordant, 
but  that  would  be  a  loose  way  of  considering  its  properties. 
It  does  not  apparently  contain  anything  like  a  mordant,  any 


462  YELLOW   COLORS. 

more  than  cotton  does.  If  it  can  be  looked  upon  as  containing 
a  mordant  it  must  be  considered  as  wholly  a  mordant,  and 
many  have  fallen  into  this  error,  and  have  imagined  that  by 
dissolving  the  wool  in  alkalies,  and  impregnating  cotton  with 
it,  they  could  indue  cotton  with  the  stronger  affinities  of  wool. 
The  results  have  shown  the  fallacy  of  this  line  of  reasoning. 
Cotton  may  -be  as  reasonably  considered  a  mordant  because  it 
takes  the  indigo  blue  frpm  the  lime  and  copperas  vat,  as  wool 
because  it  can  take  blue  from  sulphate  of  indigo.  The  expla- 
nation of  these  differences  must  be  looked  for,  not  only  in  the 
various  chemical  constituents  of  the  fibrous  matter,  but  also 
in  the  physical  structure  of  the  fibre  itself.  There  recently 
appeared  an  account  of  the  possible  application  of  the  newly 
discovered  solvent  for  wool  and  silk,  viz.,  the  ammoniuretted 
solution  of  oxide  of  copper  and  nickel.  The  statement  was  to 
the  effect  that  the  solution  of  silk  or  wool  could  be  applied  to 
cotton  fabrics,  to  give  them  the  appearance  and  properties  of 
silk  and  wool.  This  is  quite  false ;  the  appearance  and  proper- 
ties of  wool  do  not  depend  upon  the  amount  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen  which  it  contains,  so  much  as  upon  its 
physical  structure,  and  it  would  be  as  true  to  say  that  a  heap 
of  sawdust  was  a  piece  of  timber,  as  to  say  that  dissolved  wool 
was  the  same  as  fibrous  wool ;  the  chemical  elements  are  there, 
but  the  structure  is  for  ever  gone. 

That  the  whole  of  the  affinity  of  woollens  and  silk,  and  some 
other  animal  matters,  for  colors  is  not  due  to  their  physical 
organization,  is  proved  by  their  possessing  powers  of  withdraw- 
ing coloring  matters  when  all  trace  of  structure  has  been 
destroyed  by  acids,  alkalies,  and  solvents.  I  mean  all  structure 
which  has  been  owing  to  growth  and  gradual  development. 
But  in  this  state  of  disorganization  they  approach  in  properties 
to  many  other  of  the  neutral  and  insoluble  bodies.  It  is  possible 
that  if  dissolved  wool  or  silk  had  any  affinity  for  the  fibrous 
matter  their  powers  of  attracting  color  might  be  utilized,  but 
they  do  not  adhere  in  the  slightest  degree  when  deposited  from 
alkaline  solution  upon  cotton  ;  as  soon  as  the  fluids  have  dried, 
the  precipitated  animal  matter  can  be  shaken  or  brushed  off. 


Y. 

Yellow  Colors. — Yellow  is  not  an  important  color  in  dyeing 
or  printing  on  account  of  the  little  demand  existing  for  it :  it  is 
obtained  by  the  following  processes : — 

Yellow  Colors  on  Cotton  by  Printing. — The  coloring  matter 


YELLOW  COLORS.  433 

chiefly  used  is  from  Persian  berries,  and  the  mordant,  alum  or 
Stilt  or  tin* 

Steam  Yellow  for  Calico. 

2  gallons  berrv  liquor  at  6°, 

3  Ibs.  of  starch  ;  boil,  and  add 

4  oz.  crystals  of  tin, 
1  oz.  oxalic  acid. 

This  is  to  be  printed  upon  cloth :  an  excess  of  tin  makes  the 
shade  more  orange. 

Steam  Yellow  from  Bark. 
1  gallon  bark  liquor  at  7°, 
1  Ib.  alum,  ) 

1  quart  hot  water,     J 
3  Ibs.  gum. 

Steam  Yellow  from  Berries  and  Alum. 
1  gallon  berry  liquor  at  4°, 
1  Ib.  alum;  dissolve,  and  add 

5  Ibs.  gum. 

Another  Steam  Yellow. 

1  gallon  berry  liquor  at  11°, 
1  quart  red  liquor  at  18°, 
3  Ibs.  gum. 

For  CHROME  yellows,  see  page  142. 

See  also  a  steam  yellow  from  FLAVINE,  p.  226. 

Yellow  Colors  on  Cotton  by  Dyeing. — The  chrome  yellows  are 
those  principally  in  demand  (see  page  142).  Bright,  but  unsta- 
ble yellows,  are  also  obtained  from  quercitron  bark. 

Spirit  Yellow  on  Cotton. — Saturate  the  goods  in  sumac  liquor 
by  steeping;  then  mordant  in  oxymuriate  of  tin  (yellow  spirits) 
at  2°  for  thirty  minutes ;  dye  up  in  a  clear  decoction  of  bark 
until  the  proper  depth  of  shade  has  been  obtained ;  then  add  a 
quantity  of  the  yellow  spirits  to  raise  the  color. 

More  solid,  but  less  brilliant  yellows  are  obtained  by  mor- 
danting in  alumina,  and  dyeing  in  bark. 

Yellows  upon  Wool  by  Printing. — The  chief  yellow  colors 
upon  wool  are  from  Persian  berries  and  tin  salts ;  bark  gives 
orange  yellows,  which  are  sometimes  used,  and  more  rarely 
fustic  and  turmeric. 


464  YELLOW   COLORS. 

Yellow  for  Wool. 

1  gallon  berry  liquor  at  10°, 

5  Ibs.  gum, 

14  oz.  crystals  of  tin. 

Yellow  for  Wool — Orange  Hue. 

1  gallon  berry  liquor  at  14°, 

1£  Ib.  starch  ;  boil,  and  add 

12  oz.  alum, 

8  oz.  crystals  of  tin, 

3  oz.  oxalic  acid. 

Spirit  Yellow  on  Wool. 

1  gallon  bark  liquor  at  30°, 
3  Ibs.  gum, 

12  oz.  alum, 

12  oz.  bichloride  of  tin  at  120°. 

This  color  is  very  strong  and  suitable  for  small  objects,  or,  as 
an  ingredient  in  those  compound  shades  where  a  yellow  part  is 
required. 

Turkish  Yellow  for  Wool 

2  quarts  bark  liquor  at  18°, 
8  oz.  archil  liquor  at  10°, 

1  Jib.  gum, 

3  oz  alum, 

1  oz.  tartaric  acid, 

1  oz.  oxalic  acid, 

3  oz.  bichloride  of  tin  at  110°. 

The  yellow  colors  upon  muslin  de  laine  are  precisely  the  same 
as  those  for  all  wool. 

Yellow  Colors  upon  Wool  by  Dyeing. — The  chief  yellow  color- 
ing matter  employed  in  wool  dyeing  is  fustic — for  the  orange 
or  maize  shades  a  tin  mordant  is  employed,  but  for  the  lemon 
shades  the  aluminous  mordant  is  prepared.  Weld  is  yet  used 
for  dyeing  yellows,  which  have  considerable  permanence  and 
durability  ;  quercitron  bark  is  but  little  employed  for  yellows 
upon  wool.  Picric  acid  gives  a  fine  lemon  yellow,  but  is 
hardly  used  in  general  dyeing. 

For  10  Ibs.  wool,  mordant  in  3  ozs.  bichromate  and  2  ozs. 
alum,  and  dye  in  5  Ibs.  fustic ;  or, 

Mordant  in  8  ozs.  tartar,  8  ozs.  alum,  and  dye  in  a  mixture  of 
bark  and  fustic,  raising  with  oxymuriate  of  tin. 

To  dye  in  weld,  20  Ibs.  of  woollen  cloth  are  mordanted  in 


YELLOW   COLORS.  455 

9fnJk'   tartar>  a°d   dyed    in   the   decoction 

In  merino  dyeing  young  fustic  is  extensively  used  for  shades 
of  golden  yellow.  The  wool  is  not  subjected  to  a  previous 
mordanting  but  entered  at  once  into  the  dyeing  bath,  which  is 
made  up  with  tartar,  oxymuriate  of  tin,  and  the  decoction  of 
young  fustic.  12  Ibs  of  wool  require  about  15  Ibs.  of  youn* 
fustic  to  dye  a  full  and  deep  shade. 

Yellw  Colors  upon  Silk  ly  Printing.— Persian  berries  yield 
the  coloring  matter  which  is  generally  used  in  silk  printing- 
bark  liquor  may  also  be  employed,  and  decoction  of  turmeric. 

Yellow  for  Silk. 

1  gallon  berry  liquor  at  11°, 
8  oz.  alurn, 

8  oz.  crystals  of  tin, 
3  Ibs.  gum. 

Another  Yellow  for  Silk. 
li  Ib.  turmeric, 
1J  Ib.  Persian  berries; 

Boil  these  in  water  and  reduce  to  two  quarts,  and  add 

2  oz.  crystals  of  tin, 
4oz.  alum, 

1  Ib.  gum. 

Another  Yellow  for  Silk. 

3  pints  turmeric  liquor, 

1  pint  berry  liquor  at  5°, 

4  oz.  alum, 

8  oz.  oxymuriate  of  tin, 
1|  Ib.  gum. 

Yellows  on  Silk  by  Dyeing. — For  pure  and  bright  yellows  of 
a  golden  shade,  weld  seems  the  most  suitable  coloring  matter. 
The  silk  is  mordanted  by  working  in  a  solution  of  aluni  for 
about  an  hour,  and  then  worked  in  decoction  of  weld,  and 
raised  by  adding  solution  of  alum.  By  substituting  bark  or 
fustic,  or  mixtures  of  the  two,  and  by  raising  in  tin  spirits 
instead  of  alum,  modified  shades  can  be  readily  obtained. 

Picric  acid  gives  very  bright  lemon  yellow  colors  upon  silk 
without  mordant. 


466  ZINC. 


Z. 

Zinc. — The  metal  zinc  is  but  little  employed  in  dyeing  or 
printing  operations.  It  is  not,  like  iron,  actively  injurious  to 
colors  or  mordants,  but  it  is  rapidly  corroded  under  the  influ- 
ence of  acids  or  alkalies,  vessels  made  of  it  wearing  out  in  a 
short  time.  Zinc  combines  with  oxygen  to  form  a  white  oxide, 
which  is  of  a  brilliant  lustre ;  it  has  been  used  as  a  pigment 
color  in  calico  printing,  being  fixed  by  albumen.  The  oxide 
of  zinc,  made  by  burning,  is  the  most  suitable  for  this  purpose  ; 
that  which  is  produced  by  precipitation  being  defective  in  soft- 
ness and  lustre,  probably  owing  to  a  different  molecular 
arrangement.  Oxide  of  zinc  is  soluble  in  ammonia,  and  nearly 
all  the  acids,  yielding  colorless  salts,  unless  the  acid  be  colored. 
The  only  zinc  salts  used  in  dyeing  or  printing  are  the  sulphate, 
chloride,  and  acetate. 

Sulphate  of  zinc,  or  white  vitriol,  can  be  prepared  by  dissolv- 
ing zinc  scraps  in  weak  oil  of  vitriol.  As  zinc  mostly  contains 
a  small  quantity  of  iron,  it  should  be  removed  from  the  solution. 
This  is  done  by  adding  a  quantity  of  a  mixture  of  chemic 
(chloride  of  lime)  and  water  to  the  liquor  when  it  is  saturated 
with  the  metal;  this  mixture  oxidizes  the  iron,  and  throws  it 
down  at  the  same  time  as  an  ochry  powder.  Pure  sulphate  of 
zinc  gives  only  a  white  precipitate  with  yellow  prussiate,  and 
when  mixed  with  strong  ammonia  gives  a  precipitate  at  first, 
which  dissolves  when  sufficient  ammonia  is  added.  It  is 
especially  when  sulphate  of  zinc  is  to  be  used  for  adding  to  red 
liquor  mordants,  or  for  mixing  with  the  dung  in  cleansing  or 
fixing  alkaline  pinks,  that  it  should  be  free  from  iron.  Sul- 
phate of  zinc  serves  as  a  resist  in  several  styles,  and  is  a  consti- 
tuent in  what  is  termed  "  mild  paste."  A  new  use  of  sulphate 
of  zinc  has  been  proposed  by  Balard  and  Sacc,  by  which,  if  it 
turns  out  successful,  this  salt  may  be  employed  instead  of  tar- 
taric  acid  for  discharge  upon  dyed  grounds.  They  have  found 
that  if  sulphate  of  zinc  be  mixed  in  certain  proportions  with 
solution  of  bleaching  powder,  it  increases  its  power  in  about 
the  same  way  as  if  acid  was  added  ;  and  they  have  found  that 
if  dyed  cloth  (Turkey  red  for  example)  be  printed  with  sulphate 
of  zinc,  and  passed  into  bleaching  powder,  it  discharges  the 
color  wherever  the  zinc  salt  was  printed.  The  applications  of 
this  discovery  have  yet  to  be  made  upon  the  large  scale,  and 
it  remains  to  be  seen  whether  it  will  prove  economical  or 
practicable. 

Chloride  of  Zinc  (Muriate  of  Zinc). — This  salt  is  easily  ob- 
tained by  dissolving  metallic  zinc  in  spirits  of  salts.  It  is  not 


ZINC.  467 

much  used  either  in  dyeing  or  printing.  It  is  employed  to  fix 
the  alumina  of  the  alkaline  pink  mordant,  and  is  added  to  some 
colors  to  keep  them  moist  or  soft,  the  muriate  of  zinc  having 
a  great  tendency  to  attract  moisture  from  the  air. 

Nitrate  of  Zinc  has  been  employed  for  the  same  purpose  as 
the  muriate  of  zinc,  and  especially  in  the  case  of  red  liquor 
pinks.  It  is  made  by  dissolving  the  metal  in  weak  aquafortis. 

Acetate  of  Zinc. — This  salt  is  very  little  used.  It  may  be 
made  by  dissolving  the  oxide  of  zinc  in  acetic  acid,  or  from 
the  sulphate  of  zinc,  by  means  of  acetate  of  lead.  It  gives  a 
beautiful  orange  yellow  on  silk  and  cotton  with  murexide. 

Zinc  yields  no  colors  except  the  white  from  the  oxide ;  it 
does  not  form  colored  compounds,  and  it  has  hardly  any  affinity 
for  either  vegetable  or  animal  fibre. 


APPENDIX, 

DYEING  AND  CALICO  PRINTING  AS  SHOWN  IN  THE  UNIVERSAL 
EXPOSITION,  PARIS,  1867. 


Extracts  from  the  Reports  of  the  International  Jury*  and  from 
other  Sources. 

IT  is  well  known  that  silk,  by  the  process  of  dyeing,  can  have 
its  weight  increased  10  to  40  per  cent.,  and  yet- give  products 
of  a  good  quality.  The  competition  and  the  dearness  of  silk 
have  been  so  great  of  late  years,  that,  often,  the  weight  of  silk 
is  increased  150  to  200  per  cent,  by  dyeing,  especially  for 
blacks. 

Such  silk  is  rough  to  the  touch,  without  lustre,  easily  cut, 
and  will  not  last.  Heated  to  about  230°  Fah.,  it  will  fall  to 
pieces. 

By  this  process  of  over  adulteration,  silk  increases  much  in 
volume,  and  the  fibres,  viewed  under  the  microscope,  are 
swollen.  The  swelling  is  also  sensibly  in  proportion  with  the 
increase  of  weight. 

With  mordants  of  tannin,  tin,  and  oily  substances,  nearly  all 
the  new  coal-tar  colors  have  been  fixed  on  vegetable  fibres. 

Mr.  Reimann,  of  Berlin,  dyes  cotton  yarn  with  aniline  colors, 
and  without  mordant,  by  effecting  the  operation  in  closed  ves- 
sels, heated  up  to  about  300°  F.  The  shades,  on  leaving  the 
apparatus,  are  said  to  be  fast,  but  not  bright.  They  are  raised 
by  another  dyeing  operation  conducted  in  the  open  air. 

Such  a  process  requires  costly  apparatus,  does  not  allow  an 
easy  dyeing  to  a  given  shade,  and,  granting  that  the  dyed 
ground  is  fast,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  raising  given  after- 
wards will  be  faster  than  by  the  ordinary  process.  Neverthe- 

*  Rapports  du  Jury  International,  publies  sous  la  direction  de  M.  Michel 
Chevalier,  Membre  de  la  Commission  Imperiale.  13  vols.  8vo.  Paris,  1868. 


470  APPENDIX. 

less,  the  application  of  dyeing  under  pressure  in  closed  vessels, 
is  a  curious  one,  and  might  be  used  to  advantage  in  other 
cases. 

Since  Messrs.  Tessid  du  Motay  and  Mardchal  have  succeeded 
in  producing  cheaply  alkaline  permanganates,  these  salts  begin 
to  be  used  for  bleaching  goods.  By  the  decomposition  of  the 
permanganate,  its  oxygen  destroys  or  modifies  the  substances 
foreign  to  the  cloth,  which  are  washed  out.  At  the  same  time, 
oxide  of  manganese  is  precipitated  upon  the  cloth,  and  is  re- 
moved by  washing  in  a  dilute  sulphurous  acid  solution.  The 
solution  of  permanganate  of  soda  is  also  to  be  employed  in 
a  dilute  state. 

Feathers  may  be  bleached  by  the  process  of  Messrs.  Viol  and 
Duflot,  as  follows:  Steep  the  feathers  for  from  three  to  four 
hours  in  a  tepid  and  diluted  bath  of  bichromate  of  potassa  with 
nitric  acid,  then  pass  through  another  bath  holding  a  very  weak 
solution  of  sulphurous  acid,  and  rinse. 

Dyeing  aniline  black  on  wool  has  not  been  entirely  success- 
ful, notwithstanding  the  chlorine  process  of  Mr.  Lightfoot. 
Some  recent  experiments,  however,  permit  us  to  hope  that  ani- 
line black  will  be  employed  for  wool  as  well  as  for  cotton. 

Casein  (curd  of  milk),  as  a  mordant,  is  better  dissolved  in 
crystallizable  acetic  acid,  or  in  a  milk  of  lime.  In  the  latter 
case,  the  colors  are  said  to  be  faster  than  when  using  casein 
dissolved  in  ammonia  water,  or  even  albumen.  But  printing 
should  be  effected  rapidly,  because  the  paste  loses  its  fluidity 
very  rapidly,  especially  with  ultramarine. 

By  means  of  a  metallic  engraving  in  relief,  which  distributes 
drops  of  colored  and  melted  resin  on  silk  goods,  Mr.  Petitdidier 
imitates  embroideries. 

Light  tissues,  like  tulle  or  bobbinets,  are  also  covered  with 
drops  of  gelatin,  or  gum,  which  fall  from  rows  of  pins,  variously 
arranged,  according  to  the  processes  of  Messrs.  C.  Depouilly, 
Meyer,  and  Agnelet  brothers. 

By  printing,  in  a  peculiar  way,  silk  warps  previous  to  weav- 
ing, various  combinations  of  figures  and  designs  may  be  effected 
on  the  loom,  without  the  expense  of  the  cartoons  of  the 
Jacquard  loom. 

The  various  aniline  blacks,  prepared  whether  by  the  bichro- 
mate of  potassa,  or  by  the  chlorate,  are  soluble  in  a  mixture  of 


APPENDIX.  471 

alcohol  and  sulphuric  acid.  This  solution,  thrown  into  a  laree 
quantity  of  water,  dyes  animal  fibres  a  fast  gray 

For  dyeing  black  on  cotton,  Messrs.  Paraf  and  Javal,  pass  the 
cloth  through  a  bath  containing  a  mixture  of  sulphate  of  ani- 
line and  bichromate  of  potassa.  The  color  appears  on  the 
fabric  immediately  after  it  leaves  the  bath,  the  temperature  of 
which  must  be  kept  a  little  below  the  freezing  point,  not  above. 

Another  method  consists  in  mordanting  the  cotton  cloth 
with  chromate  of  lead,  and  then  passing  it  through  an  acidu- 
lated bath  of  oxalate  of  aniline.  In  this  case,  the  reaction 
taking  place  only  on  the  cloth,  the  temperature  has  not  to  be 
so  strictly  low  as  in  the  former  method. 

Mr.  Dumas  frees  the  indigo  from  its  red  and  brown  coloring 
substances  by  aniline.  Indigo  thus  purified  gives  very  good 
results  when  used  in  printing  on  cotton. 

One  of  our  cotemporaries  speaks  of  chloroform  as  being  a 
solvent  of  indigo.  Not  having  tried  the  process,  we  can  but 
believe  that  the  chloroform  may  be  a  solvent  of  the  impurities 
of  indigo,  rather  than  of  indigo  itself. 

From  the  same  source  we  find  for  dyeing  animal  fibres  a 
silver  gray  color  :  Boil  10  pounds  of  wool  in  a  bath  containing 
4  ozs.  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  4  ozs.  of  glauber  salts  (sulphate  of 
soda).  Then  dye  to  the  shade  by  means  of  iodine  violet  and 
some  carmine  of  indigo. 

There  are  many  recipes  for  the  preparation  of  the  printing 
paste  for  aniline  black  ;  they  can  be  summed  up  into  a  com- 
position of  tartrate  of  aniline,  sulphide  of  copper,  chlorate  of 
potassa,  and  sal-ammoniac,  the  whole  thickened  with  a  mix- 
ture of  starch  and  torrefied  starch,  with  enough  water  to  make 
the  volume  of  the  aniline  about  one-tenth  of  the  whole. 

Aniline  black  succeeds  very  well  when  printed  wither  under 
chrome  orange.  In  this  case  the  lead  mordant  is  basic. 

Mr.  Horace  Koechlin  has  succeeded  in  printing  aniline  greens 
on  silk  and  wool  by  adding  alkaline  sulphites  to  the  color. 

For  cotton  goods,  besides  the  sulphite,  some  tannin  is  neces- 
sary. 

The  following  are  the  values  in  coloring  power  of  several 
madder  extracts: — 

That  of  Professor  Eochleder,  of  Prague,  is  dry  and  equal  to 
140  times  its  weight  of  madder;  that  of  Messrs.  Pernod  and 
Picard,  of  Avignon,  is  in  paste  and  equal  to  16  to  20  times  its 


472  APPENDIX. 

weight  of  madder;  that  of  Mr.  Schutzenberger,  manufactured 
by  Mr.  C.  Meissonnier,  is  also  in  paste  and  equal  to  30  times 
its  weight  of  madder. 

These  extracts  are  free  from  resin,  and  therefore,  can  be 
thoroughly  mixed  with  water,  but  they  require  a  nice  adjust- 
ment in  the  proportion  of  mordants.  The  steaming  process 
lasts  two  or  three  times  as  long  as  with  ordinary  steam  colors. 
The  shades  are  also  to  be  raised  by  drawing  the  printed  goods 
through  soap  baths.  No  mixture  of  acids,  oxidizing  agents,  or 
ageing  is  necessary.  The  principal  mordants  still  used  are 
those  of  alumina  and  iron. 

On  the  other  hand,  some  persons  assert  that  it  is  possible  to 
print  with  these  extracts,  on  tissues  which  have  not  been  mor- 
danted. 


INDEX. 


Absorbent,  39 
Accidental  colors,  177 
Acer  rubrum,  50 
Acetates,  Article  upon,  39 

how  employed  in  mordanting,  222 
Acetate  of  alumina,  41 

of  lead,  47 

of  lime  liquor  for  catechu  brown, 
129 

of  mercury,  345 

of  rosaniline,  24 

of  soda,  Application  of,  in  shaded 

styles,  403 
Acetometer,  50 
Aceto-nitrate  of  bismuth,  77 
Acid,  Acetic,  49 

Aloetic,  60 

Apocrenic,  68 

Arsenious,  69 

Carbazotic,  123 

Carbolic,  9 

Carbonic,  123 

Chrysammic,  147 

Citric,  148 

Euxanthic,  212 

Gallic.  232 

Hydrochloric,  272 

Isopurpuric,  301 

Manganic,  343 

Muriatic,  272 

Nitric,  359 

Nitro-cuminic,  361 

Nitro-picric,  374 

Oxalic,  371 

Pectic,  324 

Permanganic,  343 

Picric,  374 

Purpuric,  355 

Purreic,  212 

Rosolic,  398 

Sulphuric,  15,  418,  443 

Tannic,  423 

Tartaric,  424 

Uric,  442 

Generalities  upon,  50 

vapors  from  steam  colors,  415 

31 


Acids  and  acid  vapors  used  to  make  gum 

substitutes,  264 
as  mordants,  11 

Choice  of,  in  safflower  dyeing,  400 
found  in  natural  waters,  446 
their  actions  upon  fibrous  matters, 

215 

Use  of,  in  acting  upon  lac  lake,  303 
Various,  as  resisting  agents,  394 
what  their  action  is  in  making  ga- 

rancine,  233 
;  Acidimetry,  51 
'  Acorn  cups  of  quercus  aegilops,  443 

Adrianople  red,  52 
i  Adulteration  of  cochineal,  159 
!  Aerugo,  52 
!  Affinitv  of  oils  for   cotton  illustrated, 

348 

of  tin  for  cotton  fibre,  433 
African  cochineal  (Faille  de  mil)  168 
Agaric,  52 
!  Ageing,  52,  53 

liquor,  Receipt  for,  54 
Air,  Action  of,  upon  colors  when  dye- 
ing, 55 
Moisture    in,   ascertained   by  the 

hygrometer,  275 
Albumen,  11,  55 

water.  13 
Alcohol,  56 

proportions  as  a  solvent,  14 
Aldehyd,  green,  31 
Alder  bark,  57 
Algaroba,  57 
Alizarine,  artificial,  328 
Commercial,  57 
quantity  in  madder,  336 
Alkali,  Action  of,  upon  chrome  colors, 

142 

Properties  of  an,  58,  59 
Alkalies,  Action  of,  upon  cotton,  wool, 

and  silk,  217 

Alkalies,  Existence  of,  in  water,  446 
Alkalimetry,  or  testing  of  alkalies,  58 
Alkaline    garancine    dyes   up   inferior 
colors,  237 


471 


INDEX. 


Alkaline- 
permanganates,  470 
pink  mordant  difficult  to  use,  319 
solutions  of  iron  as  mordants,  301 
Alkanet  root,  60 
Alloxan  used  to  dye  woollen,  357 

and  alloxantine,  57 
Alloy,  60 
Aloes,  tO 

Alpigny  d',  his   theory  of  dyeing  con- 
sidered, 203 
Alterant,  60 
Alum,  60 

Action  of,  upon  fibrous  substances, 

224 
ammonia  or  potash  equal  for  red 

liquors,  42 
Burnt,  63 
Chrome,  147 

Patent,  see  alumina  sulphate,  62 
Use  of,  in  red  liquor  making,  42 
Alumina,  13,  61 
acetate,  41 
arsenite  of,  11,  12 
mordants   by   means   of  hyposul- 
phites, 276 

Alumina  nitrate,  uses  of,  62 
oxalate,  62 
sulphate,  62 
Aluminate  of  potash,  59 

of  soda  mordant,  19 
Amalgams,  definition  of,  345 
Amaranth  red  on  delaine  from  cochi- 
neal, 167 

from  murexide,  387 
Amber  colors,  Process  of  obtaining  63 
Ameline,  63 
Ammonia  alum,  see  alum,  60 

Action  of,  upon  extract  of  indigo, 

257 

Action,  upon  wool  and  silk,  219 
carbonate   in  urine,   derived  from 

urea,  442 
liquor,  63 
Ammonia  muriate  or    sal   ammoniac, 

401 
Use    of,  in    extracting   color     of 

cochineal,  164 
Ammoniacal  cochineal,  Preparation  of, 

164 

Ammoniuret  of  copper,  185 
Amorphous  phosphorus,  374 
Amylaceous  matters,  64 
Analysis  of  soap,  409 
Analysis  of  water,  453 
Anehusine,  64 
Anderson's  experiments  on  morinda 

citrifolia,  354 
Aniline,  9 
black,  35 


Aniline — 

blacks,  471 

brown,  35 

colors,  64,  97,  100,  230 

grays,  38 

green,  31 

Methods  of  fixing,  65 

olive,  33 

orange  and  yellow,  31 

purple,  26,  29 

red,  24 

rosaniline  blues,  27 

violet,  26,  29 

yellow,  31 
Animal  fibres  dyed  gray,  471 
dyeing  of,  18 

tissues,   Effects  of,   upon   mineral 

colors,  181 
Animalization,  10,  65 
Anotta,  66 

as  basis  for  brown  color,  112 
Antimony,  21 

Apocrenic  acid  in  water,  449 
Appendix,  469 
Applications  of  mordants,  in  various 

ways,  362 
Apricot  color,  68 
Aquafortis,  68 

see  nitric  acid,  359 
Aqua  regia,  68 
Arabic  gum,  261 
Arabine,  68 
Archil,  68 

Archil  chocolate  colors  on  wool,  136 
Areca  nuts,  69 
Argols,  69 

see  cream  of  tartar,  424 
Arsenates,  or  arseniates,  69 
Arsenate  of  potash  as  a  resist,  395 
Arseniate  of   chromium,  standard  for 
green,  146 

of  iron  as  a  mordant,  301 
Arsenic,  or  arsenious  acid,  69 

used  in  making  stannate  of  soda, 

437 
Arsenite  and  arsenate  of  soda  as  dung 

substitutes,  155 
Arsenite  of  alumina,  11,  12 
of  alumina,  mordant,  20 

of  copper  green,  how  applied  to 
calico,  185 

of  rosaniline,  24 
Arsenites,  70 

Artichoke,  Green  dye  from,  70 
Artificial  gums,  or  gum  substitutes,  363 
Ash  pearl,  373 

pink,  see  alkaline  pink  mordant, 

59 

soda,  410 
Astringent  blacks,  89 


INDEX. 


475 


Astringents,   their  affinity  for  fibrous 

matters,  225 

Astringents,  Uses  of  in  dyeing,  70 
Atoms,  71 

Authorities  on  coal  tar  colors,  10 
Avignon  madder,  said  to  require  chalk 

in  dyeing,  334 
Awlroot,  71 
Azaleine,  24,  71 
Azote,  71 
Azotileine,  31 
Azuline,  29,  71 
Azure,  72 

style,  Resist  for,  285 
Azurine,  29 

Bablah,  72 

Balard  and  Sacc,  proposed  new  dis- 
charge, 466 
Bancroft,  introducer  of  quercitron 

bark,  392 
Bandanna  style,  72 
Barasat  verte,  or  green  indigo,  72 
Barbary  berries,  73 

gum,  78 
Barilla,  73 
Bark,  73 

alder,  57 

chestnut,  132 

its  action,  in  garancine  dyeing,  243 

and    madder   used  for    cinnamon 

shades,  148 
yellow  and  indigo  blue  combined, 

255 
of  the  black  oak,  quercitron  bark, 

392 
of  cork  tree  as  a  dyeing  material, 

186 
of  mahogany  tree  used  in  dyeing, 

341 

of  mangrove  tree  used  in  dyeing, 
343 

(of  oak  used  in  dyeing,  361 
of  pomegranate,  379 
Quercitron,    used    in   the   scarlet 
dye,  162 
Barwood  spirits,  438 

Methods  of  using,  etc.,  73 
Baryta,  74 

sulphate  used  to  adulterate  starch, 

413 

Base,  Definition  of,  74 
Bases  which  have  been  found  in  water, 

446 

Basic  acetate  of  lead,  47 
Basic  salt,  definition  of,  75 
Bassora,  75 
Bearberry,  75 
Beaume's  hydrometer,  75 
Berries,  Persian  and  Turkey,  75 


Berries — 

used  in   conjunction  -with   garan- 
cine, 242 

Betula  alnus,  see  alder  bark,  57 
Bicarbonate  of  soda,  411 
Bichloride  of  mercury,  21,  345 
Bichloride  of  tin,  Preparation  of,  435 
Bichromate  of  potash,  140 

for  discharging  indigo  blue,  192 
Bichrome,  76 
Bilberries,  97 
Bile  or  gall,  76 
Binitronaphthalic  acid,  30 
Binoxalate  of  soda,  useful   in   certain 

colors,  191 

Biphosphate  of  lime  mordant,  19 
Birch  bark,  77 
Bismuth  as  a  mordant,  77 
Bisulphate  of  soda,   used   to    prepare 

extract  of  indigo,  297 
Bisulphate  of  potash,  381 

used  in  blues  for  cotton,  103 
Bitartrate  of  potash,  or  cream   of  tar- 
tar, 424 
Bixine,  77 

see  anotta,  66 
Bixa  orellana,  77 
!  Blacks,  So 

aniline,  471 

'  Black  and  white  due  to  light,  1 09 
acetate  of  lime,  42 
cochineal;    its  nature  and  origin, 

159 
color  from  garancine,  mordant  for, 

240 
colors,  Methods  of  dyeing.  78 

for  printing  on  silk,  78 
Difficulties  in  dyeing,  78 
discharge  for  Turkey  red,  1 97 
for  darkening  chocolate,  137 
from  logwood  detected  by  acids, 

319 

liquor,  or  iron  liquor,  46 
Blackening  of  madder  by  acids,  owing 

to  chlorogenine,  235 
Bleaching,  89 

by  chlorine,  Theory  of,  133 

feathers,  470 

liquor,  95 

powder,  93 

powder,  Use  of,  in  clearing  prints, 

157 

Sulphide  of  calcium  used  in,  417 
Use  of  resin  in,  396 
with  permanganates,  470 
Bleu  de  Lyon,  28 
de  nuit,  27 
de  Paris,  28,  106 
lumiere,  27 
and  violet  de  Mulhouse,  27 


476 


INDEX. 


Block  printing,  95 

tin  vessels  used  in  dyeing,  434 
Blood  albumen,  see  albumen,  55 

Stains  from,  in  dyeing,  96 

Uses  of,  in  dyeing,  96 
Blue  archil,  68 

Chinese,  131 

colors  by  means  of  indigo,  see  in- 
digo, 280 

colors  from  Gardenia  ar.uleata,  244 

colors,  Methods  of  producing,  96 

colors  obtained  from  red  prussiate, 
387 

colors,  Various  names  of,  105 

discharge  for  Turkey  red,  196 

for  finishing,  see  azure,  72 

from  aniline  colors,  97,  100 

Prepare  for,  upon  delaines,  384 

printing,  20 

Prussian,  Discharge  for,  196 

stone,  108 

stone,  see  sulphate  of  copper,  184 

ultramarine,  108,  441 

vat  for  wool,  prepared  from  indigo, 
280 

violet,  28 

vitriol,  see  sulphate  of  copper,  184 
Blues,  26 

upon  wool,  Testing  of,  98 
Bluish-purple,  30 
Bolley's  sulphate  of  indigo,  297 
Bone  size  liable  to  mildew  on  fustians, 

etc.,  246 
Borax,  108 
Bottger  process,  23 
Bowking  in  bleaching,  90 
Bowling  or  washing  indigo  dipped  goods, 

284 
Bran,  108 

used  in  clearing  dyed  prints,  157 

used  in  setting  indigo  vats,  281 
Brauna  wood,  109 
Brazil  or  brasil  wood,  109 

wood  pink  on  silk,  376 
Braziletto,  110 

Bresiline,  see  Brazil  wood,  109 
British  gum,  110 

or   roasted   starch,  Properties  of, 

264 

Broken  or  darkened  shades  of  color,  174 
Bromine,  110 
Bronze  colors,  110 
Brook's  process,  22 
Broom,  111 

Brown  colors,  Methods  of  producing, 
111 

colors  for  dyeing  ongarancine,  241 
.  colors  from  catechu,  128 

colors  from  catechu  and  madder, 
339 


Brown — 

catechu  for  garancine  and  madder 
dyeing,  129 

gray  upon  woollen,  252 

maroon,  34 

oil  of  vitriol,  418 

sugar  of  lead,  47 

Browning  or  saddening  of  colors,  117 
Browns,  34 
Brunette  style,  or  dark  garancine  colors, 

239 

Bryum  stellare,  354 
Bubuline  in  cow  dung,  118 
Buccinum  lapillus,  Purple  color  from, 

118 
Buckthorn,  dyers',  Green  colors  from, 

118 

Buffaloes'  milk,  120 
Buff  liquors,  118 

and  orange  style,  141 

colors,  Methods  of  producing,  118 

from  anotta,  see  anotta,  66 
Bulard,  experiments  of,  13 

process,  15 
Burnt  alum,  63 
Butternut  tree,  120 

Cactin,  from  cactus  speciosus,  121 
Cactus  cochenillifer,  or  cochineal  plant, 

121 
Calcined  alum,  121 

copper,  121 

farina,  121 

as  a  thickener,  264 
Properties  of,  as  a  thickener, 

265 
Calcium,  122 

sulphide  of,  417 

Calico  printing  with  coal  tar  colors,  17 
Camata  and  eamatina,  see  Valonia  nuts, 

443 

Campeachy,  see  logwood,  317 
Camwood,  Colors  yielded  by,  122 
Cannelle,  or  cinnamon  colors,  147 
Caoutchouc,  122 
Capucine  colors,  122 
Carajura,  or  crajura,  see  chica,  130 
Garbazotic  acid,  123 

see  picric  acid,  375 
Carbolic  acid,  9 
Carbonate,  Definition  of  a,  123 

of  ammonia,  442 

of  potash,  381 

of  soda,  238 
Carbonic  acid,  123 

present  in  air,  55 
Carmelite  color,  123 
Carmine,  pure  coloring  matter  of  cochi- 
neal, 160 

Various  meanings  of,  123 


INDEX. 


477 


Carmine — 

of  indigo,  see  acetate  of  indigo,  45 
Carragheen  moss,  124 
Cartamus  or  carthamus,  124 
Carthamus  or  safflower,  399 
Carthamine,  coloring    matter    of   saf- 
flower, 124 
Caseine,  or  curd  of  milk,  11,  124 

how  best  dissolved,  470 
Catechu,  Properties  of,  and  methods  of 
using,  124 

brown  colors  for  garancine  dye- 
ing, 241 

colors   in  madder   and   garancine 
dyeing,  128 

colors,  Resist  for,  395 

drab   for  madder  and  garancine, 

199 

Caustic  potash,  preparation  and  proper- 
ties, 379 
Centigrade,  or  Celsius's  thermometer, 

427 
Cerise,  26 

brown,  35 
Chalk,  Use  of,  in  red  liquor  making,  42 

see  carbonate  of  lime,  315 

and  other  substances  used  in  mad- 
der dyeing,  334 
Chamois  color,  130 

or  buff  on  delaine,  120 
Charbon    sulfurique,    first    name    for 

garancine,  233 
Charcoal,  130- 

used  for  sightening,  130 
Chayaver,  or  chay  root,  130 
Cheese  used  as  a  vehicle  for  pigment 

colors,  305 
Chemic,  130 

blue,  105 

chloride  of  lime,  93 
Chemical  black,  87 

theory  of  dyeing,  205 
Cherry  red,  26 
Chestnut  bark  and  wood,  130 

brown  on  silk  and  wool,  113 

colors,  130 

gray  upon  woollen,  253 

wood  used  in  the  black  dye,  79 
Chevreul's  examination  of  bablah,  72 

system  of  naming  colors,  173 

theory  of  dyeing,  210 
Chica,  130 
Chicory,  131 
China  blue,  105,  131,  288 

color  from  indigo,  288 
Receipts  for,  290 
Chinjese  blue,  105 

green,  131 
Chinoline,  blue  and  violet,  30 

colors,  18 


Chintz  colors,  pasted  or  reserved,  395 
Chlorate  of  potash,  182 

used  in  steam  reds,  393 
used  in  ageing  liquor,  54 
Chlorides,  General  properties  of,  132 
Chloride  of  lime,  Use  of,  in  preparing 

delaines  and  woollens,  384 
of  lime, how  employed  in  clearing 

prints,  158 

of  lime,  bleaching  powder,  93 
of  potassium,  21 
of  sodium,  411 
of  tin,  or  tin  crystals,  434 
Chlorine  gas,  133 

Action  of,  upon  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal fibres,  216 
bleaching,  Theory  of,  133 
colors  some  bodies,  133 
Chloroform  to  dissolve  indigo,  471 
Chlorogenine  causes  the  dark  color  of 

garancine,  235 
Chlorophyll,  134 
Chloro-prussiate  of  potash,  386 
Chloroxynaphthalic  acid,  26 

black,  35 

Chloroxynaphthalate  of  ammonia,  31 
Chocolate  colors,  134 

colors  of  a  deep  shade  cannot  be 

dyed  witn  madder,  238 
colors,  how  produced  from  brown, 

112 

and  dark  greens,  Prepare  for,  384 
Garnncine  red  liquor,  suitable  for 

43 

Chondrus  crispus,  354 
Chromate  blacks,  78 

of  lead  yielding  amber  color,  63 
Chromates,  141 

of  lead,  Properties  of,  309 
Chrome  alum,  147 
colors,  142 

colors  in  dip  blue  styles,  285 
orange,  nitrate  of  alumina  for  cut- 
ting, 62 
salts,  141 
yellow  and  indigo  blue  combined 

for  green,  254 
yellow  as  basis  for  brown  colors, 

116 

Chromium,  Acetate  of,   easily  decom- 
posed, 39 

Oxide  of,  a  pigment  green,  254 
Various  colors  from,  145 
Chrysammic  acid,  147 
Chrysaniline  yellow,  30 
Chrystoluidine,  30 
Cinnamon  colors,  147 
Citric  acid,  148 

Value  of,  as  a  resist,  395 
Citron  color,  151 


478 


INDEX. 


Clarke's  process  of  purifying  water  by 

lime,  451 
Cleansing  or  dunging,  152 

Effects  of  upon  gum  thicken- 
ings, 269 
Clearing  effected  by  organic  matters  in 

water,  450 
of  dyed  prints,  157 
Uses  of  bran  in,  157 
Coagulation  of  albumen  by  heat,  etc., 

56 
of  colors  prevented  by  acetic  acid, 

56 

of  red  liquor  by  heat,  44 
Coal-tar  colors,  23 

dissolution  of,  13 
dyeing  with,  17 
Cobalt  acte  as  a  mordant,  359 
Coccus  polonicus,  or  Polish  berries,  158 
Cochineal  and  extract  of  indigo  for  gray 

colors,  253 
Article  upon,  159 
colors  on  wool,  161 
Effects  of  mordants  upon,  160 
European,  158 

liquor,  dissolving  effects  upon  mor- 
dants, 163 
pink  on  silk,  163 
scarlet,  crimson,  and  pink,  160 
substitutes  from  lac  dye,  303 
Cocoa  nut  tree  as  a  dyeing  matter,  159 
Coez,  prepared  lakes  for  calico  printers, 

305 
Colors  adjective,  see  adjective  colors, 

52 

coal-tar,  23 
complementary,  179 
Drying  of,  must  be  carefully  per- 
formed, 202 

derived  from  madder,  330 
have  not  equal  stability  upon  all 

fabrics,  181 
how  influenced   by  the   nature  of 

the  thickening,  430 
physical  nature  of,  168 
influence  of  upon  one  another,  177 
yielded  by  garancine   and  garan- 
ceux,  as  compared  with  madder, 
238 
Coloring  matter  of  cow  dung,  Supposed 

utility  of,  153 

Common  salt,  chloride  of  sodium,  411 
Complementary  colors,  179 
Compound  blacks,  88 
Contrasts  of  color,  Laws  of,  179  • 
Copaiba  pubiflora,  or  purple  wood,  391 
Copper  acetate,  45 

acetate  used  in  red  liquor  making, 

43 
ammoniuret  of,  185 


Copper — 

Article  upon,  182,  183 

Influence  of,  upon  cochineal  colors, 

167 

Prussiate  of,  used  as  a  color,  148 
salts,  Uses  of,  in  iron  liquor,  46 
salts  and  sal  ammoniac,  Uses  of, 

401 
salts,    very   injurious    to   madder 

dyeing,  185 

salts,  Use  of,  in  catechu  colors,  126 
soaps  used  as  colors,  185 
soap  used    as   a   resist   in   indigo 

styles,  395 
sulphate   used   as   a  prepare   for 

indigo  dipping,  285 
Copperas,  see  sulphate  of  iron,  299 
calcined,  121 

green,  blue,  and  white,  186 
Coppering  of  steam  colors,  422 
Coralline,  24 
Cork  tree  bark,  186 
Corrosive  sublimate,  see  bichloride  of 

mercury,  21,  345 

Cotton,    Comparison   of  Egyptian,  In- 
dian, and  American,  as  to  capa- 
city for  receiving  colors,  186 
and  wool  in  delaine  fabrics,   how 

treated,  191 

dyeing  with  coal-tar  colors,  18 
how  affected   by  acids    and  other 

agents,  217 
Cow  dung,  187 

upon  what  its  efficiency  rests,  153 
'  used  in  clearing,  157 
Cream  of  tartar,  or  bitartrate  of  potash, 

187,  424 
Crenic   acid,  an   organic  substance  in 

water,  449 

Crimson  colors  from  red  woods,  187 
on  delaine  from  cochineal,  166 
on  wool  from  cochineal,  165 
standard  for  dahlia,  etc.,  189 
upon  silk  from  cochineal,  163 
Crocetine,  a  yellow  coloring  principle, 

188 

Crocine,  a  yellow  coloring  matter,  188 
Crum's  applications    of  the   gluten  of 

flour,  247 
method  of  testing  bleaching  liquor, 

94 

theory  of  dyeing,  206 
Cruvelli  lustres,  320 
Crystals  of  soda,  188 

see  carbonate  of  soda,  410 
of  tin,  or  chloride  of  tin,  434 
Crystallization   from   warm    solutions, 

457 
Cudbear,  similar  to  archil,  188 

used  to  dye  ruby  colors  on  silk,  399 


INDEX. 


479 


Curcuma  longa,  Root  of,  see  turmeric 
440 

Curcumine,   coloring  principle  of  tur- 
meric, 188 

Curd  of  milk,  11 

Cutting  or  reducing  of  madder  pinks, 
337 

Cyanine,  30 
blue,  105 

Cyanogen,  188 

Dahlia,  28 

Dahlia  colors,  Receipts  for,  189 
D'Alpigny,  theory  of  dyeing,  203 
Damajavag  from  chestnut  wood,  130 
Damp  steam  for  steaming,  416 
Dark  brown,  34 

indigo  blue,  29 

Dangville  and  Gauthier  process,  12 
Dead  cotton  does  not  receive  colors, 

186 

Decomposition  of  salts  by  fibrous  mat- 
ters, 220 

Deep  scarlet  on  wool  by  printing,  164 
Delaines,  Bleaching  of,  93 
Delaine  or  muslin  de  laine,  191 
dyed  crimson,  190 
Greens  upon,  require  care  to  pre- 
vent threadiness,  259 
Deliquescent  bodies   absorb   moisture, 

191 

Delph  color  same  as  China  blue,  191 
Dextrine,  a  gum  substitute,  192,  267 
Diastase,  192 
Dichromate  of  lead,  141 
Dip  blue,  105,  192 

by  means  of  dissolved  indigo,  285 
Dipping  of  China  blue  colors,  288 
Discharges,  12, 13 
Discharge  whites  and  colors,  Receipts 

for,  192 

Dissolution  of  coal-tar  colors,  13 
Distilled  blue,  used  in  dying  green  on 

silk,  260 
see  blue,  105 

Divi-divi,  an  astringent  substance,  192 
Drab  colors  by  dyeing   and   printing, 

Receipts  for,  199 
Drab  colors  from  catechu  and  iron  for 

garancine  dyeing,  242 
Drab  on  wool  from  catechu,  etc.,  127 
colors    are     generally   shades    of 

gray,  249 
Drying  oil,  attempts  to  obtain  one  for 

printing  with,  362 
Drying  oils  distinguished  from  rancid 

oils,  362 

Drying  of  printed  and  dyed  goods,  202 
Dry  steam  in  steaming  prints,  416 
Dumas,  his  theory  of  dyeing,  210 


Dumas — 

process,  471 
Dung,  its   use   in  clearing   mordanted 

goods,  153 
of  various  animals  used  in  dyeing, 

203 

substitutes,  153 
Dunging,  203 

see  cleansing,  152 
Durand  process,  12 

Dye  stains  due  to  sulphurous  acid,  421 
Dyeing,   of  garancine   colors,    General 

remarks  upon,  239 
General   and   theoretical  remarks 

upon,  203 
Importance   of   the    operation    of 

dunging  in,  154 
mixed  fabrics,  23 
Uses  of  tartar  in,  424,  425 
with  coal-tar  colors,  17 
Dyers'  buckthorn,  Green  color  from,  118 
spirits,  210 

or  tin  solutions,  436 
weed,  name  for  weld,  210 
Dyes,    Injurious    action    of   magnesia 
upon,  341 

East  India  gum  used  by  calico  printers, 
262 

Ebony  wood  used  in  compound  shades, 
211 

Efflorescence,  or  spontaneous  drying  of 
salts,  211 

Ecjg,  White  of,  see  albumen,  55 

Elder  berries,  97 

Embroideries  imitated,  470 

Emeraldine,  33 

new  green  coloring  matter,  211 

Emulsion,  formed  by  different  kinds  of 
oil,  364 

Epsom  salts,  341 

or  sulphate  of  magnesia,  211 

Equivalent  weights,  Applications  of,  to 
practice,  211 

Erica  or  heath,  used  in  dying,  212 

Erythro-benziue,  25 

Erythrozym,  a  fermenting  principle  in 
madder,  328 

Ethylmauvaniline,  blue  and  violet,  29 

Ethyl  violets,  28 

European  cochineal,  coccus  polonicus, 
158 

Euxanthic  acid,  a  yellow  coloring  mat- 
ter, 212 

Exposure  on  grass  to  clear  the  whites 
of  dyed  prints,  157 

Extract  blue  upon  silk,  97 
of  indigo,  296 

Extraction   of  madder  not  yet  accom- 
plished, 324 


480 


INDEX. 


Fading  of  colors  through  the  action  of 

light,  312 

Fahrenheit's  thermometer,  426 
Farina  when  calcined  gives  a  substitute 

for  gum,  264 
or  potato  flour,  used  in  finishing, 

212 

Fast  colors,  how  defined  and  tested,  180 
blue,  105 
blue,  a  color  so  called  from  indigo, 

295 
Fat  oils   distinguished   from  essential 

oils,  362 
Fatty  compounds  of  copper  as  colors, 

185 
Fawn  color,  how  obtained  by  dyeing, 

212 

from  catechu,  128 
Feathers,  "bleaching  of,  470 
Felting  of  animal  fibres,  what  owing  to, 

461. 
Fenugreek,  formerly  used   in  dyeing, 

213. 

Fermentation  of  gum  water  from  artifi- 
cial gums,  269 
Fernambuc  wood,  one  of  the  red  woods, 

213 

Ferric  acid.  301 

Ferridcyanide  of  potassium,  385 
Ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  385 
Ferro  and  ferridcyanide  of  potassium, 

213 

Ferruginous  water,  Tests  for,  448 
Fibres,  animal,  18 

do  not  all  equally  attract  mordants, 

352 
of  cotton,   Various  properties   of, 

186 

vegetable,  18 
Fibrous  matters  dissolved  in  cupreous 

solutions,  225 
substances,    General   observations 

upon,  213 
matters   said    to    be    injured    by 

oxalic  acid,  371 
Filtering  of  water,  453 
Fineness  to  which  madder  is  ground,  321 
Finishing  blue,  105 
Fish  albumen,  see  albumen,  55 
Fixing  of  colors  and  mordants  by  am- 
monia, 63 
of  mordants,  Objection  to  the  term, 

153 

agent  for  alkaline  pink  mordant,  59 
Flavine,    a  preparation   of  quercitron 

bark,  226 

Flesh  colors,  how  obtained,  227 
Flour,  Properties  and  uses  of,  in  calico 

printing,  228 
potato,  212 


Flowers  of  madder,  Nature  of,  323 

or  refined  madder,  230 
Foreign  gums  used  for  thickening  mor- 
dants and  colors,  262 
Freezing  of  brown  oil  of  vitriol,  419 
French  purple,  or  solid  purple,  391 

red  liquors,  Receipts  for,  42 
Froth  in  gum  colors,  Cause  and  pre- 
vention of,  267 
Fuchsine,  24 

one  of  the  aniline  colors,  220 
Fulling  or  thickening  of  woollen   fa- 
brics, 461 

Fuming  oil  of  vitriol,  418 
Fustic,  General  properties  of,  230 

much  used  in  woollen  dyeing  for 

greens,  258 
Fustic  lake  for  brown  colors,  307 

used  in  dyeing  cochineal  scarlet, 

162 

yellow  combined  with  indigo  blue 
for  green,  254 

Gall  nuts,  231 

tannic  acid  obtained  from,  423 
Gallic  acid,  232 
Gallipoli  oil,  232 

an  inferior  kind  of  olive  oil,  363 
Galls,  Gray  color  from,  for  calico,  252 

Black  dye  on  silk  from,  78 
Garanceux    or    garancine   made   from 

spent  madder,  236 
Garancine,  its  peculiar  advantages  as 

a  dye  stuff,  239 
for  dyeing  purples,  see  alizarine, 

57 
Manufacture    and    properties   of, 

233 

Red  liquor  for,  42 
work,  how  the  whites  are  cleared, 

158 
Gardenia,  a  genus   of  plants  yielding 

coloring  matters,  244 
Gardenia   grandiflora   yields  a  yellow 

coloring  matter,  188 
Garnet-red,  25 
Gas  blue  or  pencil  blue  applied  in  an 

atmosphere  of  gas,  293 
Gelatine,  11 

tannate  of.  11 
Geneva  black,  Method  of  dyeing,  82 

Remarks  upon,  82 

German  vat  for  indigo  blue  dyeing,  281 
Gilding  of  thread  and  cloth  by  mechan- 
ical means,  247 

Glauber's  salts,  see  sulphate  of  soda,  245 
Glucose  applied  to  the  application  of 

indigo  by  printing,  294 
Glucose   possesses   powerful    reducing 
properties,  245 


INDEX. 


481 


Glue  applied  to  the  fixation  of  pigment 

colors,  245 
Gluten,  11 

in  flour,  229 

Properties  and  attempted  applica- 
tions of,  246 
Glycerine,  12 

Properties  of,  247 
Gobelin  blacks,  81 
Gold  or  amber  color,  Methods  of  apply 

ing,  to  textile  fabrics,  247 
Receipt  for,  63 
Golden  rod,  a  yellow  coloring  matter 

249 
Grained  or  engrained  colors,  origin  o' 

the  term,  302 

Grape  sugar  used  in   deoxydizing  in- 
digo, 293 

Gray  acetate  of  lime,  48 
argols,  69 

colors  upon  various  fabrics,  249 
from  aniline  blacks,  471 
on  animal  fibres,  471 
Gray  ness  in  greens  corrected  by  cochi- 
neal, 259 
Grays,  35,  38 
Green,  Chinese,  131 

color  from  grass,  see  chlorophyll, 

134 

color  upon  woollen  from  flavine,  227 
colors  upon  various  fabrics,  255, 

260 

copperas,  see  sulphate  of  iron,  299 
dove  color  from  madder  and  chro- 
mium, 147 
dyeing,  18 
indigo,  72 

from  artichokes  and  thistles,  70 
pigment  color  from  chromium,  145 
sulphate  of  indigo,  256 
vitriol,  see  sulphate  of  iron,  299 
Green   and  bluish  colors  produced  in 

madder  liquors,  236 
Greens,  31 

aniline,  471 
Greriat,  25 

Grinding  of  indigo  must  be  very  com- 
plete, 279 

Orisons'  green  sulphate  of  indigo,  257 
Grit  or  sand  in  flour,   How  to  detect 

and  estimate,  228 
Grit  or  sand  in  gum  water,  269 
Ground  chalk  used  in  madder  dyeing, 

315 

Growse's  or  London  pink,  see  bran,  108 
Grumel's  patent  for  dyeing  black,  83 
Guignet's  green,  145 
Gum,  Barbary,  73 

Bassora,  see  Bassora,  75 
chocolate  for  delaine,  113 


Gum — 

Inferior  kinds  of,  see  Barbary  gum, 

73 
Properties  and  uses 'of,  in  calico 

printing,  261 

substitutes,   method   of  manufac- 
ture and  properties,  264 
thickenings,  13 

thus,  used  in  bleaching,  271,  398 
Use  of,  in  albumen  thickening,  55 
water,  13 

Gums  as  thickeners,  432 
Gypsum  as  a  thickener,  430 

Hachrout,  a  dye-stuff  similar  to  mad- 
der, 271 

Half  discharge  for  indigo  blue,  194 

Hanging  or  stoving,  see  ageing,  54 

Hardness  of  water,  Estimation  of,  454 

Hard  water  caused  by  lime,  446 

Harmaline,  30 

coloring  matter,  so  called,  271 

Hartshorn,  a  name  for  ammonia,  272 
Spirits  of,  see  ammonia,  63 

Hat  black,  79 

Hausmann  upon  the  supposed  necessity 
of  chalk  in  madder  dyeing,  333 

Havana  brown,  34 

Heat  glass,  see  thermometer,  426 

Heath  used  as  a  dyeing  material,  212 

Hellebore,  Three-leaved,  contains  yel- 
low coloring  matter,  !272 

Helleborus  trifolius,  272 

Hellot,  his  theory  of  the  cause  of  dye- 
ing, 205 

Hernatine,   coloring   principle    of   log- 
wood, 272 

Hematosine,  coloring  principle  of  blood, 
272 

Hematoxyline,  coloring  principle  of  log- 
wood, 272 

Hemlock  spruce  used  for  dyeing,  272 

Henna,  as  a  dyeing  material,  307 

Hesse  process,  13 

Hiccory  for  producing  yellow  and  green 
colors,  272 

Hindoos  used  acetate  of  alumina,  41 

Hofmann's  violets,  28 

Hot  vat  for  dyeing  blue  on  woollen,  281 

Hydrate,  a  chemical  term  for  watery 
substances,  272 

Hydrochlorate  of  rosaniline,  24 

Hydrochloric  acid,  Various  properties 
of,  272 

Hydrometer,  Beaum6's,  75 

not  a  proper  test  for  gum  water, 

268 
or  Twaddle,  Real  uses  of,  274 

Hygrometer  for  ascertaining  dryness  or 
dampness  of  air,  275 


482 


INDEX. 


Hypochlorite  of  lime,  a  name  for  bleach- 
ing powder,  276 
Hyposulphites  used  as  mordants,  276 

Ice  as  a  preservative  of  lactarine,  305 

Iceland  moss,  124 

Imitation  of  embroideries,  470 

Imperial  ruby,  25 

Improvers  for  iron  liquor,  47 

Incrusting  water  bad  for  dyeing,  454 

India  rubber,  124 

Indian  yellow,  Nature  of,  212 

Indigo  acetate,  45 
Article  upon,  277 
blue  and  chrome  yellow  combined, 

254 

blue  on  wool,  Testing  of,  98 
blue,  Discharges  for,  192 
Discharge    of,  by  means   of    red 

prussiate  and  alkali,  386 
dissolved  by  chloroform,  471 
freed  by  aniline,  471 
Green,  see  barasat  verte,  72 

Indisine,  26 

Inferior  indigo  gives  good  results  in  the 
vat,  284 

Injury  to  silk  by  dyeing,  469 

Insolubility  a  necessary  condition  in  a 
mordant,  351 

Introduction,  9 

Iodide  of  ethyl  green,  32 

Iodine,  297 
violets,  28 

Irish  moss,  124 

Iron  acetate  or  iron  liquor,  46 

as  a  constituent  in  water,  448 
buff,  Discharge  for,  198 
buff  liquor  and  colors,  118 
existing  in  alum,  Tests  for,  61 
liquor,  Manufacture  of,  46 
liquor,  Testing  of,  47 
mordants,  Action  of  caustic  soda 

upon,  154 

mould  removed  by  acids,  298 
Per  acetate  of,  easily  decomposed, 

39 

To  free  zinc  salts  from,  466 
vessels,  how  prepared  and  cleaned 
for  dyeing  in,  298 

Isatis  tinctoria,  301 

Isopurpurate  of  potassa,  25 

Isopurpuric  acid,  301 

Ivory  black,  302 

Jamaica  wood,  302 

Jaune  d'or,  30 

Javal  and  Gratrix  process,  21 

Kaolin,  13 
Kiippelin's  paste,  37 


Kermes,  an  ancient  red   coloring  mat- 
ter, 302 

Knoppern,  a  tannin  substance,  303 
Koechlin,    Camille,   experiments   upon 

madder,  326 
Koechlin,  Daniel,  upon  use  of  alkalies 

in  madder  dyeing,  334 
Koechlin,  H.,  aniline  greens,  471 
Koechlin,  M.  D.,  red  liquors,  42 
Koechlin's  discharge  upon  Turkey  red, 

195 
Kopp's  process  for  printing,  20 

Lac-dye  or  lac-lake,  303 
Lactarine,  11 

used  for  pigment  colors,  304 
Lakes,  Generalities  upon,  305 
Lant,  see  urine,  442 
Lavender  colors,  how  produced,  307 
Lawsonia  inermis,  or  Henna,  307 
Laws  of  contrasts  of  colors,  179 
Lead  acetate,  see  acetate  of  lead,  47 
Acetate  of,  use  in  red  liquor  mak- 
ing, 42 

and  its  compounds,  308 
chromate,  141 
mordant,  19 
nitrate,  used   for  chrome   orange, 

143 

salts,  11 

Sugar  of,  see  acetate  of  lead,  47 
sub-acetate  for  chrome  orange,  144 
sulphate  used  in  resists  for  indigo 

dipping,  286 

Lead  used  to  adulterate  cochineal,  160 
Leiocome  a  gum  substitute,  310 
Lemon  juice,  150,  310 
Lemon  yellow  on  calico,  144 

on  wool,  151 
Leucaniline  brown,  34 
Libi-davi  or  divi-davi,  310 
Lichens  as  yielding  dyeing  matters,  310 
Light,  decomposition  of,  by  the  prism, 

168 

How  colors  are  produced  by,  169 
Various  actions   of,   upon   colors, 

311 
Lightfoot's  patent  for  use  of  glue  in 

fixing  colors,  246 
Lightfoot's  chlorine  process,  470 
Lightfoot's  process,  35,  36 
Lignine,  basis  of  vegetable  fibrous  mat- 
ters, 213 
Ligustrum  Vulgare,  Berries  of  the,  used 

in  dyeing,  385 

Lilac,  Chocolate  and  wood  colors,  pre- 
pared for,  384 
Lilac  colors  from  madder,  329 

colors   from    logwood,    cochineal, 
etc.,  313 


INDEX. 


483 


Lilac- 
dark,   for    dahlia   and   compound 

shades,  190 
from  alkanet,  60 
standard  for  brown  colors,  117 
Lima  wood,  314 

Lime  acetate,  see  acetate  of  lime,  47 
Acetate  of,  used  in  red  liquor  mak- 
ing, 42 
Action  of,  upon  cotton  and  other 

fibres,  219 
Article  upon,  314 
and  copperas  vat  for  indigo  dyeing 
•  on  wool,  280 ;  on  cotton,  281 

Application  of,  in  purifying  water. 

451 

Chloride  of,  bleaching  powder,  93 
juice,  150 

juice  as  a  resist  for  mordants,  394 
Milk  of,  used  to  neutralize  garan- 

cine,  58 
Plombate  of,   for  chrome  orange, 

145 

salts,  Action  of,  in  dyeing,  447 
in  water,  Characters  of,  446 
water  used  to  raise  chrome  orange, 

143 

Liming  in  bleaching,  89 
Linseed  oil,  to  prevent  frothing  of  gum 

colors,  267 

Uses  of,  actual  and  possible,  364 
Liquor  ammonia,  63 
Litmus,  317 
Litre,  the  French  measure  of  liquids, 

317 

Littlewood  and  Wilson  process,  22 
Lloyd  and  Dale  process,  22 
Logwood,  Article  upon,  317 
A  gray  color  from,  251 
blacks,  78 
blue  upon  silk,  97 
blue  upon  wool,  98 
lake  with  copper  and  bichromate, 

306 

prohibited  for  blue  dyeing,  100 
Use  of,  in  purple  colors,  389 
Lucas  paste,  37 
Lucern  root,  15 

Lustres,  or  Cruvelli  lustres,  320 
Luteoline,  320,  460 

coloring     matter    of    weld,    320, 
460 

Madder,  Article  upon,  320 

and  bark  usedfor  cinnamon  shades, 

148 

Catechu  browns  for,  129 
colors,  Action  of  soap  upon,  406 
colors,  Discharges  for,  194 
dyeing,  Bleach  for,  90 


Madder — 

extracts,  values  of,  471 

Method  of  converting  into  garan- 
cine,  233 

Red  liquors  for,  43 

some   roots  of  a   similar  nature, 
329 

Treatment   of,   by   various  acids, 
234 

used  in  setting  indigo  vats,  282 

whether  improved  by  age  or  not, 

321 
Magenta,  24,  340 

crystals,  printing  with,  20 

dyeing  with,  18,  19 

see  aniline,  64 
Magnesia  and  its  salts,  341 

as  a  constituent  of  water,  448 
Mahogany  color,  342 
Maize  color,  342 

Mallow,  mallows,  or  mauve  color,  342 
Mallows  red  or  crimson  upon  silk  and 

chalis,  165 
Manchester  black,  85 

yellow,  30 
Manganese,  Acetate  of,  49 

and  its  compounds,  342 

bronze,  110 

bronze  colors,  Discharge  for,  198 
Manganic  acid,  343 
Mangrove  tree   bark  used   in  dyeing, 

343 

Manjit  or  mungeet,  354 
Maple,  Scarlet  flowering  of  American, 

50 

Maroons,  34 

Maroon  colors,  see  chestnut,  130 
Mason's  hygrometer,  275 
Mastering  or  ageing  of  logwood,  318 
Mathered  blacks,  78,  89 
Mauvaniline,  29 
Mauve,  26 

color,  64 

Perkins'  patent,  344 
Mauveine  gray,  38 
Mazarine  blue,  344 
Mechanical  theory  of  dyeing,  204 
Mercer's  discharge  upon  indigo  blue, 
194 

method    of   treating    calico   with 

caustic,  216 
Mercer  and   Greenwood's   patents  for 

treating  oils,  366 
Mercerized   cloth,  patent,  Concerning, 

344 

Mercurial  salts  employed  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  murexide  red,  356 
Mercury  and  its  salts,  344 

bichloride  of,  21 
Merino,  Black  for,  84 


484 


INDEX. 


Metals  in  leaves  applied  to  cloth,  mus- 
lin, etc.,  247 
Metallic  colors,  346 

produced   by   means   of  hyposul- 
phites, 276 

Methods  for  dyeing  and  printing,  17 
Methylaniline  violet,  29 
Methylated  spirits,  56,  346 
Methylrosaniline  violets,  28 
Michel ;  his  attempts  to  obtain  a  natu- 
ral green,  131 
Mild  paste,  51 
Mildew  preventible   by  carbolic   acid, 

246 

Milk,  Buffaloes',  used  in  dyeing,  120 
curd  of,  11 
of  lime,  315 
Miller's  process,  22 
Mineral    colors   upon   animal    fabrics, 

182 

thickening  matters,  430 
Mixed  brown,  35 

fabrics  ;  methods  of  dyeing  single 

and  double  colors,  346 
fabrics,  dyeing,  23 
green,  31 

Moisture  in  air  essential  in  ageing,  53 
increases  the  brightness  of  colors, 

202 
Monteith's  process  of  discharging  on 

Turkey  Red,  194 
Mordants,  10 
Mordant,    Active     and    inactive,    see 

shaded  styles,  404 
Albumen  acting  as,  see  animaliza- 

tion,  65 

Alum  and  tin,  with  cochineal,  161 
Article  upon,  350 
Colors    yielded   to,    by   cochineal 

160 

employed  for  madder  purples,  331 
for  coal-tar  colors,  469 
Injurious   action   of    sugar  upon, 

416 
made  with  hyposulphite  of  soda, 

276 

Oil  acting  as  a,  366 
Oxide  of  lead  as,  310 
Precautions  in  dyeing  of,  204 
Preparation  and  thickening  of,  for 

garancine  colors,  240 
Spinel,  411  ' 

Tin  salts  considered  as,  438 
Wool  considered  as,  461 
Morinda  citrifolia,  a  substance  similar 

to  madder,  354 
Morine,  354 
Moss,    Iceland,  Irish,  or   Carragheen, 

124 
Mosses  yielding  coloring  matters,  354 


Mourning  gray  on  delaine,  Receipt  for 

251 

on  wool,  Receipt  for,  253 
Mousseline  delaine,  191 
Mulberries,  97 
Munjeet  similar  to  madder,  329 

does  not  lose  much  weight  by  being 

made  into  garancine,  234 
Mureine  grays,  38 
Murexide  or  Roman  purple,  354 
Muriate  of  alumina  used  as  a  mordant, 

276 

of  ammonia,  401 

of  chrome  standard,  146  • 

of  copper,  Uses  of,  184 
of  iron  liquor,  300 
of  manganese   or    bronze   liquor, 

343 

of  tin,  434 
Muriatic  acid,  272 

Action  of,  upon  cotton,  wool,  and 

silk,  216 
Muriatic  acid   may  be  used   to   make 

garancine,  236 

Muslin  or  mousseline  de  laine,  191 
Myrabolans,  358 

Names  of  colors,  170 
Nankeen  colors  from  iron,  anotta,  etc., 
358 

colors  from  cork  tree  bark,  186 
Naphthaline,  9,  358 
Naphthylamine  yellow,  30 
Navy  blue,  Resist  for,  286 
Neb-nab,  72 

Nenuphar,  or  white  water  lily,  358 
Neutral  paste,  51 
Neutralization    of    garancine,    a  most 

important  point,  238 
Nicaragua  wood,  358 
Nicholson's  process,  15 
Nickel,  358 
Night  blue,  27 

green,  31 
Nitrate  of  alumina  for  chocolate,  139 

of  copper,  Uses  of,  184 

of  iron,  Making  and  properties  of, 
300 

of  rosaniline,  24 

of  soda,  411 

Nitric   acid,   Action    of,  upon    cotton, 
wool,  and  silk,  215 

can  be  used  to  make   garancine, 
236 

Strength  and  properties  of,  359 
Nitric  oxide  and  nitrous  acid,  360 
Nitro-cuminic  acid,  361 
Nitro-picric  acid,  see  picric  acid,  374 
Nitrogen  in  air,  see  air,  55 
Nitrogenous  matters,  Definition  of,  361 


INDEX. 


485 


Nitrous  acid  in  tin  solution  for  cochineal 

scarlet,  161 

Nitrous  gases  in  vitriol  injurious,  419 
Nona,  361 

Nopal,  the  cochineal  tree,  159 
Nordhausen  vitriol  used  for  extract  of 

indigo,  418 
Nuts,  Areca,  69 

gall,  231 

valonia,  442 
Nymphoea  alba,  or  white  water  lily,  358 

Objects,  Color  of,  defined  by  Chevreul's 

system,  173 
Odor  of  bad  soap  or  oils  adheres  to 

cloth,  407 

Oils  and  fatty  matters,  Article  upon, 
361 

as  mordants,  11 

Oil,  Use  of,  in  spinning  wool,  443 
Oil  of  vitriol,   see  sulphuric  acid,  418, 

443 

Old  fustic,  230 
Olive  brown,  34 

colors,  369 

green,  33 

oil,  called  Gallipoli  oil,  363 
Opaline  Hue,  106 
Oranges,  30 
Orange,  antimony,  67 

color  in  garancine  styles,  49 

colors,  370 

colors  from  chrome,  142 

mordant  for  garancine  dyeing,  242 

paste  for  indigo  dipping,  287 
Orelline,  see  anotta,  66 
Organic  matters  in  water,  444 
Orleans,  see  anotta,  66 
Orpiment,  or  red  arsenic,  371 

used  in  making  pencil  blue  color, 

291 

Oxalic  acid  and  oxalate  of  potash,  371 
Ox-gall,  76 

Oxidation  during  ageing  but  slight,  53 
•  Oxides  of  copper  as  mordants  and  colors, 
183 

of  iron,  Properties  of,  298 

of  lead  as  mordants  for  colors,  309 

of  tin,  434 
Oxidizing  action  of  copper  salts,  183 

agents  necessary   for   red  woods, 

393 
Oxygen,  372 

.    Quantity  of,  in  air,  55 
Oxymuriate  of  tin,  mordant,  19,  436 

for  cutting  pinks,  337 
Ozone,  Properties  of,  372 

Paille  de  mil,  168 

Palm  oil,  Properties  and  uses  of,  366 


Paluds   madder  requires  no   chalk  in 

dyeing,  334 
Panama  bark,  15 
Paraf  process,  12 
Paraf's  paste,  37 
Paris  blue,  106 
Paris  violet,  29 
Parisian  blue,  106 
Parme,  30 
Paste  blue,  106 

brown  chocolate  for  delaine,  137 
for  printing  aniline  black,  471 
neutral,  51 
Pastel  or  woad,  373 
Pastes,  36,  37 
Pastes  or  reserves,  394 
Pastiness  and  thickening  of  solutions  of 

gum,  2G7 
Patent  for  garanceux  proved  invalid,  233 

alum,  62 

Pattison's  lactarine,  304 
Payen's  gum  substitute,  2G4 
Peachwood,  373 

the  manner  in  which  it  influences 

garancine  colors,  243 
Pearl  ash,  373 

Pearl  gray  colors,  Receipts  for,  249 
Pectic  acid  in  madder,  324 
Peels  of  walnuts  used  in  woollen  dyeing, 

443 
Peganum  harmala,  Seeds  of,  contain  a 

coloring  matter,  271 
Pencil  blue,  106 

color  from  indigo,  292 
Penetrating  powers  of  thickeners,  431 
Peonine,  24 
Perkins'  violet,  26 
Perkins  and  Gray's  patent  for  fixing 

aniline  by  lead  mordants,  310 
Permanganates,  alkaline,  470 
Permanganic  acid,  343 

discharge  by,  12 
Pernoud  and  Picard's  madder  extract, 

472 

Persalts  of  iron,  299 
Persian  berries,  75 
Persoz  ;  his  theory  of  dyeing,  206 
Petitdidier's  imitation  of  embroideries, 

470 

Phenicienne,  34 
Phenylamine  blue,  30 
Phoenicine,  25 

Phosphate  of  lime  as  a  mordant,  316 
Phosphates,  Properties  of,  374 

of  soda,  Application  of,  to  precipi- 
tate mordants,  404 
Phosphine,  30 
Phosphorus,  373 

Phosphuretted  hydrogen  used  to  pre- 
cipitate metals,  248 


486 


INDEX. 


Photographic  impressions  upon  calico, 

812 

Picrates,  30 
Picric  acid,  30 

article  upon,  374 
as  the  yellow  part  in  greens,  257 
Pigment  colors,  Albumen  used  to  fix, 

66 

fixed  by  silicate  of  soda,  405 

principles  of  their  application,  375 

Pincoff's  commercial  alizarine,  57 

Pink  colors  from  cochineal,  163 

colors  from  madder,  337 

colors  from  safflower,  400 

colors,  Receipts  for,  376 

crystals,  double  chloride  of  tin  and 

ammonia,  188 

from  cochineal  upon  silk,  163 
mordant,  Alkaline,  69 
Oxymuriate  of  tin  for,  438 
Red  liquors  proper  for,  45 
salts,  muriate  of  tin  and  ammonia, 

378 

standard  for  dahlia  and  other  co- 
lors, 189 
Pipeclay  as  a  thickener,  430 

Uses  of,  in  calico  printing,  378 
Plaster  of  Paris  or  sulphate  of  lime,  316 
Plombate  of  soda  yellow  on  calico,  144 
Plum  color  and  plum  spirits,  379 

spirits,  438 
Polish  berries,  150 
Polychroite,  coloring  matter  of  saf- 

flower,  401 

Polygonum  tinctorium,  379 
Pomegranate  bark,  379 
Ponceau  d'aniline,  25 
Poppy  reds  by  means  of  snfflower,  400 
Pores  in  fibrous  matters,  Speculations 

upon,  204 
Potash  and  its  compounds,  379 

Action  of,  upon  cotton,  wool,  and 

silk,  217,  219 
alum,  see  alum,  60 
aluminate  of,  59 
Bitartrate  of,  424 
caustic  used  to  extract  cochineal 

color,  166 
chlorate  of,  132 
chlorate,  Use  of,  in  ageing  liquor, 

54 

chromate,  and  bichromate  of,  1 40 
Citrate  of,  acts  as  a  resist,  150 
sulphate,  Supposed  advantage  of, 

in  madder  dyeing,  335 
used  to  adulterate  lime  juice,  151 
Potato  flour,  212 
Precipitated  blue  from  indigo  fixed  by 

alkalies,  295 
Precipitation,  16 


i  Preparation  of  cotton  for  Prussian  blue, 

103 

for  indigo  dipping,  282 
of  lac  for  dyeing,  304 
Prepared  rosin  for  bleachers,  396 
Preparing  for  steam  colors,  Article  up- 

on, 381 
salts,  436 

Pressure,  dyeing  under,  469 
Primula,  28 
Printed  pieces,  Methods  of  discharging 

or  bleaching,  192 

Printing  paste  for  aniline  black,  471 
with  coal-tar  colors,  17,  20 
without  Jacquard  loom,  470 
Privet  berries,  97 

used  as  dye  stuffs,  385 
Process  of  BSttger,  23 
of  Brook,  22 

of  Dangville  and  Gauthier,  12 
of  Durand,  12 
of  Hesse,  13 

of  Javal  and  Gratrix,  21 
of  Kopp,  20 

of  Littlewood  and  Wilson,  22 
of  Lloyd  and  Dale,  22 
of  Miller,  22 
of  Nicholson,  15 
of  Paraf,  12 

of  Rangod-Pechiney  and  Bulard,  ]  5 
of  Schultz,  12 

Prof.  Javal  process  for  black,  471 
Proteine  for  pigment  colors,  385 
Protosalts  of  iron,  298 
Prussian  blue,  combined  with  fustic  to 

produce  green,  255 
Discharge  for,  198 
Various  receipts  for,  107 
blues,  Dyeing  of,  upon  silk,  96 
?russiate  of  potash,  385 
Puce  color,  or  flea  color,  388 
Puce-colored  oxide  of  lead,  310 

fuchsine,  34 

Pulp  of  tin,  see  prussiate  of  tin,  387 
Purification,  16 

of  water  for  dyeing  purposes,  450 
Purple  colors  from  garancine,  Mordants 

for,  239 

colors  from  madder,  330 
colors,  Receipts  for  general,  388 
Dark,  for  dahlia,  etc.,  190 

m  used  in  madder  styles,  331 
eart  wood,  391 
mallows,  supposed  to  be  used  in 

dyeing,  342 
Pale,  standard  for  dahlia  and  other 

shades,  189 

Purples,  "26  / 

Purpuric  acid,  a  constituent  ormurexide 
red,  355 


gu 
he 


INDEX. 


487 


Purpurine,    a  principle    contained    in 

madder,  329 
Purreic  acid,  a  yellow  coloring  matter, 

Putrefaction  of  cochineal  extracts,  160 
Pyrophosphate  of  iron  as  a  mordant,  301 
Pyroxilized  cotton,  391 
Pyroxilizing  of  cotton  by  nitric  acid,  216 

Quercitron  bark,  392 

how   it    influences   garancine 

colors,  243 

Quercus  regilops,  443  , 

Quillaya  saponica,  15 
Quinoiine  blue,  108 

Radix  saponica,  15 

Raising  of  colors,  see  alterant,  60 

Rancid  and  drying  oils,  362 

Rangod-Pdchiuey  process,  15 

Raymond's  solution,  96 

Realgar,  392 

Reaumur's  thermometer,  427 

Red,  Adrianople,  52 

aniline  colors,  printing,  18 

archil,  68 

argols,  69 

arsenic,  69 

chocolate  on  wool,  136 

chocolate  on  calico,  139 

chrome,  140 

colors,  Receipts  for,  392 

colors  from  chica,  131 

colors  from   garancine,   Mordants 

for,  239 

colors  from  lac  dye,  303 
color  from  madder,  338 
colors  of  Malabar  and  Coromandel 

from  chayaver,  130 
from  barwood,  73 
from  cochineal  for  delaine,  166 
from  murexide,  Process  of,  356 
lead,  309 

liquor,  see  acetate  of  alumina,  41 
mordant,  see  acetate  of  alumina,  41 
prussiate  of  potash,  386 
saunders   wood,  see  santal  wood, 

402 

spirits,  438 

tartar,  see  cream  of  tartar,  424 
woods,  394 
Reds,  24 

steam,  Oxalate  of  ammonia  used 

in,  60 

Refined  indigo  nearly  pure  indigo,  279 
Regina  purple,  29 

Reimann's  process  for  aniline  colors,  469 
Reseda  luteola,  or  weld  plant,  460 
Resin,  396 
Resins  as  mordants,  11 


Resmate  of  soda,  see  rosin  soap,  396 
Resinous  gums  distinguished  from  other 

gums,  261 

Resists  or  reserves,  Article  upon,  394 
Resist  or  catechu   brown  for  madder 
dyeing,  340 

for  China  blue,  291 

for  indigo  styles,  285 

red,  Red  liquor  for,  42 

red  for  garancine  colors,  239 
Resistant,  Citric  acid  as  a,  149 
Retention  of  mordants;  how  explained, 

353 

Rice  flour  starch,  414 
Richardson's  patent  for  dyeing  black,  82 
Rhamnine,  see  berries,  75 
j  Rhus  cotinus  or  young  fustic,  230 
I  Rochledor's  madder  extracts,  471 
Rock  or  roach  alum,  see  alum,  60 
Roman  alum,  see  alum,  60 

purple  dyed  with  alloxan.  57 
Root,  Awl,  71 
Rosaniline,  acetate  of,  24 

arsenite  of,  24 

dyeing  with  salts  of,  1 8 

green,  33 

hydrochlorate  of,  24 

nitrate  of  24 

or  Magenta,  398 
Roseiue,  24 

Rosin  and  rosin  soap,  396 
Rosolane,  30 
Rosolic  acid,  26,  398 
Rosotoluidine  blue,  30 
Rothine,  34 
Rotting  or  tendering  of  cloth  by  rust 

spots,  299 

Rot  steep  in  bleaching,  90 
Roussin's  artificial  alizarine,  328 
Royal  blue,  108 

on  wool,  101 
on  delaines,  102 
Rubian,  an  important  principle  in  mad- 

der,  329 
Rubine,  24 
Ru-bis  imperial,  25 
Ruby  colors,  399 

soluble,  25 

Sacc  and  Schlumberger  upon  uric  acid 

colors,  355 

Saddening  or  browning  of  colors,  117 
Safflower,  Article  upon,  399 

and    Prussian   blue   for    lavender 

colors,  308 
Safranine,  31 
Saffron  yellow,  401 
Sago  flour,  414 
Sal  ammoniac,  401 

Use  of  in  catechu  colors,  128 


488 


INDEX. 


Salmon  color,  402 

Saltpetre  an  hygroscopic  agent,  381 
Salt  of  Saturn,  see  acetate  of  lead,  47 
Common,  used  in  red  liquor  mak 

ing,  43 
Salts,  Action  of,  upon  fibrous  substances, 

220 
Chemical,   tried    as    additions    in 

madder  dyeing,  335 
Sand,  Use  of,  in  filtering  water,  450 
Santal  or  sandal  wood,  402 
Santa  Martha  wood,  402 
Sapan  wood,  402 

extract  in  red  colors,  393 
lake  or  pulp,  306 
pink,  376 

Saunders  or  santal  wood,  402 
Saw  wort,  a  yellow  coloring  matter,  402 
Saxony  blue,  108,  296 
Scarlet  from  cochineal,  Use  of  yellow 

coloring  matters  in,  162 
on  wool  from  cochineal,  161 
Schlumberger  upon  iron  liquor,  47 
Schlumberger's    estimate    of   coloring 

matter  in  madder,  326 
Schisckkar    and    Calvert's   patent  for 

producing  metallic  colors,  346 
Schultz  process,  12 

Schunck,  Dr.,  his  researches  upon  mad- 
der, 327 

Sedimentary  matter  in  lime  juice,  150 
Senegal  gum  used  by  calico  printers,  262 
Shaded  styles  by  precipitation,  403 
Sightening,  Berries  used  for,  76 

Ground  charcoal  used  for,  130 
Silk  as  a  fibre,  405 
Bleaching  of,  93 

dyeing  with  coal-tar  colors,  17,  18 
'how  affected   by  acids  and   other 

agents,  214 
report  on,  469 
weighted  by  tannic  matter  of  gall 

nuts,  231 
Silica,  13 

or  silicate  of  soda,  404 
Silicate  of  soda  as  a  dung  substitute,  1 55 
Silver  or  white  cochineal,  its  origin,  159 
gray  for  wool,  Receipt  for,  253 
gray  on  animal  fibres,  471 
Single   and   double   dyeing   on   mixed 

fabrics,  346 
Size  or  glue,  its  influence  in  garancine 

dyeing,  245 

General  properties  of,  246 
Sky  blues  upon  silk,  97 
Skyeing  by  means  of  indigo,  284 
Slate  color,  Standard  for  making,  250 
Slimes,  an  inferior  kind  of  starch,  414 
Soap,  Article  upon,  406 

from  linseed  and  other  oils,  364 


Soap- 
mordant,  12 

of  copper  used  as  a  resist,  395 
Soft,  used  as  a  resist  for  indigo 

dipping,  285 

test  for  hardness  of  water,  454 
Soaping  of  madder  colors,  336 
Soaps  of  copper  as  colors,  336 
Soapwort  as  a  solvent,  15 
Soda,  Acetate  of,  49 

Action  of,  upon  fibrous  matters,  217 
and  its  compounds,  409 
•  arsenite,  arsenate,  and  silicate,  as 

dung  substitutes,  155 
bicarbonate,  411 
binoxalate,  191 
bisulphite,  297 
black,  88 
carbonate,  used  to  neutralize  acid 

in  garancine,  238 
caustic  to  Mercerize  cloth,  344 
chromate,  141 
crystals,   Use   of,  in   making  red 

liquors,  43 
resinate,  396 
silicate  of,  405 
stannate  of,  11 
sulphate,  245,  411 
sulphite,  56 
Soft  soap,  Preparation  and  properties 

of,  408 
Solferino,  24 

Solidago  canadensis,  or  American  gold- 
en rod,  249 
Solidifying  of  calcined  farina  gum  water, 

265 

Soluble  blue,  108 
blues,  27 
ruby,  25 
gum  substitute  prepared  by  means 

of  acids,  265 
Solution.  Raymond's,  96 

of  tin  of  spirit  colors,  438 
Solvent  for  fibrous  matters,   ammoni- 

uret  of  copper,  185 
powers  of  water,  457 
Solvents,  14 

Action  of,  upon  madder,  322 
Sooranjee,  a  species  of  madder,  354 
Sorgho  red,  411 
Sorghum  saccharatum,  411 
Souring  in  bleaching,  91 

Importance  of,  in  preparing  from 

stannate,  383 
Souring   used  to  clear  madder  colors, 

Specific    gravity,   numbers    converted 

nto  degrees  of  Twaddle,  275 
Spent  madder  contains  coloring  matter, 
325 


INDEX. 


Spent  indigo  vats,  Extraction  of  indigo 

from  285 
Sperm  oil,  363 
Spermaceti,  366 

black,  88 

Spinel  mordant,  411 
Spirit  brown,  115 

chocolate  for  calico,  139 

colors,  412,  438 

yellow  on  cotton,  463 
Spirits  of  hartshorn,  a  name  for  ammo- 
nia, 272 

of  salts,  272 

of  tin,  Receipts  for  various,  438 

of  turpentine,  440 

of  wine,  56 

Methylated,  56 
Spring  gr.een,  31 
Spruce,  hemlock,  272 
Standards,    Use   of,    in   color  mixing 

250 
Stannate  of  soda,  11,  436 

Preparing  cloth  with,  383 
Stannates,  412 
Stannum,  434 
Starch,  Article  upon,  412 

and  flour  as  thickeners,  433 
Starching  process,  23 
Steam  black,  87 
Steam  colors,  Article  upon,  414 

coppering  of,  412 

Oxalic  acid  used  in,  372 

Preparation  of  cloth  for,  382 

Use  of  acetic  acid  in,  50 

Use  of  bichromate  for  raising,  141 


Sulphate  of  alumina,  see  aluinit 


489 


sul- 


Steaming   colors,    Observations    upon, 

415 
of  madder  and  acid  in  garancine 

making,  238 
Steam   water,    Possible  impurities  in, 

444 

Stick-lac,  303 
Stil  de  grain,  76 
Stoving,  see  ageing,  52 
Strong  vat  for  indigo  blue  dyeing  on 

cotton,  283 

Styles  of  work  derived  from  indigo  dip- 
ping, etc.,  285 
Subacetate  of  lead  for  chrome  orange, 

144 

Substantive  colors,  Definition  of,  416 
Substitutes  for  cow  dung   in   dyeing, 

303 

for  soap,  408 
for  tartaric  acid,  425 
Sugar,  Article  upon,  41 6 

existing  in  some  gum  substitutes. 

270 

grape,  293 
of  lead,  see  acetate  of  lead,  47 

32 


phate,  62 

distilled,  105 
of  baryta,  see  baryta,  74 
of  chromium  standard,  145 
of  copper,  184 
of  indigo,  296 

of  indigo,  Purification  of,  see  blue 
of  iron,  299 
of  mauveine,  26 
of  lead   as    mordant    for  chrome 

orange,  143 
of  manganese  as  a  resist  in  indio-o 

dyeing,  341 
of  soda,  245,  411 
of  tin,  435 
Sulphide  of  antimony,  Uses  of,  67 

of  calcium,  417 
Sulphindylic  acid,  see  acetate  of  indigo, 

Sulphites,  421 

Sulphite  of  soda  used  to  preserve  albu- 
men, 56 

of  lime  as  anti-chlore,  67 
Sulpho-muriate  of  tin  spirits,  438 
Sulphur  or  brimstone,  417 
Sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  in  steam- 
ing, 421 
Sulphuric  acid,  15 

Action  of,  upon  cotton,  wool   and 
silk,  214 

action  of,  upon  oils,  3G6 

Article  upon,  418,  443 

to  Mercerize  cloth,  344 
Sulphuring  of  woollen  goods,  420 


Sulphurous  acid,  420 
Sumac,  Article  upon,  422 

how  it  influences  garancine  colors 

in  dyeing,  244 

Surat  cotton  as  capable  of  being  dyed 
and  printed,  187 

Talc,  or  French  chalk,  used  to  adulte- 
rate cochineal,  159 
Tallow,  363 

Tannate  of  gelatine,  Supposed  produc- 
tion of,  in  dyeing,  11,  244 
of  tin,  as  a  mordant,  19 
Tanner's  bark,  423 
Tannic  acid  from  gall  nuts,  423 

quantity  present  in  gall  nuts,  232 
used  in  fixing  aniline  colors,  65 
Tannin,  11 

for  cotton  goods,  471 
mordant,  19 
process,  20,  21,  22 
Tarry  matters,  Utility  of,  in  iron  liquors, 

46 

Tartar,  how  employed  in  mordanting, 
224 


490 


INDEX. 


Tartaric  acid,  Article  npon,  424 

Detection  of,  in  citric  acid,  149 
Tea  colors,  426 

•from  chromium  salts,  146 
Tea  drab  color  from  catechu,  etc.,  on 

wool,  127,  426 
Temperature  to  be  used  in  garancine 

dyeing,  243 

Terra  japonica,  or  catechu,  124 
Tessie  du  Motay  and  Marechal's  pro- 
cess, 470 

Tests  for  quality  of  water,  453 
Testing  of  alkalies,  58 
Testing  of  indigo  uncertain  and  diffi- 
cult, 278 
Theories  of  dyeing — Hellot,  d'Alpigny, 

and  others,  203 

Theory  of  garancine  making  in  an  im- 
perfect state,  233 
Thermometers,  Article  upon,  426 
Thickening  properties  of  natural  gums, 

263 
Thickenings,  Article  upon,  13,  428 

how  affected  in  cleansing  and  dung- 
ing, 156 

Thistle,  Green  dye  from,  70 
Thompson's  discharge  upon  indigo  blue, 

192 
green    from     indigo    and    yellow 

woods,  257 
Threadiness     an    effect    perceived    in 

mixed  fabrics,  191 
Three-leaved  hellebore,  272 
Tin,  Acetate  of,  49 

and  salts  of,  used  in  preparing,  383 
and  compounds,  Article  upon,  433 
chloride  as  alterant,  60 
easily  decomposed,  40 
Granulated,  used   in   deoxydizing 

indigo,  293 
Muriate  of,  as  a  resisting  agent, 

394 

powder,  discharge  by,  13 
pulp  or  prussiate  of  tin,  387 
rapidly   absorbed  by  fibrous  sub- 
stances, 224 

soap,  Supposed  utility  of,  338 
solution  for  dyeing  scarlet  on  wool, 

161 
Tinctorial  power  of  garancine,  garan- 

ceux,  and  madder,  238 
Tobacco  color,  440 
Toluidine,  30 
green,  33 
Tragacanth    gum,  Preparation  of,  for 

thickening,  262 
Tungsten,  Attempted   applications  of, 

used  in  making  stannate  of  soda, 
441 


Turbans  dyed  with  kermes,  302 
Turkey  berries,  75 

gum  variable  in  quality,  262 
red  color,  338 

red,  Imitation  from  barwood,  74 
red,  White  and  colored  discharges 

for,  195,  196 

Turmeric,  Root  of,  curcuma  longa,  440 
used  for  green  on  woollen,  257 
used  in  cotton  dyeing,  347, 
used  in  the  scarlet  dye  on  wool, 

162 
Turpentine,  Uses  of,  in   color  mixing, 

440 
Twaddle's  hydrometer,  Real  value  of,  in 

testing,  274 

Tyrian  purple,  see  buccinum  lapillus, 
118 

Ultramarine  blue,  108,  441 

Uniform,  French,  blue,  402 

Union  velvets,  Dyeing  of  black,  79 

Uranium,  442 

Urea,  substance  contained  in  urine,  442 

Uric  acid,  source  of  murexide  purple, 

442 

Uric  acid  colors,  355 
Urine,  Uses  of,  in  dyeing  and  scouring, 

442 
Usebe  green,  31 

Valonia  nuts  used  in  dyeing,  443 
Values  of  madder  extracts,  471 
Vanadium,  443 
Varnishes  applied  to  fix  pigment  colors, 

375 

Vegetable  fibres,  Coal  tar  colors  fixed 
on,  469 

dyeing  of,  18 

Velveteens,  Dyeing  of,  black,  86 
Venice  sumac  or  young  fustic,  230 
Verdigris,  see'acetate  of  copper,  45 
Vermilion,  345,  443 
Verte-Barasat,  72 
Vert  lumiere,  31 

printemps,  31 

Victoria   green   from  chromium  salts, 
146 

orange,  30 

Vinegar,  see  acetic  acid,  49 
Viol  and  Duflot's  process  for  bleaching 

feathers,  470 
Violaniline,  29 
Violet  imperial,  27 

printing,  20 
Violets.  26 

insoluble  in  water,  18 
Viridine,  32 

Viscometer,     instrument    for    testing 
thickness  of  gum  water,  268 


INDEX. 


491 


Vitriol,  old  name  for  sulphates,  443 
Volatile  alkali,  see  ammonia,  63 

Walnut  peels,  443 

Ward's  patent  for  printing  and  fixing 

indigo,  294 
Washing  between   and  after  dunging, 

156 

of  garancine,  233 
Water,  Article  upon,  444 

great  influence  of  its  qualities  in 

scarlet  dyeing,  162 
Wax,  366 

Weight  of  silk  increased  by  dyeing,  469 
Weighting,  Baryta  used  for,  74 
Weld  or  wold,  460 
Wet  and  dry  bulb  hygrometer,  275 
Wheaten  starch,  413 
Whinberries,  97 
White  acetate  of  lime,  48 
arsenic,  69 
discharges   on  indigo    blue,    192, 

193 

from  oxide  of  zinc,  467 
indigo  or  deoxydized  indigo,  279 
mineral,  see  Baryta,  74 
of  egg,  see  albumen,  55 
resist  for  chromed  styles  in  indigo 

dipping,  287 
sugar  of  lead,  47 
tartar,  see  cream  of  tartar,  424 
water  lily,  358 
Wittstein's    examination  of    cochineal 

plant,  see  cactin,  121 
Woad,  460 
Woaded  cloth,  83 

Wongshy,  a  new  coloring  matter,  4GO 
Wood  acid,  see  acetic  acid,  49 
brown  for  calico,  117 
brown  on  wool,  115 
color  on  delaine  from  catechu,  etc., 

128 

spirit,  14 
Woodcroft's  patent  for  applying  indigo, 

293 
Woods,  Definition  of,  460 

used  in  conjunction  with  garancine, 

243 

Wool  and  cotton,  Mixed  lake  different 
colors  in  printing,  191 


AVool  and  cotton — 

Dyeing  of,  in  mixed  fabrics,  346 
Article  upon,  460 
dyeing  with  coal-tar  colors,  17,  18 
how  affected  by  acids  and  other 

agents,  214 

Methods  of  dyeing  black,  81 
improved  for   colors  by   treating 

with  chlorine,  217 
Woollen    dyeing,  Action  of  tartar  in, 

424 

dyeing,  Use  of  bichromate  in,  141 
dyer's  spirits,  438 
goods,  bleaching  of,  92 
Wrought  and  cast  iron  vessels  in  dye- 
ing, 298 

Yellow  added  to  red  to  make  scarlet,  162 

chrome,  142 

color  from  flavine,  226 

colors  from  the  chromates,  144 

colors,  Various  receipts  for,  402 

coralline,  30 

discharge  for  Turkey  red,  ]  97 

fuchsine,  30 

grays  upon  woollen,  252 

Indian  composition  of,  212 

prussiate  of  potash,  385 

spirits,  438 

wood  or  fustic,  230 

colors    combined   with   indigo    to 
produce  green,  254 

color  from  murexide  and  acetate 

of  zinc,  358 
Yellows,  30 

Yolk  of  egg  makes  oils  emulsive,  364 
Young  fustic  or  fustet,  230 

fustic  used  in  yellow  dye,  465 

Zinaline,  31 

Zinc  and  its  compounds,  466 

chloride  used  to  Mercerize  cloth, 

344 
nitrate,   Uses    of,    in    red    liquor 

making,  43 

powder,  discharge  by,  12 
sulphate  used  as  a  resist  for  indigo, 

287 
used  to  adulterate  muriate  of  tin, 

434 


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Royal  College  of  Preceptors ;  and  late  Lecturer  in  Chemistry 
and  Physics  of  the  Royal  Polytechnic  Institute.  Illustrated 
with  numerous  engravings.  In  one  vol.  12mo.  .  §1  50 

BULLOCZ.-THE  AMERICAN  COTTAGE  BUILDER  : 
A  Series  of  Designs,  Plans,  and  Specifications,  from  $200  to 
to  $20,000  for  Homes  for  the  People;  together  with  Warm- 
ing, Ventilation,  Drainage,  Painting,  and  Landscape  Garden- 
ing] By  JOHN  BULLOCK,  Architect,  Civil  Engineer,  Mechani- 
cian, and  Editor  of  "The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and 
Building,"  etc.  Illustrated  by  75  engravings.  In  one  vol. 
gvo p5' 


HENRY  CARET  BATRD'S    CATALOGUE. 


DULLOCK.  —  THE    BUDIMENTS    OF     ARCHITECTURE    AND 

D    BUILDING : 

For  the  use  of  Architects,  Builders,  Draughtsmen,  Machin- 
ists, Engineers,  and  Mechanics.  Edited  by  JOHN  BULLOCK, 
author  of  "  The  American  Cottage  Builder."  Illustrated  by 
250  engravings.  In  one  volume  8vo.  .  .  .  $3  50 

•DURGH.— PRACTICAL  ILLUSTRATIONS   OF  LAND   AND  MA- 
RINE  ENGINES: 

Showing  in  detail  the  Modern  Improvements  of  High  and  Lovr 
Pressure,  Surface  Condensation,  and  Super-heating,  together 
•with  Land  and  Marine  Boilers.  By  N.  P.  BURGH,  Engineer. 
Illustrated  by  twenty  plates,  double  elephant  folio,  with  text. 

$21  00 

•nURGH.— PRACTICAL    RULES    FOR  THE  PROPORTIONS   OF 

D    MODERN  ENGINES  AND   BOILERS  FOR  LAND  AND  MA- 
RINE PURPOSES. 
By  N.  P.  BUEQH,  Engineer.     12mo.  .'     .   .        .     $2  00 

•DURGH.— THE  SLIDE-VALVE  PRACTICALLY  CONSIDERED : 
By  N.  P.  BURGH,  author  of  "  A  Treatise  on  Sugar  Machinery," 
"Practical  Illustrations  of  Land  and  Marine  Engines,"  "A 
Pocket-Book  of  Practical  Rules  for  Designing  Land  and  Ma- 
rine Engines,  Boilers,"  etc.  etc.  etc.  Completely  illustrated. 
12mo .  .  .  $2  00 

TDYRN.— THE  COMPLETE  PRACTICAL  BREWER  : 

Or,  Plain,  Accurate,  and  Thorough  Instructions  in  the  Art  of 
Brewing  Beer,  Ale,  Porter,  including  the  Process  of  making 
Bavarian  Beer,  all  the  Small  Beers,  such  as  Root-beer,  Ginger- 
pop,  Sarsaparilla-beer,  Mead,  Spruce  beer,  etc.  etc.  Adapted 
to  the  use  of  Public  Brewers  and  Private  Families.  By  M.  LA 
FAYETTK  BYRN,  M.  D.  With  illustrations.  12mo.  $1  25 

•DYRJsr.— THE  COMPLETE  PRACTICAL  DISTILLER : 

Comprising  the  most  perfect  and  exact  Theoretical  and  Prac- 
tical Description  of  the  Art  of  Distillation  and  Rectification ; 
including  all  of  the  most  recent  improvements  in  distilling 
apparatus;  instructions  for  preparing  spirits  from  the  nume- 
rous vegetables,  fruits,  etc. ;  directions  for  the  distillation  and 
nreparation  of  all  kinds  of  brandies  and  other  spirits,  spiritu- 
ous and  other  compounds,  etc.  etc. ;  all  of  which  is  so  simpli- 
fied that  it  is  adapted  not  only  to  the  use  of  extensive  distil- 
lers, but  for  every  farmer,  or  others  who  may  wish  to  engage 
in  the  art  of  distilling.  By  M.  LA  FATETTE  BYRN,  M.  D. 
With  numerous  engravings.  In  one  volume,  12mo.  $1  50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE.  "| 

£YENE.— POCKET  BOOK  FOE  EAILEOAD  AND  CIVIL  ENGI< 


Containing  New,  Exact,  and  Concise  Methods  for  Laying  out 
Railroad  Curves,  Switches,  Frog  Angles  and  Crossings;  the 
Staking  out  of  work;  Levelling;  the  Calculation  of  Cut- 
tings ;  Embankments ;  Earth-work,  etc.  By  OLIVE*  BTKNE. 
Illustrated,  18mo.,  full  bound $1  75 

TDYENE.— THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  THE  ABTISAN.  MECHANIC, 
'    AND  ENGINEEE : 

By  OLIVER  BYRNE.     Illustrated  by  185  Wood  Engravings.     8vo. 

$5  00 

TDYENE.— THE  ESSENTIAL  ELEMENTS  OF  PEACTICAL   ME- 
a    CHANICS: 

For  Engineering  Students,  based  on  the  Principle  of  Work. 
By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  Illustrated  by  Numerous  Wood  Engrav- 
ings, 12mo $3  63 

J3YENE.— THE  PEACTICAL  METAL-WOEKEE'S  ASSISTANT: 
Comprising  Metallurgic  Chemistry ;  the  Arts  of  Working  all 
Metals  and  Alloys ;  Forging  of  Iron  and  Steel ;  Hardening  and 
Tempering ;  Melting  and  Mixing ;  Casting  and  Founding ; 
Works  in  Sheet  Metal;  the  Processes  Dependent  on  the 
Ductility  of  the  Metals ;  Soldering ;  and  the  most  Improved 
Processes  and  Tools  employed  by  Metal- Workers.  With  the 
Application  of  the  Art  of  Electro-Metallurgy  to  Manufactu- 
ring Processes ;  collected  from  Original  Sources,  and  from  the 
Works  of  Holtzapffel,  Bergeron,  Leupold,  Plumier,  Napier,  and 
others.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  A  New,  Revised,  and  improved 
Edition,  with  Additions  by  John  Scoffern,  M.  B  ,  William  Clay, 
Wm.  Fairbairn,  F.  R.  S.,  and  James  Napier.  With  Five  Hun- 
dred and  Ninety-two  Engravings ;  Illustrating  every  Branch 
of  the  Subject.  In  one  volume,  8vo.  652  pages  .  $7  00 

•DYRNE.— THE  PEACTICAL  MODEL  CALCTJLATOB: 

For  the  Engineer,  Mechanic,  Manufacturer  of  Engine  Work, 
Naval  Architect,  Miner,  and  Millwright.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE. 
1  volume,  8vo.,  nearly  600  pages  .  .  .  .  $4  50 

•pEMROSE.— MANUAL  OF  WOOD  CARVING :  With  Practical  II- 
lustcations  for  Learners  of  the  Art,  and  Original  and  Selected  de- 
signs. By  WILLIAM  BEMROSE,  Jr.  With  an  Introduction  by 
LLEWELLYN  JEWITT,  F.  S.  A.,  etc.  With  128  Illustrations.  4to., 
cloth  $300 


HENRY  CARET  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


•pAIRD.— PROTECTION  OF  HOME  LABOR   AND  HOME    PRO- 
°    DUCTIONS   NECESSARY   TO   THE   PROSPERITY   OF    THE 

AMERICAN  FARMER : 

By  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD.     8vo.,  paper      ,  10 

'DAIRD.— THE  RIGHTS  OF  AMERICAN  PRODUCERS,  AND  THE 

•°    WRONGS  OF  BRITISH  FREE  TRADE  REVENUE  REFORM. 

By  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD.     (1870)  .'   ['."      ."      .          5 

•DAIRD.— SOME  OF  THE  FALLACIES  OF  BRITISH-FREE-TRADE 
REVENUE-REFORM. 

Two  Letters  to  Prof.  A.  L.  Perry,  of  Williams  College,  Mass.  By 
HBNRY  CAREY  BAIRD.  (1871.)  Paper  ....  5 

•DAIRD.— STANDARD  WAGES  COMPUTING  TABLES : 

An  Improvement  in  all  former  Methods  of  Computation,  so  ar- 
ranged that  wages  for  days,  hours,  or  fractions  of  hours,  at  a  spe- 
cified rate  per  day  or  hour,  may  be  ascertained  at  a  glance.  By 
T.  SPANGLER  BAIRD.  Oblong  folio  .  ,..,...  .  $5  00 

•DAUERMAN.— TREATISE  ON  THE  METALLURGY  OF  IRON. 
**    Illustrated.     12mo --,•;.;.        $250 

•DICKNELL'.S  VILLAGE  BUILDER. 

•^    65  large  plates.     4to.  .     •  .   •'>  .=     •  '*'-    V        .        »"  •    $10  00 

TDISHOP.— A  HISTORY  OF  AMERICAN  MANUFACTURES: 

•°  From  1608  to  1866  ;  exhibiting  the  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Prin- 
cipal Mechanic  Arts  and  Manufactures,  from  the  Earliest  Colonial 
Period  to  the  Present  Time  ;  By  J.  LEANDER  BISHOP,  M.  D.,  ED- 
WARD YOUN«,  and  EDWIN  T.  FREEDLEY.  Three  vols.  8vo., 

$10  00 

•pOX.— A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  HEAT  AS  APPLIED  TO 

•°    THE  USEFUL  ARTS : 

For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Architects,  etc.  By  THOMAS  Box,  au- 
thor of  "Practical  Hydraulics."  Illustrated  by  14  plates,  con- 
taining 114  figures.  12mo.  .  ,.,-.  *,  .  .  .  .  $4  25 

QABINET  MAKER'S  ALBUM  OF  FURNITURE  : 

Comprising  a  Collection  of  Designs  for  the  Newest  and  Most 
Elegant  Styles  of  Furniture.  Illustrated  by  Forty-eight  Large 
and  Beautifully  Engraved  Plates.  In  one  volume,  oblong 

$5  00 

AN.— A  TREATISE  ON  ROPE-MAKING : 

As  practised  in  private  and  public  Rope-yards,  with  a  Description 
of  the  Manufacture,  Rules,  Tables  of  Weights,  etc.,  adapted  to  the 
Trade ;  Shipping,  Mining,  Railways,  Builders,  etc.  By  ROBERT 
CHAPMAN.  24mo $1  50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


PKACTICAL  AMERICAN    MILLWRIGHT  AND 
MILLER, 

Comprising  the  Elementary  Principles  of  Mechanics,  Me- 
chanism, and  Motive  Power,  Hydraulics  and  Hydraulic 
Motors,  Mill-dams,  Saw  Mills,  Grist  Mills,  the  Oat  Meal  Mill, 
the  Barley  Mill,  Wool  Carding,  and  Cloth  Fulling  and  Dress- 
ing, Wind  Mills,  Steam  Power,  &c.  By  DAVID  CRAIK,  Mill- 
wright. Illustrated  hy  numerous  wood  engravings,  and  five 
folding  plates.  1  vol.  8vo.  .  .  .  .  $5  00 

riAMPIN.—  A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  MECHANICAL  EN- 
U     GINEERING: 

Comprising  Metallurgy,  Moulding,  Casting,  Forging,  Tools, 
Workshop  Machinery,  Mechanical  Manipulation,  Manufacture 
of  Steam-engines,  etc.  etc.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Ana- 
lysis of  Iron  and  Iron  Ores.  By  FRANCIS  CAMPIN,  C.  E.  To 
•which  are  added,  Observations  on  the  Construction  of  Steam 
Boilers,  and  Remarks  upon  Furnaces  used  for  Smoke  Preven- 
tion ;  with  a  Chapter  on  Explosions.  By  R.  Armstrong,  C.  E., 
and  John  Bourne.  Rules  for  Calculating  the  Change  Wheels 
for  Screws  on  a  Turning  Lathe,  and  for  a  Wheel-cutting 
Machine.  By  J.  LA  NICCA.  Management  of  Steel,  including 
Forging,  Hardening,  Tempering,  Annealing,  Shrinking,  and 
Expansion.  And  the  Case-hardening  of  Iron.  By  G.  EDE. 
8vo.  Illustrated  with  29  plates  and  100  wood  engra\ings. 

$G  00 

flAMPIN.—  THE    PRACTICE    OF  HAND-TURNING  IN  WOOD, 

U     IVORY,  SHELL,  ETC.  : 

With  Instructions  for  Turning  such  works  in  Metal  as  may  be 
required  in  the  Practice  of  Turning  Wood,  Ivory,  etc.  Also 
an  Appendix  on  Ornamental  Turning.  By  FRANCIS  CAMPIN  , 
with  Numerous  Illustrations,  12mo.,  cloth  .  .  $3  00 

pAPRON  DE  DOLE.-DUSSAUCE.-BLTIES  AND  CARMINES  OF 

^     INDIGO. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Fabrication  of  every  Commercial 
Product  derived  from  Indigo.  By  FELICIEN  CAPRON  DE  DOLE 
Translated,  with  important  additions,  by  Professor  H.  DCS- 
SAUCE.  12mo. 


HEXRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


pA.REY.— THE  WORKS  OF  HENRY  C.  CAREY: 

CONTRACTION  OR  EXPANSION?  REPUDIATION  OR  RE- 
SUMPTION? Letters  to  Hon.  Hugh  McCulloch.  8vo.  38 

FINANCIAL  CRISES,  their  Causes  and  Effects.    8vo.  paper 

25 

HARMONY  OF   INTERESTS;    Agricultural,   Manufacturing, 

and  Commercial.     8vo.,  paper  .         .         .        .         .     $1  00 

Do.  do.  cloth          .         .         .     $1  50 

LETTERS  TO  THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
Paper $1  on 

MANUAL  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCE.  Condensed  from  Carey's 
"  Principles  of  Social  Science."  By  KATE  MCKEAN.  1  vol. 
12mo $2  26 

MISCELLANEOUS  WORKS:  comprising  "Harmony  of  Inter- 
ests," "Money,"  "Letters  to  the  President,"  "French  and 
American  Tariffs,"  "Financial  Crises,"  "The  Way  to  Outdo 
England  without  Fighting  Her,"  "Resources  of  the  Union," 
"The  Public  Debt,"  "Contraction  or  Expansion,"  "Review 
of  the  Decade  1857 — '67,"  "  Reconstruction,"  etc.  etc.  1  vol. 
8vo.,  cloth  .  .  .  .  .  *  ..•;».  $4  60 

MONEY:  A  LECTURE  before  the  N.  Y.  Geographical  and  Sta- 
tistical Society.  8vo.,  paper 26 

PAST,  PRESENT,  AND  FUTUREV    8vo.  .        /      .    $2  50 

PRINCIPLES  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCE.     3  volumes  8vo.,  cloth 

$10  00 

REVIEW  OF  THE  DECADE  1857— '67.     8vo.,  paper  60 

RECONSTRUCTION:  INDUSTRIAL,  FINANCIAL,  AND  PO- 
LITICAL. Letters  to  the  Hon.  Henry  Wilson,  U.  S.  S.  8vo, 
paper  .  .  •;  >  ...  .  50 

THE  PUBLIC  DEBT,  LOCAL  AND  NATIONAL.  How  to 
provide  for  its  discharge  while  lessening  the  burden  of  Taxa- 
tion. Letter  to  David  A.  Wells,  Esq.,  U.  S.  Revenue  Commis- 
sion. 8vo.,  paper  .  .  »  •  .  .  .  '  26 

THE  RESOURCES  OF  THE  UNION.  A  Lecture  read,  Dec. 
1865,  before  the  American  Geographical  and  Statistical  So- 
ciety, N.  Y.,  and  before  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Social  Science,  Boston  ...  60 

THE  SLAVE  TRADE,  DOMESTIC  AND  FOREIGN;  Why  it 
Exists,  and  How  it  may  be  Extinguished.  12mo. ,  cloth  $  1  5<? 


60 

REVIEW  OF  THE  FARMERS' QUESTION.  (1870.)  Paper  25 
RESUMPTION!  HOW  IT  MAY  PROFITABLY  BE  BROUGHT 
AROUT.     (1869.)    8vo.,  paper        ....          5J 
REVIEW  OF  THE  REPORT  OF  HON.  D.  A.  WELLS,  Special 
Commissioner  of  the  Revenue.     (1869.)    8vo.,  paper          60 
SHALL  WE  HAVE  PEACE?   Peace  Financial  and  Peace  Poli- 
tical.   Letters  to  the  President  Elect.    (1868.)   8vo.,  paper  50 
THE   FINANCE   MINISTER  AND  THE   CURRENCY    AND 
THE  PUBLIC  DEBT.     (1868.)     8vo.,  paper   .         .          50 
THE  WAY  TO  OUTDO  ENGLAND  WITHOUT   FIGHTING 
HER.    Letters  to  Hon.  Schuyler  Colfax.  (1865.)  8vo.,  paper 

$1  00 

WEALTH!  OF  WHAT  DOES  IT  CONSIST  ?   (1870.)  Paper  25 
QAMTJS.— A  TREATISE  ON  THE  TEETH  OF  WHEELS : 

Demonstrating  the  best  forms  which  can  be  given  to  them  for  the 
purposes  of  Machinery,  such  as  Mill-work  and  Clock-work.  Trans- 
lated from  the  French  of  M.  CAMUS.  By  JOHN  I.  HAWKINS. 
Illustrated  by  40  plates.  8vo $3  00 

QOXZ.- MUTING  LEGISLATION. 

A  paper  read  before  the  Am.  Social  Science  Association.  By 
ECKLEY  B.  COXB.  Paper 20 

QOLBURN— THE  GAS-WORKS  OF  LONDON: 

Comprising  a  sketch  of  the  Gas-works  of  the  city,  Process  of 
Manufacture,  Quantity  Produced,  Cost,  Profit,  etc.  By  ZERAH 
COLBURN.  8vo.,  cloth 75 

QOLBTJRN.-THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE: 

Including  a  Description  of  its  Structure,  Rules  for  Estimat- 
ing its  Capabilities,  and  Practical  Observations  on  its  Construc- 
tion and  Management.  By  ZERAH  COLBURN.  Illustrated.  A 
new  edition.  12mo §1  25 

rtOLBTJRN  AND  MAW.— THE  WATER- WORKS  OF  LONDON: 
Together  with  a  Series  of  Articles  on  various  other  Water- 
works.    By  ZERAH  COLBURN  and  W.  MAW.     Reprinted  from 
"Engineering."     In  one  volume,  8vo.        .  .     $4  00 

riAGUERREOTYPIST  AND  PHOTOGRAPHER'S  COMPANION: 

^     12mo.,  cloth $1  25 


10  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 

•niRCKS.-PERPETUAL  MOTION: 

Or  Search  for  Self-Motive  Power  during  the  17th,  18th;  and 
19th  centuries.  Illustrated  from  various  authentic  sources  in 
Papers,  Essays,  Letters,  Paragraphs,  and  numerous  Patent 
Specifications,  -with  an  Introductory  Essay  by  HENRY  DIRCKS, 
C.  E.  Illustrated  by  numerous  engravings  of  machines. 

12mo.,  cloth $3  50 

•niXON.— THE  PRACTICAL  MILL  WEIGHTS  AND  ENGINEER'S 
"     GUIDE: 

Or  Tables  for  Finding  the  Diameter  and  Power  of  Cogwheels  ; 
Diameter,  Weight,  and  Power  of  Shafts ;  Diameter  and  Strength 
of  Bolts,  etc.  etc.    By  THOMAS  DIXON.    12mo.,  cloth.     $1  50 
•nUNCAN.— PRACTICAL  SURVEYOR'S  GUIDE: 

Containing  the  necessary  information  to  make  any  person,  of 
common  capacity,  a  finished  land  surveyor  without  the  aid  of 
a  teacher.  By  ANDREW  DUNCAN.  Illustrated.  12mo.,  cloth. 

$1  25 

T)USSAUCE.— A  NEW  AND    COMPLETE   TREATISE    ON  THE 
U     ARTS  OF  TANNING,  CURRYING,  AND  LEATHER  DRESS- 
ING: 

Comprising  all   the  Discoveries  and  Improvements   made  in 

France,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States.     Edited  from 

Notes  and  Documents  of  Messrs.  Sallerou,  Grouvelle,  Duval, 

Dessables,  Labarraque,  Payen,  Rene",  De   Fontenelle,   Mala- 

peyre,  etc.  etc.     By  Prof.  II.  DUSSAUCE,  Chemist.     Illustrated 

by  212  wood  engravings.-    8vo.        .        .;       .-       .     $10  00 

•nUSSAUCE.— A  GENERAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE 

**    OF  SOAP,  THEORETICAL  AND  PRACTICAL: 

Comprising  the  Chemistry  of  the  Art,  a  Description  of  all  the  Raw 
Materials  and  their  Uses.  Directions  for  the  Establishment  of  a 
Soap  Factory,  with  the  necessary  Apparatus,  Instructions  in  the 
Manufacture  of  every  variety  of  Soap,  the  Assay  and  Determination 
of  the  Value  of  Alkalies,  Fatty  Substances,  Soaps,  etc.  etc.  By 
PROFESSOR  H.  DCSSAUCE.  With  an  Appendix,  containing  Ex- 
tracts from  the  Reports  of  the  International  Jury  on  Soaps,  as 
exhibited  in  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition,  1867,  numerous 
Tables,  etc.  etc.  Illustrated  by  engravings.  In  one  volume  8vo. 

of  over  800  pages .    ,,       v        .$1000 

TVffSSAUCE.— PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  FABRICATION 
•^     OF  MATCHES,   GUN  COTTON,  AND  FULMINATING  POW- 
DERS. 
By  Professor  H.  DCSSAUCK.     12mo.  .        .        .     $3  00 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


•QUSSAUCE.—  A  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  THE  PERFUMER: 
Being  a  New  Treatise  on  Perfumery  the  most  favorable  to  the 
Beauty  without  being  injurious  to  the  Health,  comprising  a 
Description  of  the  substances  used  in  Perfumery,  the  Form- 
ulae of  more  than  one  thousand  Preparations,  such  as  Cosme- 
tics, Perfumed  Oils,  Tooth  Powders,  Waters,  Extracts,  Tinc- 
tures, Infusions,  Yinaigres,  Essential  Oils,  Pastels,  Creams, 
Soaps,  and  many  new  Hygienic  Products  not  hitherto  described. 
Edited  from  Notes  and  Documents  of  Messrs.  Debay,  Lunel, 
etc.  With  additions  by  Professor  H.  DTJSSAUCE,  Chemist.  12mo. 

$3  00 

tyiSSAUCE.—  A  GENERAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE 
**    OF  VINEGAR,  THEORETICAL  AND  PRACTICAL. 

Comprising  the  various  methods,  by  the  slow  and  the  quick  pro- 
cesses,  with  Alcohol,  Wine,  Grain,  Cider,  and  Molasses,  as  well 
as  the  Fabrication  of  Wood  Vinegar,  etc.  By  Prof.  H.  DUSSAUCE. 
I2mo.  $5  00 

UPLAIS.—  A  COMPLETE  TREATISE  ON  THE  DISTILLATION 
AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  ALCOHOLIC  LIQUORS  : 
From  the  French  of  M.  DUPLAIS.  Translated  and  Edited  by  M. 
McKESXiE,  M  D.  Illustrated  by  numerous  large  plates  and  wood 
engravings  of  the  best  apparatus  calculated  for  producing  the 
finest  products.  In  one  vol.  royal  8vo. 

[T7-  This  is  a  treatise  of  the  highest  scientific  merit  and  of  the 
greatest  practical  value,  surpassing  in  these  respects,  as  well  as 
in  the  variety  of  its  contents,  any  similar  volume  in  the  English 
language. 


D 


. 

HE  GRAFF  -THE  GEOMETRICAL  STAIR-BUILDERS'  GUIDE: 
V     Being  a  Plain  Practical  System  of  Hand-Railing,  embracing  all 
its  necessary  Details,  and  Geometrically  Illustrated  by  22  Steel 
Engravings  ;  together  with  the  use  of  the  most  approved  prmci- 
p,e;  :rpSractica0l  Geometry.     By  StKO*  D.  0,u»,  Architect 

TiTBB'AOT  COLOR-MAKER'S  COMPANION  : 

V  Containing  upwards  of  two  hundred  Receipts  for  making  Co- 
lors on  the  most  approved  principles,  for  all  the  various  styles 
and  fabrics  now  in  existence;  with  the  Scouring  Process,  and 
plain  Directions  for  Preparing,  Washing-off,  and  Finishing  the 
Goods.  In  one  vol.  12mo  ......  " 


12  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 

•PASTON.-A  PEACTICAL  TEEATISE  ON  STEEET  OE  HOESE- 
**     POWEE  EAILWAYS : 

Their  Location,  Construction,  and  Management ;  with  General 
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By  WM.  CARTER  HUGHES.  A  new  edition.  In  one  volume, 
12mo ....  $1  50 


14  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 

JpNT.— THE  PBACTIQE  OF  PHOTOGEAPHY. 

By  ROBERT  HUNT,  Vice- President  of  the  Photographic  Society, 
London.    With  numerous  illustrations.    12mo.,  cloth  .  76 


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Builders'  Measurement,  Contracts  of  Labor,  Valuation  of  Pro- 
perty, Summary  of  the  Practice  in  Dilapidation,  etc.  etc.  By 
J.  F.  HURST,  C.  E.  2d  edition,  pocket-book  form,  full  bound 

$2  60 

JEEVIS.— EAILWAY  PEOPEETY: 

A  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Management  of  Railways ; 
designed  to  afford  useful  knowledge,  in  the  popular  style,  to  the 
holders  of  this  class  of  property ;  as  well  as  Railway  Mana- 
gers, Officers,  and  Agents.  By  JOHN  B.  JEEVIS,  late  Chief 
Engineer  of  the  Hudson  River  Railroad,  Croton  Aqueduct,  &c. 
One  voL  12mo.,  cloth  .  .  .  .  .  f  2  00 


JOHNSON.— A  EEPOET  TO  THE  NAVY  DEPAETMENT  OF  THE 

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Applicable  to  Steam  Navigation  and  to  other  purposes.  By 
WALTEE  R.  JOHNSON.  With  numerous  illustrations.  607  pp. 
8vo.,  .  .  ...  $10  00 


JOHNSTON.— INSTEUCTIONS  FOE  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  SOILS, 
U      LIMESTONES,  AND  MANUEES- 

By  J.  W.  F.  JOHNSTON.     12m».          .        .   '     .  ' '"  .   '       85 

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tillation, describing  the  process  in  operation  at  the  Custom 
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£ENTISH.-A  TEEATISE  ON  A  BOX  OF  INSTEUMENTS 

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By  THOMAS  KENTISH.  In  one  volume.  12mo.  .  .  $125 

J£OBELL.-EENL-MINEEALOGY  SIMPLIFIED: 

A  short  method  of  Determining  and  Classifying  Minerals,  by 
means  of  simple  Chemical  Experiments  in  the  Wet  Way. 
Translated  from  the  last  German  Edition  of  F.  VON  KOBELL,' 
Tdth  an  Introduction  to  Blowpipe  Analysis  and  other  addi- 
tions. By  HEVRI  EHKI,  M.  D.,  Chief  Chemist,  Department  of 
Agriculture,  author  of  "Coal  Oil  and  Petroleum."  In  one 
volume.  12mo.  ...  .  $2  60 

jAinmiN.— A  TEEATISE  ON  STEEL: 

Comprising  its  Theory,  Metallurgy,  Properties,  Practical  Work- 
ing, and  Use.  By  M.  H.  C.  LANDRIN,  Jr.,  Civil  Engineer. 
Translated  from  the  French,  with  Notes,  by  A.  A.  FESO.UET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Bessemer 
and  the  Martin  Processes  for  Manufacturing  Steel,  from  the 
Report  of  ABRAM  S.  HEWITT,  United  States  Commissioner  to 
the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867.  12mo.  .  .  $3  00 


T  AEKIN.— THE  PEACTICAL  BEASS  AND  IEON  FOTJNDEE'S 
J    GUIDE. 

A  Concise  Treatise  on  Brass  Founding,  Moulding,  the  Metals 
and  their  Alloys,  etc.;  to  Tshich  are  added  Eecent  Improve- 
ments in  the  Manufacture  of  Iron,  Steel  by  the  Bessemer  Pro- 
cess, etc.  etc.  By  JAMES  LARKIN,  late  Conductor  of  the  Brass 
Foundry  Department  in  Reany,  Neafie  &  Co.'s  Penn  Works, 
Philadelphia.  Fifth  edition,  revised,  with  extensive  Addi- 
tions. In  one  volume.  12mo $2  25 


Ib  HENRY  CARET  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 

T  EAVITT.— FACTS  ABOUT  PEAT  AS  AN  ARTICLE  OF  FUEL: 

With  Remarks  upon  its  Origin  and  Composition,  the  Localities 
in  -which  it  is  found,  the  Methods  of  Preparation  and  Manu 
facture,  and  the  various  Uses  to  which  it  is  applicable ;  toge- 
ther -with  many  other  matters  of  Practical  and  Scientific  Inte- 
rest. To  which  is  added  a  chapter  on  the  Utilization  of  Coal 
Dust  with  Peat  for  the  Production  of  an  Excellent  Fuel  at 
Moderate  Cost,  especially  adapted  for  Steam  Service.  By  H. 
T.  LEATITT.  Third  edition.  12mo.  .  .  .  $1  75 

TEROUX,— A    PEACTICAL    TREATISE    ON    THE    MANUFAC- 

U     TURE  OF  WORSTEDS  AND  CARDED  YARNS : 

Translated  from  the  French  of  CHARLES  LEROUX,  MechanicaJ 
Engineer,  and  Superintendent  of  a  Spinning  Mill.  By  Dr.  II. 
PAINE,  and  A.  A.  FESQTJET.  Illustrated  by  12  large  plates.  In 
oue  volume  8vo $5  00 

TESLIE  (MISS).— COMPLETE  COOKERY: 

Directions  for  Cookery  in  its  Various  Branches.  By  Miss 
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tion of  New  Receipts.  In  1  vol.  12mo.,  cloth  .  .  $1  60 

T  ESLIE  (MISS).  LADIES'  HOUSE  BOOK  : 

a  Manual  of  Domestic  Economy.  20th  revised  edition.  12mo., 
cloth $1  25 

TESLIE    (MISS) .-TWO    HUNDRED    RECEIPTS    IN    FRENCH 

•"     COOKERY. 

12mo 60 

TIEBER.— ASSAYER'S  GUIDE: 

Or,  Practical  Directions  to  Assayers,  Miners,  and  Smelters,  for 
the  Tests  and  Assays,  by  Heat  and  by  Wet  Processes,  for  the 
Ores  of  all  the  principal  Metals,  of  Gold  and  Silver  Coins  and 
Alloys,  and  of  Coal,  etc.  By  OSCAR  M.  LIBBER.  12mo.,  cloth 

$1  25 

T  OVE.— THE  ART  OF  DYEING,  CLEANING,  SCOURING,  AND 

U     FINISHING : 

On  the  most  approved  English  and  French  methods;  being 
Practical  Instructions  in  Dyeing  Silks,  Woollens,  and  Cottons, 
Feathers,  Chips,  Straw,  etc.;  Scouring  and  Cleaning  Bed  and 
Window  Curtains,  Carpets,  Rugs,  etc.;  French  and  English 
Cleaning,  etc.  By  THOMAS  LOVE.  Second  American  Edition,  to 
which  are  added  General  Instructions  for  the  Use  of  Aniline 
Colors.  8vo.  .  5  00 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE.  17 

TV/TAIN  AND  BROWN.—  QUESTIONS  ON  SUBJECTS  CONNECTED 

m  WITH  THE  MARINE  STEAM-ENGINE: 

And  Examination  Papers;  with  Hints  for  their  Solution.  By 
THOMAS  J.  MAIN,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Royal  Naval  College, 
and  THOMAS  BROWN,  Chief  Engineer,  R.  N.  12mo.,  cloth  $1  50 

TyrAIN  AND  BROWN.—  THE  INDICATOR  AND  DYNAMOMETER: 

With  their  Practical  Applications  to  the  Steam-Engine.  By 
THOMAS  J.  MAIN,  M.  A.F.  R.,  Ass't  Prof.  Royal  Naval  College, 
Portsmouth,  and  THOMAS  BKOWN,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  En- 
gineer, R.  N.,  attached  to  the  R.  N.  College.  Illustrated.  From 
the  Fourth  London  Edition.  8vo.  ...  .  $1  50 


M 


M 


AIN  AND  BROWN.—  THE  MARINE  STEAM-ENGINE. 

By  THOMAS   J.  MAIN,  F.  R.  Ass't  S.  Mathematical  Professor  at 
Royal   Naval   College,  and  THOMAS   BROWN,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E. 
Chief  Engineer,  R.  N.      Attached   to  the  Royal  Naval  College. 
Authors  of  "Questions  Connected  with   the  Marine  Steam-En- 
gine," and  the  "  Indicator  and  Dynamometer."     With  numerous 
Illustrations.     In  one  volume  8vo  ......     $5  00 

TUT  ARTIN.—  SCREW-CUTTING  TABLES,  FOR  THE  USE  OF  ME- 
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Showing  the   Proper  Arrangement   of  Wheels  for  Cutting   the 
Threads    of  Screws  of  any   required  Pitch  ;    with   a   Table   for 
Making  the  Universal  Gas-Pipe  Thread  and  Taps.     By  W.  A. 
MARTIN,  Engineer.     8vo  ........          ^ 

ILES—  A  PLAIN  TREATISE  ON  HORSE-SHOEING. 
With  Illustrations.    By  WILLIAM  MILES,  author  of  "  The  Horse's 
Foot" 

TUTOLESWORTH.—  POCKET-BOOK  OF  USEFUL  FORMULA  AND 
iYL  MEMORANDA  FOR  CIVIL  AND  MECHA.NICAL  EN3INEERS. 
By   GUILFORD   L.  MOLESWORTH,    Member  of  the  Institution  of 
Civil  Engineers,  Chief  Resident  Engineer  of  the  Ceylon  Railway. 
Second   American    from   the   Tenth   London   Edition.      In   one 
volume,  full  bound  in  pocket-book  form    .         .         .        .    $2  00 

TV/TOORE—  THE  INVENTOR'S  GUIDE: 

-""•  Patent  Office  and  Patent  Laws  :  or,  a  Guide  to  Inventors,  and  a 
Book  of  Reference  for  Judges,  Lawyers,  Magistrates,  and  others. 
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TTAPIER-A  MANUAL  OF  ELECTRO-METALLURGY: 
^    Including  the  Application  of  the  Art  to  Manufacturing  Process® 
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edition,   revised   and   enlarged.     Illustrated  by  engravings^  la 
one  volume,  8vo.        • 


18  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 

TU-APIER.— A  SYSTEM  OF  CHEMISTRY  APPLIED  TO  DYEING  : 

•*•*  Bv  JAMES  NAPIER,  F.  C.  S.  A  New  and  Thoroughly  Revised 
Edition,  completely  brought  up  to  the  present  state  of  the 
Science,  including  the  Chemistry  of  Coal  Tar  Colors.  By  A.  A. 
FESQUET, -Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  Appendix  on  Dyeing 
and  Calico  Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition 
of  J867,.from  the  Reports  of  the  International  Jury,  etc.  Illus- 
trated. In  one  volume  8vo.,  400  pages  .  .  .  .  $5  00 

•VTEWBERY.  — GLEANINGS    FROM    ORNAMENTAL    AET    OF 

•*•'    EVERY  STYLE; 

Drawn  from  Examples  in  the  British,  South  Kensington,  Indian, 
Crystal  Palace,  and  other  Museums,  the  Exhibitions  of  1851  and 
1862,  and  the  best  English  and  Foreign  works.  In  a  series  of  one 
hundred  exquisitely  drawn  Plates,  containing  many  hundred  ex- 
amples. By  ROBERT  NEWBERY.  4to $15  00 

JTICHOLSON.— A  MANUAL  OF  THE  ART  OF  BOOK-BINDING : 
Containing  full  instructions  in  the  different  Branches  of  Forward- 
ing, Gilding,  and  Finishing.  Also,  the  Art  of  Marbling  Book- 
edges  and  Paper.  By  JAMES  B.  NICHOLSON.  Illustrated.  12mo. 
cloth  s' .  ...  $2  25 

•M-ORRIS.— A  HAND-BOOK  FOR  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEERS  AND 
*    MACHINISTS: 

Comprising  the  Proportions  and  Calculations  for  Constructing 
Locomotives ;  Manner  of  Setting  Valves ;  Tables  of  Squares, 
Cubes,  Areas,  etc.  etc.  By  SEPTIMUS  NORRIS,  Civil  and  Me- 
chanical Engineer.  New  edition.  Illustrated,  12mo.,  cloth 

$2  00 

fJYSTROM.—  ON    TECHNOLOGICAL   EDUCATION    AND   THE 
•"    CONSTRUCTION  OF  SHIPS  AND  SCREW  PROPELLERS: 

For  Naval  and  Marine  Engineers.  By  JOHN  W.  NTSTROM,  late 
Acting  Chief  Engineer  U.  S.  N.  Second  edition,  revised  with 
additional  matter.  Illustrated  by  seven  engravings.  12mo. 

$250 

(YNEILL.— A  DICTIONARY  OF  DYEING  AND  CALICO  PRINT- 

U    ING: 

Containing  a  brief  account  of  all  the  Substances  and  Processes  in 
use  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Printing  Textile  Fabrics  :  with  Prac- 
tical Receipts  and  Scientific  Information.  By  CHARLES  O'NEILL, 
Analytical  Chemist ;  Fellow  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  London  ; 
Member  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  Manchester  ; 
Author  of  "Chemistry  of  Calico  Printing  and  Dyeing."  To  which 
is  added  An  Essay  on  Coal  Tar  Colors  and  their  Application  to 


ggBYJ]AREYBAIRD'S  CATALOGUED  M 

Dyeing  and-  Calico  Printing.     By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and 

ieer.     With  an  Appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printin-   as 

shown  at  the  Exposition  of  1867,  from  the  Reports  of  the  Interaa 

tional  Jury,  etc.    In  one  volume  8vo.,  491  pages      .  $6  00 

QSBORN.-THE  METALLURGY  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL- 

Theoretical  and  Practical :  In  all  its  Branches  ;  With  Special  Re- 
:erence  to  American  Materials  and  Processes.  By  H.  S.  OSBORN, 
LL.  D.,  Professor  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy  in  Lafayette  College! 
Easton,  Pa.  Illustrated  by  230  Engravings  on  Wood,  and  6 
Folding  Plates.  8vo.,  972  pages  .  .  .  .  $1000 

QSBORN.— AMERICAN  MINES  AND  MINING  : 

Theoretically  and  Practically  Considered.  By  Prof.  H.  S.  OS- 
BORN,  Illustrated  by  numerous  engravings.  8vo.  (In  preparation.) 

pAINTER,  GILDER,  AND  VARNISHER'S  COMPANION: 

Containing  Rules  and  Regulations  in  everything  relating  to  the 
Arts  of  Painting,  Gilding,  Varnishing,  and  Glass  Staining,  with 
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of  Adulterations  in  Oils  and  Colors,  and  a  statement  of  the  Dis- 
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are  particularly  liable,  with  the  simplest  methods  of  Prevention 
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ing, and  Gilding  on  Glass.  To  which  are  added  COMPLETE  INSTRUC- 
TIONS FOR  COACH  PAINTING  AND  VARNISHING.  12mo.,  cloth,  $1  50 

pALLETT.— THE    MILLER'S,    MILLWRIGHT'S,    AND    ENGI- 
NEER'S GUIDE. 
By  HENRY  PALLETT.    Illustrated.    In  one  vol.  12mo.      .     $3  00 

pERKINS.— GAS  AND  VENTILATION. 

•*•  Practical  Treatise  on  Gas  and  Ventilation.  With  Special  Relation 
to  Illuminating,  Heating,  and  Cooking  by  Gas.  Including  Scien- 
tific Helps  to  Engineer-students  and  others.  With  illustrated 
Diagrams.  By  E.  E.  PERKINS.  12mo.,  cloth  .  .  .  $1  25 

pERKINS  AND  STOWE.— A  NEW  GUIDE  TO  THE  SHEET-IRON 

r    AND  BOILER  PLATE  ROLLER: 

Containing  a  Series  of  Tables  showing  the  Weight  of  Slabs  and 
Piles  to  Produce  Boiler  Plates,  and  of  the  Weight  of  Piles  and  the 
Sizes  of  Bars  to  Produce  Sheet-iron ;  the  Thickness  of  the  Bar 
Gauge  in  Decimals ;  the  Weight  per  foot,  and  the  Thickness  on 
the  Bar  or  Wire  Gauge  of  the  fractional  parts  of  an  inch ;  the 
Weight  per  sheet,-  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Wire  Gauge  of  Sheet- 
iron  of  various  dimensions  to  weigh  112  Ibs.  per  bundle ;  and  the 
conversion  of  Short  Weight  into  Long  Weight,  and  Long  Weight 
into  Short.  Estimated  and  collected  by  G.  H.  PERKINS  and  J.  G- 
grows $2  5" 


x    20  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 

PHILLIPS  AND  DARLINGTON.— RECORDS  OF  MINING  AND 

*  METALLURGY : 

Or,  Facts  and  Memoranda  for  the  use  of  the  Mine  Agent  and 
Smelter.  By  J.  ARTHUR  PHILLIPS,  Mining  Engineer,  Graduate  of 
the  Imperial  School  of  Mines,  France,  etc.,  and  JOHN  DARLINGTON. 
Illustrated  by  numerous  engravings.  In  one  vol.  12mo.  .  $2  00 
pRADAL,  MALEPEYRE,  AND  DUSSAUCE.  — A  COMPLETE 

*  TREATISE  ON  PERFUMERY: 

Containing  notices  of  the  Raw  Material  used  in  the  Ait,  and  the 
Best  Formulae.  According  to  the  most  approved  Methods  followed 
in  France,  England,  and  the  United  States.  By  M.  P.  PRADAL, 
Perfumer-Chemist,  and  M.  F.  MALEPEYRE.  Translated  from  the 
French,  with  extensive  additions,  by  Prof.  H.  DUSSAUCE.  8vo.  $10 
pROTEAUX.— PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  THE  MANUFACTURE 

*  OF  PAPER  AND  BOARDS. 

By  A.  PROTEAUX,  Civil  Engineer,  and  Graduate  of  the  School  of 
Arts  and  Manufactures,  Director  of  Thiers's  Paper  Mill,  'Puy-de- 
Dome.  With  additions,  by  L.  S.  LE  NORMAND.  Translated  from 
the  French,  with  Notes,  by  HORATIO  PAINE,  A.  B.,  M.  D.  To 
which  is  added  a  Chapter  on  the  Manufacture  of  Paper  from  Wood 
in  the  United  States,  by  HENRY  T.  BROWN,  of  the  "American 
Artisan."  Illustrated  by  six  plates,  containing  Drawings  of  Raw 
Materials,  Machinery,  Plans  of  Paper-Mills,  etc.  etc.  8vo.  $5  00 

TJEGNAULT.— ELEMENTS  OF  CHEMISTRY. 

By  M.  V.  REGNAULT.  Translated  from  the  French  by  T.  FOR- 
REST BENTON,  M.  R.,  and  edited,  with  notes,  by  JAMES  C.  BOOTH, 
Melter  and  Refiner  U.  S.  Mint,  and  WM.  L.  FABER,  Metallurgist 
and  Mining  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  nearly  700  wood  engravings. 
Comprising  nearly  1500  pages.  In  two  vols.  8vo.,  cloth  $10  00 

•DEID.— A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF 

11    PORTLAND  CEMENT: 

By  HENRY  REID,  C.  E.  To  which  is  added  a  Translation  of  M. 
A.  Lipowitz's  Work,  describing  anew  method  adopted  in  Germany 
of  Manufacturing  that  Cement.  By  W.  F.  REID.  Illustrated  by 
plates  and  wood  engravings.  8vo.  .  .  .  .  $7  00 

•DIFFAULT,    VERGNAUD,    AND    TOUSSAINT.— A   PRACTICAL 

J*   TREATISE    ON   THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    COLORS    FOR 
PAINTING : 

Containing  the  best  Formulae  and  the  Processes  the  Newest  and 
in  most  General  Use.  By  MM.  RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUS- 
SAINT. Revised  and  Edited  by  M.  F.  MALEPEYRE  and  Dr.  EMIL 
WINCKLER.  Illustrated  by  Engravings.  In  one  vol.  8vo.  (la 
preparation.) 


HENRY  CAREY  BATRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  VAENISHES: 
By  MM.  RIFFAULT,  VERGNATJD,  and  TOUSSAINT.  Revised  and 
Edited  by  M.  F.  MALEPEYRE  and  Dr.  EMIL  WINCKLEK.  Illus- 
trated. In  one  vol.  870.  (In  preparation.) 

OHUNK.—  A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE   ON   RAILWAY  CURVES 
AND  LOCATION,  FOR  YOUNG  ENGINEERS. 
By  WM.  F.  SHUNK,  Civil  Engineer.    12mo.,  tucks    .  $2  00 

gMEATON.—  BUILDER'S  POCKET  COMPANION: 

Containing  the  Elements  of  Building,  Surveying,  and  Architec. 
ture  ;  with  Practical  Rules  and  Instructions  connected  with  the  sub- 
ject. By  A.  C.  SMEATO.V,  Civil  Engineer,  etc.  In  one  volume, 
12mo  ...........  $1  50 

gMITH.—  THE  DYER'S  INSTRUCTOR: 

Comprising  Practical  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Silk,  Cot- 
ton, Wool,  and  Worsted,  and  Woollen  Goods:  containing  nearly 
800  Receipts.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Pad- 
ding ;  and  the  Printing  of  Silk  Warps,  Skeins,  and  Handkerchiefs, 
and  the  various  Mordants  and  Colors  for  the  different  styles  of 
such  work.  By  DAVID  SMITH,  Pattern  Dyer,  12mo.,  cloth 

$3  00 

OJMITH.—  THE  PRACTICAL  DYER'S  GUIDE: 

Comprising  Practical  Instructions  in  the  Dyeing  of  Shot  Cobourgs, 
Silk  Striped  Orleans,  Colored  Orleans  from  Black  AVarps,  ditto 
from  White  Warps,  Colored  Cobourgs  from  White  Warps,  Merinos, 
Yarns,  Woollen  Cloths,  etc.  Containing  nearly  300  Receipts,  to 
most  of  which  a  Dyed  Pattern  is  annexed.  Also,  a  Treatise  on 
the  Art  of  Padding.  By  DAVID  SMITH.  In  one  vol.  8vo.  $25  00 

CHAW.—  CIVIL  ARCHITECTURE: 

Being  a  Complete  Theoretical  and  Practical  System  of  Building, 
containing  the  Fundamental  Principles  of  the  Art.  By  EDWARD 
SHAW,  Architect.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture, <tc.  By  THOMAS  W.  SILLOWAY  and  GEORGE  M.  HARD- 
ING ,  Architects.  The  whole  illustrated  by  102  quarto  plates  finely 
engraved  on  copper.  Eleventh  Edition.  4to.  Cloth.  $10  00 

OLOAN.-AMERICAN  HOUSES: 

^  A  variety  of  Original  Designs  for  Rural  Buildings.  Illustrated  by 
26  colored  Engravings,  with  Descriptive  References.  By  SAMUEL 
SLOAV  Architect,  author  of  the  "Model  Architect,"  etc.  etc.  8vo. 

$2  50 

OCHINZ.—  RESEARCHES   ON  THE  ACTION  OF  THE  BLAST. 
^    FURNACE. 

By  CHAS.  SCHINZ.     Seven  plates.     12mo.         .        .        .    $4  25 


22  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 

SMITH.— PARKS  AND  PLEASURE  GROUNDS: 

°  Or,  Practical  Notes  on  Country  Residences,  Villas,  Public  Parks, 
and  Gardens.  By  CHARLES  H.  J.  SMITH,  Landscape  Gardener 
and  Garden  Architect,  etc.  etc.  12mo $2  25 

OTOKES.— CABINET-MAKER'S  AND  UPHOLSTERER'S  COMPA- 

0  NION: 

Comprising  the  Rudiments  and  Principles  of  Cabinet-making  and 
Upholstery,  with  Familiar  Instructions,  Illustrated  by  Examples 
for  attaining  a  Proficiency  in  the  Art  of  Drawing,  as  applicable 
to  Cabinet-work ;  The  Processes  of  Veneering,  Inlaying,  and 
Buhl-work  ;  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Staining  Wood,  Bone,  Tortoise 
Shell,  etc.  Directions  for  Lackering,  Japanning,  and  Varnishing; 
to  make  French  Polish ;  to  prepare  the  Best  Glues,  Cements,  and 
Compositions,  and  a  number  of  Receipts,  particularly  for  workmen 
generally.  By  J.  STOKES.  In  one  vol.  12mo.  With  illustrations 

...  ;  ,'  $1  25 

STRENGTH  AND  OTHER  PROPERTIES  OF  METALS. 

"Reports  of  Experiments  on  the  Strength  and  other  Properties  of 
Metals  for  Cannon.  With  a  Description  of  the  Machines  for  Test- 
ing Metals,  and  of  the  Classification  of  Cannon  in  service.  By 
Officers  of  the  Ordnance  Department  U.  S.  Army.  By  authority 
of  the  Secretary  of  War.  Illustrated  by  25  large  steel  plates.  In' 
1  vol.  quarto  .  .  •  ..^  .  /  »  •  .  $10  00 

QULLIVAN.— PROTECTION  TO  NATIVE  INDUSTRY. 

^    By  Sir  EDWARD  S0LLIVAN,  Baronet.    (1870.)     8vo.         .     $150 

rpABLES  SHOWING  THE  WEIGHT  OF  ROUND,  SQUARE,  AND 

1  FLAT  BAR  IRON,  STEEL,  ETC. 

By  Measurement.     Cloth  .    '"'   .    '   '%,• '"     .         .         .  63 

rnAYLOR.— STATISTICS  OF  COAL: 

Including  Mineral  Bituminous  Substances  employed  in  Arts  and 
Manufactures  ;  with  their  Geographical,  Geological,  and  Commer- 
cial Distribution  and  amount  of  Production  and  Consumption  on 
the  American  Continent.  With  Incidental  Statistics  of  the  Iron 
Manufacture.  By  R.  C.  TAYLOR.  Second  edition,  revised  by  S. 
S.  HALDEMAK.  Illustrated  by  five  Maps  and  many  wood  engrav- 
ings. 8vo.,  cloth  .  .  .  .-,»:•.  ...  .  .  .  $600 

HTEMPLETON.— THE    PRACTICAL   EXAMINATOR    ON    STEAM 

1     AND  THE  STEAM-ENGINE  : 

With  Instructive  References  relative  thereto,  for  the  Use  of  Engi- 
neers, Students,  and  others.  By  WM.  TEMPLETON,  Engineer  12mo. 

$1  25 


„ ~~  **'   *->    V.Q..I.  AL»V/liU Ji. 

^Byf  wT  M°Df  ^  PEACTICE  °F  P^OGRAPHY. 

By  R.  W.  THOMAS,  F.  C.  S.    8vo.,  cloth  . 

rTYTTmMTQfi'W       TIm?TrtTTrri    M** .  *  * 


*  •  v.  a.      OVO.,  ClOtn 

JHOMSON.-FREIGHT  CHAEGES  CALCTTLATOB 

By  ANDREW  THOMSON,  Freight  Agent 


W,,h  Oeometm,  Ov.],  and  Eooentrb  Ch.ck,,  an 


JURNER'S 

Containi 


(THE)  COMPANION: 

ng  Instruction  in  Concentric,  Elliptic,  and   Eccentric 
mng;    also    various    Plates   of  Chucks,    Tools,    and    Instru- 
nts  ;    and    Directiong  for   using   the   Eccentric  Cutter    Drill 
Vertical  Cutter,  and  Circular  Rest;  with  Patterns  and  Instruct 
is  for  working  them.     A  new  edition  in  1  vol.  12mo         $1  50 


By  ED.   URBIN,  Engineer  of  Arts  and  Manufactures.     A   Prize 
Essay  read  before  the  Association  of  Engineers,  Graduate  of  the 
School  of  Mines,  of  Liege,   Belgium,  at  the  Meeting  of  1865-6 
To  which  is  added  a  COMPARISON  OP  THE  RESISTING  PROPERTIES 
>F  IRON  AND  STEEL.     By  A.  BRULL.     Translated  from  the  French 
by  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.     In  one  volume,  8vo. 

$1  00 

TTOGDES.—  THE  AECHTTECT'S  AND  BUILDER'S  POCZE1  COM- 
'     PANION  AND  PEICE  BOOK. 

By  F.  W.  VOGDES,  Architect.   Illustrated.    Full  bound  in  pocket- 
book  form.         .......  $9  00 

In  book  form,  18mo.,  muslin    ....  1  50 

WASN.—  THE  SHEET  METAL  WORKER'S  INSTRUCTOR,  FOR 
ZINC,  SHEET-IRON,  COPPER  AND  TIN  PLATE  WORK- 
ERS, &c. 

By  REUBEN  HENRY  WARN,  Practical  Tin  Plate  Worker.  Illus- 
trated by  32  plates  and  37  wood  engravings.  8vo.  .  .  $3  CO 

WTATSON.—  A  MANUAL  OF  THE  HAND-LATHE. 

By  EGBERT  P.  WATSON,  Late  of  the  "  Scientific  American,"  Au- 
thor of  "Modern  Practice  of  American  Machinists  and  Engi- 
neers," In  one  volume,  12mo.  .  .  .  .  .  $1  50 


Si  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S  CATALOGUE. 


•nCT 
*V 


THE   MODERN   PEACTICE    OF  AMERICAN    MA- 
CHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS  : 

Including  the  Construction,  Application,  and  Use  of  Drills,  Lathe 
Tools,  Cutters  for  Boring  Cylinders,  and  Hollow  Work  Generally, 
with  the  most  Economical  Speed  of  the  same,  the  Results  verified 
by  Actual  Practice  at  the  Lathe,  the  Vice,  and  on  the  Floor. 
Together  with  Workshop  management,  Economy  of  Mnnufacture, 
the  Steam-Engine,  Boilers,  Gears,  Belting,  etc.  etc.  By  EGBERT 
P.  WATSON,  late  of  the  "Scientific  American."  Illustrated  by 
eighty-six  engravings.  12mo.  .  .  '.  "  .  .  $2  50 

ATSON.—  THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEE  ART  OF 
WEAVING  BY  HAND  AND  POWER: 
With  Calculations  and  Tables  for  the  use  of  those  connected  with 
the  Trade.  By  JOHX  WATSON,  Manufacturer  and  Practical  Machine 
Maker.  Illustrated  by  large  drawings  of  the  best  Power-Looms. 
8vo.  "'  .  .  V  .  .  .  ".  '  *'.•''•"  .  .  $10  00 

TTfTEATHERLY.—  TREATISE    ON  .THE  ART   OF  BOILING   ST7- 
""  GAR,    CRYSTALLIZING,     LOZENGE-MAKING,     COMFITS, 
GUM  GOODS, 

And  other  processes  for  Confectionery,  <fec.  In  which  are  ex- 
plained, in  an  easy  and  familiar  manner,  the  various  Methods 
of  Manufacturing  'every  description  of  Raw  and  Refined  Sugar 
Goods,  as  sold  by  Confectioners  and  others  .  .  $2  00 

WILL.—  TABLES  FOR  QUALITATIVE  CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS. 

By  Prof.  HEINRICH  WILL,  of  Giessen,  Germany.  Seventh  edi- 
tion. Translated  by  CHARLES  F.  HIMES,  Ph.  D.,  Professor  of 
Natural  Science,  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa.  .  .  $1  25 

,tXTILLIAMS  —  ON  HEAT  AND  STEAM: 

EinbracingNew  Views  of  Vaporization,  Condensation,  and  Expan- 
sion. By  CDAELES  WYE  WILLIAMS,  A.  I.  C.  E.  Illustrated.  8vo. 

$3  50 

WOBSSAM.—  ON  MECHANICAL  SAWS: 

From  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Engineers,  1867.  By 
S.  W.  WORSSAM,  Jr.  Illustrated  by  18  large  folding  plates.  8vo. 

$5  00 

TTn-'OHLER.—  A  HAND-BOOK  OF  MINERAL  ANALYSIS. 

By  F.  WOHLKR.  Edited  by  H.  B.  NASON,  Professor  of  Chemistry, 
Rensselaer  Institute,  Troy,  N.  Y.  With  numerous  Illustrations. 
I2mo.  .........  $3  00 


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